Assignment of Networking protocols

FTP HTTP VLAN

SUPERNE
TTING DNS

DH
CIDR
CP

Submitted by: Mubashra Qadir

Roll # MITE-F20-007
Submitted to: Muhammad Arif
Subject: Computer Networks
 Supernetting
Introduction:
Supernetting is the process of summarizing a bunch of contiguous
Subnetted networks back in a single large network. Supernetting is
also known as route summarization and route aggregation.
Supernetting is mainly used in Route Summarization, where routes to
multiple networks with similar network prefixes are combined into a
single routing entry, with the routing entry pointing to a Super
network, encompassing all the networks. This in turn significantly
reduces the size of routing tables and also the size of routing updates
exchanged by routing protocols.
More specifically,
 When multiple networks are combined to form a bigger
network, it is termed as super-netting.
 Super netting is used in route aggregation to reduce the size of
routing tables and routing table updates.
There are some points which should be kept in mind while
supernetting:
 All the Networks should be contiguous.
 The block size of every networks should be equal and must be in
form of 2n.
 First Network id should be exactly divisible by whole size of
supernet.
Example – Suppose 4 small networks of class C:
200.1.0.0,
200.1.1.0,
200.1.2.0,
 200.1.3.0
Build a bigger network which have a single Network Id.
Explanation – Before Supernetting routing table will be look like as:
Network Id Subnet Mask Interface
200.1.0.0 255.255.255.0 A
200.1.1.0 255.255.255.0 B
200.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 C
200.1.3.0 255.255.255.0 D

First, lets check whether three condition are satisfied or not:

Contiguous: You can easily see that all network are contiguous all
having size 256 hosts.
Range of first Network from 200.1.0.0 to 200.1.0.255. If you add 1 in
last IP address of first network that is 200.1.0.255 + 0.0.0.1, you will
get the next network id that is 200.1.1.0. Similarly, check that all
network are contiguous.
Equal size of all network: As all networks are of class C, so all of the
have a size of 256 which in turn equal to 28.
First IP address exactly divisible by total size: When a binary number
is divided by 2n then last n bits are the remainder. Hence in order to
prove that first IP address is exactly divisible by while size of
Supernet Network. You can check that if last n v=bits are 0 or not.
In given example first IP is 200.1.0.0 and whole size of supernet is
4*28 = 210. If last10 bits of first IP address are zero then IP will be
divisible.

Last 10 bits of first IP address are zero (highlighted by green color).

So 3rd condition is also satisfied.
Therefore, you can join all these 4 networks and can make a Supernet.
New Supernet Id will be 200.1.0.0.
CIDR
A system called Classless Inter-Domain Routing, or CIDR, was
developed as an alternative to traditional subnetting. The idea is that
you can add a specification in the IP address itself as to the number of
significant bits that make up the routing or networking portion.
For example, we could express the idea that the IP address
192.168.0.15 is associated with the netmask 255.255.255.0 by using
the CIDR notation of 192.168.0.15/24. This means that the first 24
bits of the IP address given are considered significant for the network
routing.
This allows us some interesting possibilities. We can use these to
reference “supernets”. In this case, we mean a more inclusive address
range that is not possible with a traditional subnet mask. For instance,
in a class C network, like above, we could not combine the addresses
from the networks 192.168.0.0 and 192.168.1.0 because the netmask
for class C addresses is 255.255.255.0.
However, using CIDR notation, we can combine these blocks by
referencing this chunk 192.168.0.0/23. This specifies that there are 23
bits used for the network portion that we are referring to.

So the first network (192.168.0.0) could be represented like this in

binary:

1100 0000 - 1010 1000 - 0000 0000 - 0000 0000

While the second network (192.168.1.0) would be like this:

1100 0000 - 1010 1000 - 0000 0001 - 0000 0000

The CIDR address we specified indicates that the first 23 bits are used
for the network block we are referencing. This is equivalent to a
netmask of 255.255.254.0, or:

1111 1111 - 1111 1111 - 1111 1110 - 0000 0000

As you can see, with this block the 24th bit can be either 0 or 1 and it
will still match, because the network block only cares about the first
23 digits.

Basically, CIDR allows us more control over addressing continuous

blocks of IP addresses. This is much more useful than the subnetting
we talked about originally.
DHCP
An IP address can be defined as a unique numeric identifier (address)
that is assigned to each computer operating in a TCP/IP based
network. Manually configuring computers with IP addresses and other
TCP/IP configuration parameters is not an intricate task. However,
manually configuring thousands of workstations with unique IP
addresses would be a time consuming, and cumbersome experience.
When you manually assign IP addresses, you increase the risk of
duplicating IP address assignments, configuring the incorrect subnet
masks, and incorrectly configuring other TCP/IP configuration
parameters.

This is where the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

becomes important. The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) is a service that does the above mentioned tasks for
administrators, thereby saving simplifying the administration of IP
addressing in TCP/IP based networks. TCP/IP configuration was
basically a manual process before the DHCP protocol was introduced.
One of the main disadvantages of manually assigning IP addresses to
hundreds of computers is that it could result in the assigned IP
addresses not being unique. In a TCP/IP based network, to uniquely
identify computers on the network, each computer must have a unique
IP address. To communicate on the Internet and private TCP/IP
network, all hosts defined on the network must have IP addresses. The
32-bit IP address identifies a particular host on the network.

DHCP functions at the application layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack.

One of the primary tasks of the protocol is to automatically assign IP
addresses to DHCP clients. A server running the DHCP service is
called a DHCP server. The DHCP protocol automates the
configuration of TCP/IP clients because IP addressing occurs through
the system.

The functions of the DHCP server are outlined below:

 Dynamically assign IP addresses to DHCP clients.

 Allocate the following TCP/IP configuration information to DHCP
clients:

 Subnet mask information.

 Default gateway IP addresses.

 Domain Name System (DNS) IP addresses.

 Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) IP addresses.

DNS
DNS, or the Domain Name System, is often a very difficult part of
learning how to configure websites and servers. Understanding how
DNS works will help you diagnose problems with configuring access
to your websites and will allow you to broaden your understanding of
what’s going on behind the scenes.
The domain name system, more commonly known as “DNS” is the
networking system in place that allows us to resolve human-friendly
names to unique IP addresses.

Domain Name
A domain name is the human-friendly name that we are used to
associating with an internet resource. For instance, “google.com” is a
domain name. Some people will say that the “google” portion is the
domain, but we can generally refer to the combined form as the
domain name.
The URL “google.com” is associated with the servers owned by
Google Inc. The domain name system allows us to reach the Google
servers when we type “google.com” into our browsers.

IP Address
An IP address is what we call a network addressable location. Each IP
address must be unique within its network. When we are talking about
websites, this network is the entire internet.
IPv4, the most common form of addresses, are written as four sets of
numbers, each set having up to three digits, with each set separated by
a dot. For example, “111.222.111.222” could be a valid IPv4 IP
address. With DNS, we map a name to that address so that you do not
have to remember a complicated set of numbers for each place you
wish to visit on a network.
The system is very simple at a high-level overview, but is very
complex as you look at the details. Overall though, it is a very reliable
infrastructure that has been essential to the adoption of the internet as
we know it today.
Root Servers
As we said above, DNS is, at its core, a hierarchical system. At the
top of this system is what are known as “root servers”. These servers
are controlled by various organizations and are delegated authority by
ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers).

There are currently 13 root servers in operation. However, as there are

an incredible number of names to resolve every minute, each of these
servers is actually mirrored. The interesting thing about this set up is
that each of the mirrors for a single root server share the same IP
address. When requests are made for a certain root server, the request
will be routed to the nearest mirror of that root server.
What do these root servers do?
Root servers handle requests for information about Top-level
domains. So if a request comes in for something a lower-level name
server cannot resolve, a query is made to the root server for the
domain.
The root servers won’t actually know where the domain is hosted.
They will, however, be able to direct the requester to the name servers
that handle the specifically requested top-level domain So if a request
for “www.wikipedia.org” is made to the root server, the root server
will not find the result in its records. It will check its zone files for a
listing that matches “www.wikipedia.org”. It will not find one.
It will instead find a record for the “org” TLD and give the requesting
entity the address of the name server responsible for “org” addresses.
VLAN
Virtual LANs (VLANs) allow a single extended LAN to be
partitioned into several seemingly separate LANs. Each virtual LAN
is assigned an identifier (sometimes called a color), and packets can
only travel from one segment to another if both segments have the
same identifi er. This has the effect of limiting the number of
segments in an extended LAN that will receive any given broadcast
packet. An attractive feature of VLANs is that it is possible to change
the logical topology without moving any wires or changing any
addresses.
Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a concept in which we can divide the devices
logically on layer 2 (data link layer). Generally, layer 3 devices
divides broadcast domain but broadcast domain can be divided by
switches using the concept of VLAN.
A broadcast domain is a network segment in which if a device
broadcast a packet then all the devices in the same broadcast domain
will receive it. The devices in the same broadcast domain will receive
all the broadcast packet but it is limited to switches only as routers
don’t forward out the broadcast packet.To forward out the packets to
different VLAN (from one VLAN to another) or broadcast domain,
inter Vlan routing is needed. Through VLAN, different small size sub
networks are created which are comparatively easy to handle.
Why do we use VLAN
1. A VLAN allows different computers and devices to be
connected virtually to each other as if they were in a LAN
sharing a single broadcast domain.
2. A VLAN is helpful for organizational use mainly because it can
be used to segment a larger network into smaller segments.
3. VLANs can limit user access to to a certain VLAN, which then
allows only authorized users to have access to networks with
highly sensitive information.
4. VLANs can be used for different groups of users, departments,
functions, etc., without needing to be in the same geographical
area.
5. VLANs can help reduce IT cost, improve network security and
performance, provide easier management, as well as ensuring
network flexibility.
HTTP
HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is invented by Tim
Berner. HyperText is the type of text which is specially coded with
the help of some standard coding language called as HyperText
Markup Language (HTML). HTTP/2 is latest version of HTTP,
which was published on May 2015.
The protocols that are used to transfer hypertext between two
computers is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol. HTTP provides
standard between a web browser and web server to establish
communication. It is set of rules for transferring data from one
computer to another. Data such as text, images, and other multimedia
files are shared on the World WideWeb. Whenever a web user opens
their web browser, user will indirectly uses HTTP. It is an application
protocol which is used for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia
information systems.
How it works ?
First of all, whenever we want to open any website then first we open
web browser after that we will type URL of that website (e.g.,
www.facebook.com ). This URL is now sent to Domain Name Server
(DNS). Then DNS first check records for this URL in their database,
then DNS will return IP address to web browser corresponding to this
URL. Now browser is able to sent request to actual server. After
server sends data to client, connection will be closed. If we want
something else from server we should have to re-establish connection
between client and server.
 HTTP is IP based communication protocol which is used to
deliver data from server to client or vice-versa.
 Server processes a request, which is raised by client and also
server and client knows each other only during current request
and response period.
 Any type of content can be exchanged as long as server and
client are compatible with it.
 Once data is exchanged then servers and client are no more
connected with each other.
 It is a request and response protocol based on client and server
requirements.
 It is connection less protocol because after connection is closed,
server does not remember anything about client and client does
not remember anything about server.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol(FTP) is an application layer protocol which
moves files between local and remote file systems. It runs on the top
of TCP, like HTTP. To transfer a file, 2 TCP connections are used by
FTP in parallel: control connection and data connection.

What is control connection?

For sending control information like user identification, password,
commands to change the remote directory, commands to retrieve and
store files, etc., FTP makes use of control connection. The control
connection is initiated on port number 21.
What is data connection?
For sending the actual file, FTP makes use of data connection. A data
connection is initiated on port number 20.
FTP sends the control information out-of-band as it uses a separate
control connection. Some protocols send their request and response
header lines and the data in the same TCP connection. For this reason,
they are said to send their control information in-band. HTTP and
SMTP are such examples.
FTP working :
When a FTP session is started between a client and a server, the client
initiates a control TCP connection with the server side. The client
sends control information over this. When the server receives this, it
initiates a data connection to the client side. Only one file can be sent
over one data connection. But the control connection remains active
throughout the user session. As we know HTTP is stateless i.e. it does
not have to keep track of any user state. But FTP needs to maintain a
state about its user throughout the session.
Data Structures : FTP allows three types of data structures :
 File Structure – In file-structure there is no internal structure and
the file is considered to be a continuous sequence of data bytes.
 Record Structure – In record-structure the file is made up of
sequential records.
 Page Structure – In page-structure the file is made up of
independent indexed pages.