14-1 REVIEW OF ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF SLABS. ‘The concepts involved in the elastic analysis of slabs are reviewed briefly here, to show the relationship between the loads and the internal moments in the slab. In addition, and even ‘more important, this will show the relationship between moments and slab curvatures. Slabs may be subdivided into thick slabs (with a thickness greater than about one- tenth of the span), thin slabs (with a thickness less than about one-fortieth of the span), and. ‘medium-thick slabs. Thick slabs transmit a portion of the loads as a flat arch and have sig nificant in-plane compressive forces, with the result that the internal resisting compressive force C is larger than the internal tensile force 7. Thin slabs transmit a portion of the loads, by acting as a tension membrane; hence, Tis larger than C. A medium-thick slab does not ‘exhibit either arch action or membrane action and thus has T = C. Figure 14-1 shows an clement cut from a medium-thick, two-way slab. This ele- ‘ment is acted on by the moments shown in Fig. 14-La and by the shears and loads shown in Fig. 14-1b. (The figures are separated for clarity.) ‘Two types of moment exist on each edge: bending moments m, and m, about axes parallel to the edges, and twisting moments m,y and m,, about axes perpendicular to the ‘edges. The moments are shown by moment vectors represented by double-headed arrows. ‘The moment in question acts about the arrow according to the right-hand-screw rule. ‘The length of vector represents the magnitude of the moment. Vectors can be added graphically or numerically. The moments m,, and so on, ate defined for a unit width of the edge they act on, as are the shears V,, and so on. The m, and m, moments are posi- tive, corresponding to compression on the top surface, The twisting moments on adja- cent edges both act to cause compression on the same surface of the slab, at the comer between the two edges, as shown in Fig, 14-1a Summing vertical forces gives -4 41) 785786 * Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses Fig. 141 ‘Moments and forces in a ‘medium-thick plate yy + Oye {@) Bending and twisting moments on a slab element. Wy + oY (0) Shears and loads on a alah lament Summing moments about lines parallel to the x and y axes and neglecting higher order terms gives, respectively, amy amyy amy, amy =V, and + = (14-2) oxy It can be shown that m,y = m,,. Differentiating Eq. (14-2) and substituting into Eq. (14-1) gives the basic equilibrium equation for medium-thick slabs: am, +— >= -¢ (14-3) This is purely an equation of statics and applies regardless of the behavior of the plate ma- terial. For an elastic plate, the deflection, z, can be related to the applied load by means of (14-4) where the plate rigidity is (4-5)Section 14-2 Design Moments from a Finite-Element Analysis * 787 in which v is Poisson’s ratio. The term D is comparable to the ET value of a unit width of slab, In an elastic plate analysis, Eq. (14-4) is solved to determine the deflections, z, and the moments are calculated from ee 2) m, = -D( 3+ (3 ay (14-6) where zis positive downward, Solutions of Eq. (14-6) can be found in books on elastic plate theory. 14-2 DESIGN MOMENTS FROM A FINITE-ELEMENT ANALYSIS ‘The most common way of solving Eq. (14-6) is to use a finite-element analysis. Such an analysis gives values of m,, my, and m,,, in each element, winere m,, my, and my are ‘moments per unit width. A portion of an element bounded by a diagonal crack is shown in Fig. 14-2, The moments on the x and y faces, from the finite-element analysis, are shown in Fig. 14-2b. The moment about an axis parallel to the crack is m, given by im, ds = (ny dy + mayk dy) cos @ + (myk dy + myy dy) sin 8 ‘ayy m= (2) (m, + em, + 2kmyy) 4-7) ‘This slab is to be reinforced by bars in the x and y directions having positive moment capacities m,, and m,y per unit width, The corresponding moment capacity about an axis, parallel to the assumed crack is o-( (imp + myy) (14-8) fe Pc rn) mN a mee Resolution of moments. (Crack (From [14-1].) a) A @788 EXAMPLE 14-1 Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses where m,, must equal or exceed m, to provide adequate strength. Equating these and solv- ing for the minimum, we get My = my + May Because m,y must equal or exceed m, to account for the effects of m,y, (1/k) which gives my = my += k anya = me + kl ass) where kis a positive number and |m,y| implies the absolute value of m,. This must be true for all crack orientations (i.c., for all values of k). As k is increased, m,, goes down and m,, goes up. The smallest of the sums ofthe two (i.c., the smallest total reinforcement) depends ‘on the slab in question, but k = 1 is the best choice for a wide range of moment values (14-1), [14-2]. The reinforcement at the bottom of the slab in each direction is designed to provide positive-moment resistances of my = my + bgl (14-108) and Mpg = my + Imag] (14-10) Reinforcement at the top of the slab in each direction is designed to provide negative- moment resistances of (14-106) and (14-10d) Calculation of m,, and m,,—positive moment. When the values of my, and myy are used to calculate the areas of positive moment reinforcement (bottom steel) in a slab, the calculations are based on Eq. (14-10a) or Eq, (14-10b). The + sign and absolute num- ber in these equations combine to make the term “+ I7m,y1” positive. If either m,, oF m, are negative in these two equations, they are set equal to zero for designing bottom reinforcement Calculation of m,, and m,y—negative moment. For negative moment rein- forcement (top steel) the calculations are based on Eqs. (14-10c) and (14-104). The — sign and absolute number combine to make the term “~Im,yI” negative. If either m,, OF mir, are positive in these two equations, they are set to zero for designing top forcement Computation of Design Moments at a Point A. finite-element analysis gives the moments in an element as m,= 5 kip-fi/ft, m, = —1 kip-fY/ft, and m,y = 2 kip-fi/ft. Compute the moments to be used to design reinforcement. (a) Steel at bottom of slab: my = 1+ [2] = +1 kipei/t spe = 5+ [=D] = FT kipSection 14-3 Yield-Line Analysis of Slabs: Introduction * 789 (b) Steel at top of slab: 2| = -3 kip fy = +3 kip-ty/tt Because my is positive, itis set equal to zero in designing steel at the top of the slab. i Generally, the reinforcement is uniformly spaced in orthogonal bands such that (a) the total reinforcement provided in a band is sufficient to resist the total fac- tored moment computed for that band, and (b) the moment resistance per unit width in the band is at east two-thirds of the maximum moment per unit width in the band, as computed in the finite-element analysis, In the direct design method the widths of the bands of reinforcement were taken equal to the widths of the column strip and middle strips defined in ACI Code Section 13.2. The use of such band (strip) widths is generally acceptable. 14-3 YIELD-LINE ANALYSIS OF SLABS: INTRODUCTION ‘Under overload conditions in a slab failing in flexure, the reinforcement will yield first in a region of high moment. When that occurs, this portion of the slab acts as a plastic hinge, only able to resist its hinging moment. When the load is increased further, the hinging region rotates plastically, and the moments due to additional loads are redistributed to adjacent sections, causing them to yield, as shown in Fig. 13-4. The bands in which yield- ing has occurred are referred to as yield lines and divide the slab into a series of clastic, plates. Eventually, enough yield lines exist to form a plastic mechanism in which the slab can deform plastically without an increase in the applied load The yield-line analysis method for slabs actually brings more continuity between the analysis of load effects and analysis of member strengths. In general design, moments and. shears from an elastic analysis are compared to plastic member strengths, using appropri- ate load factors and strength-reduction factors. In the yield-line method for slabs, the loads required to develop a plastic mechanism are compared directly to the plastic resistance (nominal strength) of the member. Load factors and strength-reduction factors can be incorporated into the procedure, as will be shown in some later examples, A yield-line analysis uses rigid plastic theory to compute the failure loads corre- sponding to given plastic moment resistances in various parts of the slab. It does not give any information about deflections or about the loads at which yielding first starts. Although the concept of yield-line analysis was first presented by A. Ingerslev in 1921-1923, K. W. Johansen developed modem yield-line theory [14-3]. This type of analysis is widely ‘used for slab design in the Scandinavian countries. The yield-line concept is presented here to aid in the understanding of slab behavior between service loads and failure. Further details are given in [14-4] to [14-7] Yield Criterion To limit deflections, floor slabs are generally considerably thicker than is required for flex- ture, and as a result, they seldom have reinforcement ratios exceeding 0.3 to 0.4 times the balanced reinforcement ratio defined in Eq. (4-25). In this range of reinforcement ratios, the790 * Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses Fig. 14-3 Yield criterion. Reinforcement in Valection ‘unit width & my por unt width lal Reinforcement oattrn {b) Moments on an element. ‘moment-curvature response is essentially elastic-plastic with a plastic moment capacity conservatively assumed to be equal to M,, the design flexural strength of the section, Ir yielding occurs along a line at an angle « to the reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 14-3, the bending and twisting moments are assumed to be distributed uniformly along the yield line and are the maximum values provided by the flexural capacities of the reinforcement layers crossed by the yield line, Itis further assumed that there is no kinking of the reinforcement as it crosses the yield line. In Fig. 14.3, the reinforcements in the x and y directions provide ‘moment capacities of m, and m, per unit width (k-fvft). The bending moment, my, and the ‘twisting moment, m,, per unit length of the yield line can be calculated from the moment equi- librium of the element. In this calculation, a will be measured counterclockwise from the -caxis; the bending moments m., my, and m, will be positive if they cause tension inthe bottom of the slab; and the twisting moment, m,, will be positive if the moment vector points away from the section, as shown, Consider the equilibrium of the element in Fig. 14-3b: mL = m,(L sin @) sina + m,(L 0s a) cos a ‘This equation gives the bending moment ms as my, = m, sin? a + m, cost a 411) ‘The twisting moment m, is m= (CS) sn os ‘These equations apply only for orthogonal reinforcement. If my = my, these two equa- tions reduce to my = my = m, and m, = 0, regardless of the angle of the yield line, This is referred to as isotropic reinforcement. Locations of Axes and Yield Lines Yield lines form in regions of maximum moment and divide the plate into a series of elastic plate segments. When the yield lines have formed, all further deformations are concentrated at the yield lines, and the slab deflects as a series of stiff plates joined together by long hinges, as shown in Fig. 14-4. The pattern of deformation is controlled by axes that pass along line supports and over columns, as shown in Fig. 14-5, and by the yield lines. Because the individual plates rotate about the axes and/or yield lines, these axes and lines must be straight. To satisfy compatibility of deformations at points such as A and B in Fig. 14-4, theSection 14-3 Yield-Line Analysis of Slabs: Introduction * 791 Le Fig. Md pert Deformations of a slab with yield lines, Heanor nen Ff A J pear i] 7 Zz Uf vedie =" Postivemoment (6) Slab rigitly supported on three walls. ase, Zo eves ee one (o) Trapezoid simply supported ele (Slab with simple supporis ane columns Fig. 14-5 Examples of yield-line patterns. yield line dividing two plates must intersect the intersection of the axes about which those plates are rotating. Figure 14-5 shows the locations of axes and yield lines in a number of slabs subjected to uniform loads. The yield mechanisms in Figs. 14-4 and 14-5 are referred. to as kinematically admissible mechanisms because the displacements and rotations of adjacent plate segments are compatible. If more than one kinematically admissible mecha- nism can be defined for a given slab panel, each mechanism should be investigated to deter- mine which one results in the minimum panel resistance to a given loading,792 + Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield Fig. 14-6 Yield lines in a slab that is sim- ply supported on four edges. (Photograph courtesy of JG. MacGregor), ine Analyses Figure 14-6 shows the underside of a reinforced concrete slab similar to the slab shown in Fig, 14-4. The cracks have tended to follow the orthogonal reinforcement pattern, ‘The wide cracks extending in from the corners and the band of wide cracks along the mid- dle of the plate mark the locations of the positive yield lines. Methods of Solution After a kinematically admissible yield mechanism has been selected, itis possible to com- pute the values of m necessary to support a given set of loads, or vice versa. The solution can be carried out by the equilibrium method, in which equilibrium equations are written for each plate segment, or by the virtual-work method, in which some part of the slab is, given a virtual displacement and the resulting work is considered ‘When the equilibrium method is used, considerable care must be taken to show all of, the forces acting on each element, including the twisting moments, especially when several yield lines intersect or when yield lines intersect free edges. At such locations, off-setting vertical nodal forces are required at the intersections of yield lines. Because of the possi- bility that the nodal forces will be given the wrong sign or location, some building codes, require that yield-line calculations be done by the virtual-work method. The introductory presentation here will be limited to the virtual-work method of solution, Further informa- tion on the equilibrium method can be obtained in [14-3] to [14-7] Virtual-Work Method ‘Once the yield lines have been chosen, some point on the slab is given a virtual displace- ‘ment, 8, as shown as in Fig. 14-7c, The external work done by the loads when displaced this amount is external work = Jf gé dx dy = 3(WA.) (413)Section 14-3 Yield-Line Analysis of Slabs: Introduction * 793 where q = uniformily distributed load on an element of area 3 = deflection of that element W = total load on a plate segment A. = deflection of the centroid of that segment In Example 14-2, it will be shown that the right-hand side of Eq, (14-13) can be expressed as q times the displaced volume for the slab yield mechanism, ‘The total external work is the sum of the separate work done by each plate. ‘The internal work done by rotating the yield lines is internal work = 5}(ms¢6) as) where m, = bending moment per unit length of yield line € = length of the yield line @ = angle change at that yield line corresponding to the virtual displacement, 6 ‘The total internal work done during the virtual displacement is the sum of the internal work done on each separate yield line. Because the yield lines are assumed to have formed before the virtual displacement is imposed, no elastic deformations occur during the virtual displacement. ‘The principle of virtual work states that, for conservation of energy, external work = internal work Da, = Slmsea) ais) The virtual work solution is an upper-bound solution; that is, the load W is equal to or higher than the true failure load. If an incorrect set of yield lines is chosen, W will be too large for a given m, or conversely, the value of m for a given W will be too small Example 14-2 Yield-Line Analysis of One-Way Slab by Virtual Work ‘The one-way slab shown in Fig. 14-7 will be analyzed to determine the area load, gy, that will cause failure. The slab reinforcement is shown in Fig. 14-7a, and the assumed fail- ure mechanism is shown in Fig, 14-7b. When using plan views of all of the slabs in this ‘chapter, cross-hatched notation at the supports indicates that either the slab is fixed at the supports or is continuous across the supports, and the slab is capable of resisting negative bending. A single-hatched notation will be used (o indicate supports that are not capable of resisting a negative moment (‘e., a simple support). It is assumed that the negative-bend- ing capacity at the left support, mp1, is equal to 6 k-fVft and the negative-bending capacity atthe right support, my, is equal to 10 k-fu/t. The positive-bending capacity of the slab re- inforcement near midspan, m,, is equal to 4 k-fUft 1. Select the axes and yield lines. The negative yield lines (shown as dashed lines) and axes of rotation for the two slab segments must be at the supports, as shown in Fig. 14-7b. Because the two axes at the supports are parallel to each other, the positive yield line, shown by the wavy solid line near midspan, must be parallel to the supports for this to be a kinematically admissible mechanism. The distance x that results in the minimum value for gy is to be determined.794 Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses 2. Give the slab a virtual displacement. Assume that the positive yield line, C-D, is displaced downward a distance equal to the virtual displacement, 8, as shown in Fig. 14-7c. This causes slab segment Ito rotate an angle, 0;, and slab segment II to rotate an angle, 6. The total rotation across the positive yield line near midspan is the sum, 6 + 6. For small displacements, 0 is approximately equal to tan 8, so 6; = =, and On = 8 1ht—x 3. Compute the internal work. The internal work is the sum of the work done by the moments in the plastic hinging zones as the slab segments deflect. All of the moment capacities are given per foot of length, so those values will need to be multiplied by the length of the plastic hinges, which equals the slab width, b. IW = ig, X bX 0 + yg X bX Oy + my X bX (0; + On) 8 + (4 kefuft) +b = (Gk-fultt) +b 2 + (0 k-Avt) 1 12 — = (104) + (14) bs Note that the moment values are now expressed in kips, as opposed to k-fU/t 4. Compute the external work. As noted after Eq, (14-13), this can be calculated as either a sum of vector forces for each slab segment (plate) times the corresponding displacement of the centroid of the plate or as the area force, 4 multiplied times the displaced volume for the assumed mechanism. Both procedures will be used here. For the first procedure, both slab segments are rectangular, so their centroids will be at their midlength. Also, because each segment is supported at one end and deflects a dis- tance, 6, at the other end, each of the centroids will deflect a distance of 8/2. The equiva- lent vector forces acting at the centroids is equal to the area load, qy, times the area of the segment. Thus, gy be 812K EW = qjlx-b + (12 — x)b z = yb 8-6 For the second procedure, the displaced volume of the slab mechanism is equal to the triangular area of the displaced shape in Fig. 14-7c, times the width of the slab. Thus, the expression for external work is EW = ag(hy X 6 X 12 ft)b = gy b-8-6 it As expected, these two procedures give the same result. For some slab-analysis cases, one procedure may be easier than the other, and thus, it is recommended that a designer be familiar with both procedures. 5. Equate the external and internal work. Set EW = IW and solve for gy. Note that the virtual deflection, 6, always will cancel across the equal sign. In this case, the slab width also cancels out of the expressions. lok idk A : ( x 12k )P ° lok | 4k “x6 (12 ft — x) 6 ft gy b BGK 4 In this form, the solution for g, will be in units of ksf.Section 14-3 Yield-Line Analysis of Slabs: Introduction * 795 6. Solve for the minimum value of 4 The minimum value of 4/ can be found by setting the derivative of 7, d(g,)/dx, equal to zero and solving for x. Such a solution is ‘easy for this problem, but for more complicated two-way slab problems an iterative solution procedure may be more efficient. A spreadsheet can be used for the interations. Because of the different end-moment strengths for this one-way slab, the minimum 4 will not occur for x = 6 ft. The plastic-moment capacity is larger at the right support, so a reasonable strategy will be to select x-values less that 6 ft to decrease the amount of rotation in slab segment II, ig, and thus reduce the amount of work done by the plastic hinge at the right support, Of course, this strategy increases the rotation in slab segment I, 0;, and thus increases the work done by the plastic hinge at the left support, At some point, the increase in work at the left support will be larger than the decrease in work done at the right support ‘The following table starts with x = 6 ft and moves to lower x-values, xd) gy tks 60 0667 58 0.664 56 0.662 54 0.662 52 0.664 500.667 From this table, it appears that the minimum value of gy may occur at x = 5.5 ft. Using that value results in gy = 0,662 ksf, which will be accepted as the final solution for this problem . (@) Cross section beret (©) Plan Fig. 14.7 Slab—Example 14-2. (e) Deformed shave.796 * Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses 14-4 YIELD-LINE ANALYSIS: APPLICATIONS FOR TWO-WAY SLAB PANELS Fig. 14.8 Yield-line mchanism for rec- tangular slab panel with hinge supports on all edges. ‘When analyzing the yield mechanisms for two-way slab panels, a designer commonly will need to deal with positive yield lines that run at a skew angle across an orthogonal rein- forcement pattern (Figs. 14-5 and 14-6). The most general procedure for determining the intemal work generated along this yield line as the slab mechanism deforms is to first use Eq. (14-11) to determine the moment resistance acting along the yield line, assuming the moment strengths are known for the orthogonal reinforcement grid crossed by the yield line. The moment strength along the yield line then is to be multiplied by the length of the yield line and the relative rotation between the two slab segments adjacent to the yield line to obtain the internal work. ‘The plastic mechanism for a rectangular two-way slab panel with simply supported edges (Fig. 14-8) will be used to demonstrate this procedure. We will concentrate on the internal work done along the positive yield line O-P, assuming that there is a virtual dis- placement of 6 at point P. From symmetry, the internal work found for yield line O-P can be multiplied by four to obtain the total internal work for the slab panel ‘Assume the yield line O-P has a length of Lg and forms an angle, a, with respect to the longer edge of the panel, The line A~B is drawn perpendicular to the yield line O-P and extends either to an edge of the panel (point B) or to an extended edge of the panel (point A), which represents the axis of rotation for slab Segment I (Fig. 14-8a). Section line 11 is cut along line A-B to show the deformed shape of the panel and the relative rotation between the Axis of rotation for Segment (reference axes) i | Axis of rotation for Segment | (2) Geometry of yiold-line mechanism (6) Deformation of slab along ine 1-1Fig. 14.9 Rotation of slab Segment 1 about y-axis. Section 14-4 Yield-Line Analysis: Applications for Two-Way Slab Panels * 797 slab segments that meet at yield line O-P (Fig. 14-8b). The length of line segment P-B is, Lg" tana, and the length of line segment P-A is Lq* cot a. Thus, the rotation angles shown in Fig, 14-8b are 6 ~ Tytana 6 1d 03 ~ Tyeota Assuming the moment resistance along yield line O-P has the value, mp, obtained from Eq, (14-11), the internal work for this yield line segment is IW(O-P) = mys La (0) + 03) = my-A(tana + cota) ——_(14-16a) ‘An alternative approach can be used if the supported edges of the panel (i., the axes of rotation for the slab segments shown in Fig. 14-8a) are orthogonal to the reinforcement pattern used in the slab panel. For such cases, it is possible to project the work done by the slab reinforcement back to the axes of rotation. ‘The corner of the slab panel in Fig, 14-8 is reproduced in Fig. 14-9 with the yield line O-P replaced by a series of short line segments that run parallel and perpendicular to the slab’s positive reinforcement, Assuming that a virtual deflection 8 occurs at point P, ° | ne y (8) Comer of slab in Fig. 14-8 (©) Rotation of Segment about y-axis. (6) Slab Segment in det798 Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses the rotation of slab Segment I about its supported edge is shown in Fig. 14-9b. As indicated in Fig. 14-9e, only the m, component from the orthogonal slab reinforcement will do work when slab Segment Lis rotated about the y-axis. Similarly, for slab Segment II, only the m component of the slab resistance will do work when that segment is rotated about its, supported edge, which is parallel to the x-axis. Thus, the total internal work along yield line O-P can be calculated as the sum of the resistances from the two orthogonal components of the slab resistance, with each multiplied by the corresponding rotations and projected lengths of the slab segments that are adjacent to the yield line. This alternative procedure for finding internal work will be demonstrated for yield line O-P of the slab panel in Fig. 14-8, which was assumed to have a length of Lg. Line segments a-P and b-P in Fig. 14-8 have lengths of Lycos a and L4" sin a, respectively. ‘Thus, the rotations of slab Segments I and I are Line segments O-a and O-b represent the projections of yield line O-P onto the y- and xeaxes, and have lengths of Lg-sin a and 4+ cos a, respectively. Using these lengths, the internal work along yield line O-P can be expressed as , 6 8 IW(O-P) = me ba sina Lg c0s 0 (14-160) sina | cose 8 cosa” sina) ~ sina-cosa ‘The second part of this expression gives the value for m, in Eg. (14-11), and using a geo- metric substitution for the first part of the expression takes us back to Eq, (14-16a) IW(O-P) = my: d(tan a + cot a) Although this alternative method as expressed in Bq, (14-16b) may appear to be ‘more complicated, it will be easier to use for the series of iterations that may be required to find the critical-yield mechanism, This method will be demonstrated in Example 14-4. The prior method, which is represented by Eq, (14-16a), will require a new calculation during ‘each interation for m, (Eq, 14-11) as a function of the angle a. For slab panels without 90° comers, it also will be necessary to calculate the perpendicular measurements to the axes, of rotation (P-A and P-B in Fig. 14-8) for the slab segments adjacent to the yield line, This, procedure will be demonstrated in Example 14-5. Iemust be noted that for slabs with orthotropic reinforcement the altemative procedure, represented by Eq, (14-16b), is limited to edge supports (axes of rotation) that are parallel and perpendicular (o the reinforcement pattern. For slabs with isotropic reinforcement, ‘where by definition the slab resistance is the same for any crack orientation, Eq. (14-160) can be used for slab segments rotating about any axis Example 14-3. Yield-Line Analysis of a Square Two-Way Slab Panel Assume the simply supported slab panel in Fig. 14-8 is a square with sides equal to 15 ft Also assume the slab has isotropic positive moment reinforcement with my = my = my = 4 k-f/ft, Using the yield mechanism shown in Fig. 14-8, determine the area load, gy. required to cause failure of the panel. Assume a virtual downward deflection equal to 6 at point PSection 14-4 Yield-Line Analysis: Applications for Two-Way Slab Panels * 799 1. Compute the internal work. The total internal work is four times that expressed by Eq. (4-16a). For a 45° diagonal, both tan a and cot a are equal to 1.0. Thus, IW = 4-m,-8(1 + 1) = 4(4k-fuft) 6-2 = (32k) 6 2. Compute the external work. The external work can be expressed at the area load, gy, multiplied by the displaced volume. In this case, the displaced volume has the shape of an inverted pyramid, and thus, the volume is equal to the total slab area times one- third of 6 é 225 fe EW = o(v-2) = wl 3 ) Equate the external and internal work and solve for gy. As before, the virtual displacement, 6, will cancel out, so _ 32k (22513) #2 4 = 0.427 ksf = 427 psf . Example 14-4 Yield-Line Analysis of Two-Way Rectangular Slab Panel Fig. 14-10 ‘Slab pane! and plastic mecha- nism for Example 14-4 ‘The two-way slab shown in Fig. 14-10 will be analyzed to determine the area load, gy, that will cause failure. The bottom slab reinforcement is orthotropic and has moment strengths Of myy = 3K-lUEt and mp, = 2k-fUEt. The subscript p is used to designate positive ‘moment, The negative-bending resistance is isotropic With mg, = Myy = My = 4 k-fUtt 1. Select the general plastic mechanism. The assumed plastic-collapse mecha- nism is shown in Fig. 14-10, There are negative yield lines along the supported edges and positive yield lines running diagonally out of each comer where the axes of rotation for adjacent slab segments intersect. The locations of point A and the symmetrical point B are defined by the coefficient 8. We will need to iterate to find the value of f that results in the minimum value for gy 2. Give the slab a virtual displacement. Assume that the segment of the positive yield line from A to B is displaced downward a virtual displacement, 5. This causes the tet800 * Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses slab Segment I to rotate an angle, 6, and the slab Segment IT to rotate an angle, 6. The rotations of the slab segments are o and On = 3 ~ B20 Bit 3. Compute the internal work. The total internal work is equal to two times the sum of the work done by the plastic moments acting on slab Segments I and II, For slab Segment I the internal work is IW(1) = mpg 16 ft Oy + m,* 16 ft 8 = 944) ton 8 = 56K 8 i B20n | B Similarly, the internal work for slab Segment Il is IW(Il) = py 20 ft Og + my 20 ft- On Kft 6 = (2+ 4) -20f ¢ ars 1Sk+8 Bit From these, the sum of the internal work is 5 yw- asx ' 38) 3 B 4. Compute the external work. The two end regions outside ofthe points A and B are essentially two half-pyramids that can be combined into a single pyramid with a base area 16 ft X 2 X 20 ft The central region between points A and B has a triangular cross section and extends over a length or 20 f X (1 — 2). Thus, the external work is 8 1 6 e-3 x (1 28)-208 EW = qj] 2B-201t- 16 ft 302 = y+ 8(B +213 12 + 160 f° ~ 8-320.) = gy 8(160 — B+ 107) f° 5. Equate the external and internal work. Set EW = ‘The virtual deflection, 6, will cancel, resulting in 112 30 + U2 Nips ( a) * (160 — B+ 107) #2 6. Solve for the minimum value of gy. The solution table below starts with B = 0.5 and slowly decreases 8 until the value of gy starts to increase. At that point, the minimum value of gy has been obtained. (IW) and solve for gy. a Numerator (kips) Denominator (ft?) qr (ksf) 050 524 107 0.491 075 536 109 0.490 os 549 2 0.490 0.425 56.4 us 0491Section 14-4 Yield-Line Analysis: Applications for Two-Way Slab Panels * 801 From this table, the minimum value of gy is 0.490 ksf, and it occurs for a 8 value of approxi- mately 0.46, It is not a practical structural engineering decision to make a finer adjustment ‘of B in an attempt to find that the minimum value of q is slightly less than 0.490 ksf. 7. Recompute the internal work using Eq. (14-16a). We will calculate the positive-moment internal work using Eq. (14-16) for one of the diagonal yield lines in Fig. 14-10, and then multiply that value by four. For 6 values less that 0.5, we also will need to include the positive-moment internal work along the yield-line segment A-B. Finally, we will need to calculate the negative-moment internal work for the four slab segments in Fig. 14-10, For this single iteration, select 8 = 0.475, ‘The internal work for line segment A-B is IW(A-B) = m, (1 = 28) -20ft-2- Oy ket 26 = 2 (1 — 0.95) 208-22 = ook: 27H (1 = 0.95) 201t- = = 050K-5 To find the value of my in Eq. (14-11), which represents the positive-moment resistance along the diagonal yield line extending from the comer, we need to find the value of the angle, a: ‘Then, from Eq, (14-11), my = Mpg Sin? + mpy COs? 0.585 = 2, Putting this into Eq, (14-166), we get IW(diag) = m,-3(tan a + cot a) = 241 (4 + °8)5 = 490k+6 557 8 ‘Thus, the sum of positive-moment internal work is DW (pos) = (4 x 490k + 0.50K)3 = 20.1k-S ‘The sum of the negative-moment internal work is calculated using the Oy and values from step 2: IW (neg) = my(16 ft- 0; + 20 f+ Oy) x 2 = H(t +2004) x2 ft B20 sit 16 | 2 =sk-a( 1642) _ . 8k (% q) = 335k-5 Now, the total internal work is DW = (201k + 33.5K)S = 53.6K-5 ‘This value is the same as the value calculated for the total internal work in row 2 of the solution table in step 6. /802 * Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses Example 14-5 Yield-Line Analysis of a Triangular Slab Panel Fig, 14-11 ‘Triangular slab panel with orthotropic reinforcement. ‘The triangular-shaped two-way slab shown in Fig. 14-11 will be analyzed to determine the ‘minimum area load, gy, that will cause failure, Two edges of the slab are simply support- ced, and the third edge is free (unsupported). The bottom slab reinforcement is orthotropic with respect to the x- and y-axes, and has moment strengths of mp, = 3.5 k-ft/ft and Imyy = 2.5 keftft, For the given shape of the slab panel, the angle f is equal to 53.1°. 1. Select the plastic mechanism. The assumed plastic-collapse mechanism is, shown in Fig. 14-I1a, There is a single, positive yield line coming out of the corner (point A) where the two supported edges (two axes of rotation) meet. When a slab has a free edge, positive yield lines tend to propagate toward that free edge. The location of the point D on the free edge is not known, Thus, we will select different values for the vari- able, x, to determine the minimum value for qj: 2. Give the slab a virtual displacement. Assume the point D is displaced down- ward a virtual displacement, 6. The line F-D-E is drawn perpendicular to the positive yield line A-D, and Fig. 14-11b shows the deflected shape of the slab along the line F-D-E. Defining the length of yield line A~D as Ly, and referring to the angles a and B in Fig. 14-11a, the values for the length of the line segments represented by the symbols a and b are a ~ Lytan a and b ~ Ly tan(B - «) With these values, the relative rotation between the two slab segments on each side of the yield line is calculated as 3. Compute the internal work. Because the supported edge A-B is neither per- pendicular nor parallel to the orthotropic reinforcement, Fg. (14-16a) cannot be used for rotSection 14-4 Yield-Line Analysis: Applications for Two-Way Slab Panels * 803 this slab panel. Thus, we will return to the basic procedure of calculating the internal work as being equal (o the moment resistance acting along the yield line, found with Eq. (14-11, times the length of the yield line, Lg, and then times the rotation between the slab segments that meet at the yield line, @. From Fig, 14-Ia, the length of the yield line is La = VG2iy + Equation (14-11) is used to determine the moment resistance, mp, along yield line A-D. It should be noted that because the definition of the angle a is different here than was used in the derivation of Eq, (14-11), the sin” and cos” terms are interchanged. ‘my = myx 008? & + mpy sin? a = Myx ys where x tana = —— 12h which implies @ 7) Then 4. Compute the external work. The deflected shape is similar to a half-pyramic, so the external work is 8 1 EW = a)ptse-re = gy 3280-8 3 5, Equate the external and internal work. Set EW = IW and solve for g;. The virtual deflection, 6, will cancel, resulting in: 1 mtd ts " 328 6. Solve for the minimum value of gy. The solution table below starts with x = 5.0, and then x is increased in 0.5-ft increments to find the minimum value of qy x « pra La a b m a (ft) (deg) (deg) (ft) (fe, (ft) theft) tks fl 50226 305 130 S42 7.66 3.35 0429 55 6 285 2 60477 3.33 019 60 266 265 40 6TL 3.30 012 6S 84 247 136739626 327 0412 70303 2.8 19 8105.86 3.25 oats From this table, the minimum value of qy is 0.412 ksf, and it occurs for x = 6.5 ‘As noted in the prior example, one might be able to find a slightly smaller value of 4 for an x-value between 6.0 and 6.5 ft, but such a search is not practical .804 + Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses Example 14-6 Design of a Two-Way Slab Panel Using the Yield-Line Method Fig. 14-12 Slab panel and plastic mech- anism for Example 14-6, ‘The yield-Line method will be used to design isotropic top and bottom reinforcement for the rectangular two-way slab panel shown in Fig. 14-12. Assume the slab is 8 in thick (100 psf), carties a superimposed dead load of 25 psf, and carries a live load of 80 psf. Assume the concrete compressive strength, f'., is 4000 psi and the steel yield strength, f,, is 60 ksi 1. Determine the factored load for design. From ACI Code Section 9.2, the two factored design loads to be considered are Qu = 14gp = 1.4(100 + 25)psf = 175 psf du = 12gq + 16g, = 1.2(125 pst) + 1.6(80 pst) = 278 pst ‘The governing factored design load is q, = 278 psf = 0.278 ksf. 2. Select the plastic mechanism and impose a virtual displacement. The assumed plastic-collapse mechanism is shown in Fig. 14-12. There are negative yield lines adjacent to the three fixed supports. Positive yield lines will come out of the comers where ‘two supported edges (two axes of rotation) intersect. Those two positive yield lines will join at point A to form a single positive yield line A~B, which intersects the free edge of the slab panel. For the assumed symmetrical reinforcement pattern, the yield line A~B will be located at midlength of the panel. The location of the point A is not known, so the variable B is used to define its location. For this design problem, we will select different values for the variable, B, to maximize the required moment strengths of the isotropic top and bottom reinforcement, m, + my. Note: Itis possible for some slab panel geometries and moment strengths that the point A could move outside the slab panel, ie., B = 10. Assume the yield-line segment A-B is displaced downward a virtual displacement, 8. For this displaced shape, the rotations of the slab Segments I and the slab Segment Il are > _ BiH = and 1 Ton ne On ‘These values still would be correct even if the point A was outside the slab panel. tot Free edge — rantSection 14-4 Yield-Line Analysis: Applications for Two-Way Slab Panels * 805 3. Compute the internal work. Because the bottom (positive bending) reinforce- ‘ment is isotropic, the internal work done along the positive yield lines can be projected ‘back to the axis of rotation for the corresponding slab segment. Thus, the total internal ‘work for slab Segments I and IL is WL) = (img + mp) +18 ft Oy = (my + my) “186 Lil IW(Il) = mn tmp“ in + mp) +20 fe Oy = From these, the sum of the internal work is Daw = 2-1W) + WUT) = 4. Compute the external work, From the longer supported edge of the panel ‘out to the point A, the displaced volume will be equal to the base area multiplied by ‘one-third of 5. For the portion of the slab panel from A-B, the displaced volume will be ‘equal to the base area multiplied by one-half of 8. Thus, EW = q,] 20ft- B+ 18ft-2 + 20ft- (1 — B)-18 ft = qy°8(120 £2 B + 180 f? — 180 ?- B) = qu" 8(180 f2 — 60 f+ B) 5. Set o times the internal work greater than or equal to the external work. The strength-reduction factor, g, must be included at this point to satisfy the ACI Code strength requirements. Because of the expected low percentage of slab reinforcement, we can assume the appropriate flexural ¢-factor from ACI Code Section 9.3 is = 0.9 (tension- controlled section). As before, the virtual deflection, 6, will cancel, resulting in =H) 2 q(as0st — sore 2) 0 180 f2 — 60 £2+p «|. (mm + mip) = GN 3.64 At $ B It should be noted that the term, q,/¢, essentially is equivalent to the 4/ term used in all of the prior analysis examples. For this problem, qy/¢ is equal to 0.309 ksf. 6. Solve for the maximum required value of m, + mp. The solution table below starts with B = 0.5, and then B is increased in 0,05 increments to find the maximum required value of my + my B Numerator (ft?) Denominator my + my (k-ftft) 0.50 150 5.82 7.96 oss 147 5.62 8.08 0.60 144 5.45 8.16 0s Mat 531 8.21 0.70 138 5.19 822 075 135 5.08, 821 From this table, the required flexural strength from the isotropic positive and negative reinforcement is 8.22 k-fuft,806 * Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses 14-5 YIELD-LINE PA’ 7. Select top and bottom slab reinforcement. We will assume that the average flexural depth, d, for both the top and bottom slab reinforcement is 6.5 in. For this type of slab design, we normally would want to have the negative-moment strength greater than ‘or equal to the positive-moment strength, Recalling that the maximum bar spacing is two times the slab thickness, the author selected the following reinforcement, Top steel, No. 4 at 14 in, on centers in each directions; m, = 5.5 k-fuft Bottom steel, No. 3 at 14 in. on centers in each direction: m, = 3.0 k-fuft ‘The sum of m, and m, exceeds the required strength, and it can be shown that both, the positive-and negative-bending designs are tension-controlled. . It should be noted that the yield-line method only considers strength requirements and does not address serviceability criteria, such as deflections and control of cracking ‘Therefore, designers using this method for strength design of slabs will also necd to satisfy the ACI Code serviceability critetia previously discussed in Chapters 9 and 13, ERNS AT DISCONTINUOUS CORNERS Fig, 14-13, Moments in comer of slab supported on stiff beams. At discontinuous comers where the slab is supported on relatively stiff beams, as shown in Fig. 14-13a, there is a tendency for the comer of the slab to lift off its support unless a downward reaction is provided at the comer. In Fig. 14-13a, point B has deflected down- ward relative to the simply supported edges A-D and C-D. If comer D is held down, strips A-C and B-D develop the curvatures shown, Strip A~C develops positive moments and, ideally, should be reinforced with bars parallel to A-C at the bottom of the slab, as shown in Fig. 14-13b. Strip B-D develops negative moments and should be reinforced with bars parallel to B-D at the top of the slab, as shown in Fig. 14-13c. Diagonal bars are awkward to place and hence may be replaced by reinforcement in two orthogonal directions, ie., rtd a (@) Deformations of corner of simply sunported slab Comer reaction Detection . , N Yip NX Le Fetches) Sn eerFig. 14-14 ‘Comer levers in simply sup- ported slabs. Section 14-6 Yield-Line Patterns at Columns or at Concentrated Loads * 807. ‘Simply supported edge ‘Comer levers (2) Comers toe tit (b) Coxners hala down, parallel to the two sides of the slab. Two such orthogonal reinforcing mats would be required, one at the top of the slab and one at the bottom, In Examples 14-3 to 14-6, the yield lines were assumed to extend along the diagonals into the comers of the slabs. As a result of the localized bending discussed previously, the yield-line patterns in the comers of such a slab tend to fork out to the sides of the slab, as shown in Fig. 14-14a, Ifthe comer of the slab is free to lift, it will do so. Ifthe comer is held down, the slab will form a crack or form a yield line across the comer as shown in Fig. 14-14b, References [14-3] and [14-5] show that inclusion of the comer segments or corner levers will reduce the computed uniform load capacity of a simply supported slab by up (o 9 percent from the value in an analysis that ignotes them. To counteract the comer effects and possible loss of capacity noted above, ACI Code Section 13.3.6 requires special comer reinforcement at the exterior comers of all slabs with ‘edge beams having a, greater than 1.0. The reinforcement may be placed either diagonally (ig. 14-13b and c) or in an orthogonal pattern, as noted previously. Both of these options are shown in ACI Commentary Fig. R13.3.6, This reinforcement is to be designed for a moment strength-per-unit-width equal to the largest positive moment-per-unit-width acting in the slab ppanel and is to extend one-fifth of the longer span in each direction from the comer. 14-6 YIELD-LINE PATTERNS AT COLUMNS. OR AT CONCENTRATED LOADS Figure 14-15 shows a slab pane! supported on circular columns. The element at A is sub- jected to bending and twisting moments. If this element is rotated, however, itis possible to orient it so that the element is acted on by bending moments only, as shown in Fig. 14-15c. ‘The moments calculated in this way are known as the principal moments and represent the maximum and minimum moments on any element at this point. On the element shown near the face of the column, the m; moment is the largest moment. As a result, a circular crack develops around the column, and eventually the reinforcement crossing the circumference of the column yields. The moments about Lines radiating out from the center of the column lead to radial cracks, and asa result, a circular fan-shaped yield pattern develops, as shown in Fig. 14-16a. Under a concentrated load, a similar fan pattern also develops, as shown in Fig. 14-16b. Note that these fans involve both positive- and negative-moment yield lines, shown by solid lines and dashed lines, respectively808 * Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield-Line Analyses 1a) Plan of slab. at a i = A Principal moments adjacent (0) Bending and twisting (©) Principal moments on Fig. 14-15 moment on toa column in a flat plane. ment at A flement at A EXAMPLE 14-7. Calculation of the Capacity of a Fan Yield Pattern Compute the moments required to resist a concentrated load P if a fan mechanism devel- ‘ops. Asstume that the negative-moment capacity is m, and the positive moment capacity is, ‘m, per unit width in all directions, Figure 14-16c shows a triangular segment from the fan in Fig. 14-16b. This segment subtends an angle a and has an outside radius r. Consider segment A-B-C. 1. Give point A a virtual displacement of 6. 2. Compute the external work. For this problem, the external work is simply, EW = P68 3. Compute the internal work. Consider the typical triangular slab segment A-B-C in Fig. 14-16b. As before, the work done along the positive yield lines can be pro- jected back to the axis of rotation for the slab segment, which is represented by the nega- tive yield line from B-C. Assuming that there are many similar triangular slab segments surrounding the loading point (and thus is small), then the length of line B-C is equal to ar. As shown in Fig. 14-16¢, the rotation of this slab segment, 0, is equal to dir. ‘Therefore, the internal work done by slab segment A-B-C is IW(A-B-C) = (mq + myers? = my + mpd The total number of triangular slab segments surrounding the loading point is 2 n/a, So, the total internal work is, LI = 2x (my, + my) 3Fig. 14-16 Fan yield lines Section 14-6 Yield-Line Patterns at Columns or at Concentrated Loads * 809 Negative moment Yet tines {eracks on top of slab Positive moment [vies ines feraeks on bottom of sian) Nogative moment yield tine (b) Fan iol line around a downward concentrates load at A (6) Sogment 4-8-. 4, Set internal work equal to external work. As before the virtual deflection, 8, will cancel out, leaving Img + my = 0 Oe If m, and m, are known, this expression could be used to find the concentrated load that would cause failure, P;. If a factored concentrated load, P,, was known, the left side of this expression could be multiplied by 4 and then used to find the required positive and negative-moment strengths for the slab reinforcement. . Using a similar analysis, Johnson [14-6] computed the yield-line moments for a cir- cular fan around a column of diameter d. in a uniformly loaded square plate with spans €. He found that810 + Chapter 14 Two-Way Slabs: Elastic and Yield ay My + mp = wel — 9, 1s2(*) ] ed. = ine Analyses 4-17) 2a 4 ), this reduces to the answer obtained in Example 14-7. If the slab fails due to two-way or punching shear (Chapter 13) the fan mechanism may not fully form. On the other hand, the attainment of a fan mechanism may bring on a punching-shear failure. PROBLEMS 14-1 through 14-4, For the slab panels shown in the fol- lowing figures, use the yield-line method to deter- mine the minimum value of the area load, q,, at the formation of the critical yield-line mechanism. x Wy, 4 tet 20% Fig. PL4-L Isotropic reinforcement, my = 7 k-fuft and my = 4 kv. Y Z Z i; Z gy Z , Z ron %; Z, g 4, Z Z Uy Z J, zon Fig. PAD Isotropic reinforcement, m, = 8 k-fVft and my = 45 k-fvfh. Column support y ren 2at Fig. PLA3 Isotropic reinforcement, my=8 k-Uit and m, = 6 kU. (Refer to Fig. 145 for ideas about proper yield line mechanisin) 18H Lee 2att Fig. Pld-4 Orthotropic positive reinforcement, mip, = 3 k-fVt and ‘my = 4 k-{Uft. and isotropic negative reinforcement, swith m, = S kfReferences * 811 14-5 The slab panel shown in Fig. P14-5 is 7.5 in. thick (b) Start with m, approximately equal to 1.6 X my, and is made of normal-weight concrete. The slab and then select top and bottom isotropic rein- will need to support a superimposed dead load of forcement to provide the required combined 25 psf and a live load of 60 psf. Assume that the flexural strength calculated in part (a). Be sure to slab will be designed with isotropic top and bottom check reinforcement spacing requirements given reinforcement, in ACI Code Section 13.3.2. Use f= 4000 psi (a) Find the critical yield-tine mechanism and then and f, = 60 ksi. use the appropriate load factors and strength- reduction factors to determine the required sum of the nominal negative- and positive-moment capacities (m, + mp) in units of k-fUfl. t——_ on — : MMM, ZZ Lie Simply supported args 208 Fig. PI4.5 REFERENCES 14-1 Ame Hillerborg, Strip Method of Desig Spon, London, 1975, 258 pp. 14-2 Randal H. Wood and G. S. T, Armer, “The Theory of the Strip Method for Design of Slabs,” Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Vol. 41, October 1968, pp. 285-313, Kurt W. Johansen, Yield-Line Theory (English translation from German), Cement and Con- ‘rete Association, London, 1962, 181 pp. 14-4 Eivind Hognestad, Yield-Line Theory for Ultimate Flexural Strength of Reinforced Concrete Slabs, Journal of the American Concrete Institute, Vol. 49, No. 7, March 1953, pp. 637-656 145 Leonard L. Jones and Randal H. Wood, Weld Line Analysis of Slabs, Elsevier, New York, 1967. 14-6 Roger P. Johnson, Structural Concrete, McGraw-Hill, London, 1967, 271 pp. 14-7 Robert Park and William L. Gamble, Reinforced Concrete Slabs, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1980, 618 pp.