Lessons Outline:
 The Algebra of Functions
o Representation of Functions
 Relation and Function
 Function or Not
 Function Notation
 Evaluation of Functions
 Piecewise Function
o Operations on Functions
 Fundamental Operations on Functions
 Composition of Functions
 Rational Functions
o Rational Functions
 Graphing Rational Functions
 Domain and Range of Rational Functions
 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
o Exponential Functions
 Representing Exponential Functions
o Logarithmic Functions
 Laws of Logarithm
 Common and Natural Logarithms
 Graphing Logarithmic Functions
o Exponential Models
 Exponential Growth
 Exponential Decay
THE ALGEBRA OF FUNCTIONS –
REPRESENTATION OF FUNCTIONS
Relation and Function
Items that show relationship, parings, connection,
relation and correspondence:
- A man and his wife
- A car and its plate number
- A child and her gadgets
- You and your social media apps
- The students and their teacher
Relation
- is a set of ordered pairs
- example: {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)}
- is basically the correspondence of things
- example: a man to his wife, puto to dinuguan,
Ma'am Tricia to Mercy
The correspondence is often defined/represented
by a table, an equation, or a graph, which can be
viewed from mathematical perspective as a set of
ordered pairs.
Ordered Pair
- denotes a relation between two components
(x,y)
- also denotes a coordinate in a plane
- example: (1,2)
- in (x,y), x is called an element of the domain
while y is an element of the range.
Domain and Range
Domain is the set of first components or elements
of x in a relation. It is the independent variable.
Range is the set of second components or elements
of y in a relation. It is the dependent variable.
Function
- is a special kind of relation where every
component of the domain corresponds with an
only one component of the range
- is a rule of correspondence that assigns each
element of x (domain) to exactly one element of
y (range)
All functions are relation,
but not all relations are function.
Function or Not
How to tell if a RELATION is a function or not a
function?
Relations that are functions are
correspondences with one-to-one and many-to-
one relationship. And a relationship of one-to-
many is not a function.
For example, a man and his wife. Let x be the man
and let y be his wife. The relation shows one-to-one
relation. Therefore, it is a function. The same as a
car to its plate number (domain - car, range -
LTO1234). Another example, students to their
teacher. Let the set of x or domain be the students
and let y be their teacher. It shows many-to-one
relation and however, a student (x) corresponds to
exactly one teacher (y) regardless of the teacher (y)
having many students (x's). Therefore, it's a
function.
Another example, a child to her gadgets. Let x be
the child and y be the gadgets (cellphone, tablet,
and laptop). It shows one-to-many relation;
therefore, it is not a function. The same as you to
your social media apps (domain - you, range - when evaluated (for example) to x=4, y will have
Facebook, Twitter, Instagram). two answers, 3 and -3. Therefore, it’s not a function.

How to tell if a SET OF ORDERED PAIRS is a Function Notation

function?
Function Notation
A set of ordered pairs is a function if there
- is how functions are written or denoted in such
will be no repeated x-coordinate (first coordinate)
names of the function
or element of the domain.
o f(x),
For example, {(1, 5), (3, 2), (3, 7)} doesn’t o g(x), and
define y as a function of x because there are two o h(x)
ordered pairs with an x-coordinate of 3. - where f, g, and h are the names of the
function while x is the variable of the
Another, {(1, 4), (2, 8), (3, 12), (4, 16)} tells
function (any variable would suffice)
that y is a function of x since there are no repeated
- the name and the variable of the function
x-coordinate and an element of the domain is
should be different
assigned to only one element of the range.
For example, f(x)=3x-2, where f(x) is the name of
How to tell if a GRAPH is a function?
the function, x is the variable of the function while
A graph is a function if an imaginary vertical 3x-2 is the equation of the function.
line positioned in the graph will only intersect with
Evaluation of Functions
it at only one point. This is called the Vertical Line
Test. Evaluation of Functions

- y=f ( x ) tells that y is a function of x and

For example, this graph defines that y is a
function of x since it only intersected the graph at
only one point.
therefore, f(x) (or any function name) is
interchangeable with y
- Substituting and replacing the variables with
the given numbers or expressions inside the
parenthesis in the name of the function.
- The domain of a function f is the set of values of
x for which f is defined.
- The range of a function f is the set of all values
of f(x).
A. For example, if f ( x )=x +8 , evaluate each:
1. f ( 4 )

f ( x )=x +8f ( 4 ) =4 +8 f ( 4 ) =12; (4,12)

2. f (−x )

f ( x )=x +8f (−x )=−x+ 8;(−x ,−x +8)

3. f ( x+ 3)
For example, this vertical line intersected the f ( x )=x +8f ( x +3 ) =x+ 8¿ x+ 3+8
graph three times which explains that the graph is f ( x +3 ) =x+11 ;(x +3 , x+ 11)
not a function.
2x
How to tell if an EQUATION is a function? B. Using f ( x )= 2 , evaluate each:
x −6 x +9
An equation is a function if we solved for 1. f (1)
the value of y and it will be a unique real number
2 ( 1) 2 1
when it is evaluated. f ( 1) = = =
( 1 ) −6 ( 1 ) +9 4 2
2

For example, 2 x+ y =5 and when solved for

the value of y, will be y=−2 x +5. And since it is a 2. f (2)
unique real number for each x, this equation is a 2(−2) −4
function. f (−2 )= =
(−2) −6 (−2 ) +9 25
2

On the other hand, −2 x+ y2 =¿1 and when

3. f (−7 )
solved for the value of y, will be y 2=2 x+ 1. And
 2(−7) −14 −7 This means that with 100 calling minutes, the
f (−7 )= = =
(−7) −6 (−7 ) +9 100 50
2
monthly cost is 560 PHP.

Piecewise Functions 2. Today, the minimum fare for a jeepney ride is

Piecewise Functions are functions with two
or more subfunctions combined into one
expression.
It will have conditions, such as x<1, x=1, etc.
9.00 PHP for every four kilometers. In every
succeeding kilometer, a P1.00 additional charge
is being added to the minimum fare.
a. What piecewise function would illustrate the
problem?

{
Determine what condition the value of the variable
satisfies. The function that we use or we evaluate is f ( x )= 9 ,∧x ≤ 4
x +5 ,∧x >4
the function where its condition is satisfied.
b. What will be the cost of the ride if you travelled
For example, f ( x)= x+2 and f ( x)=2 x−1. It will be a total of 12-km distance from your home to
combined as: f ( x )= {2 x−1 ,if ∧x ≥ 0
x+2 , if ∧x< 0
. school?

To find f (12), we let x=12. Because 12 is

In evaluating piecewise functions, here is an greater than 4, we use the second line of the
example: if f ( x )= {32x−1 2
,if ∧x >1
x ,if ∧x ≤1
, evaluate each: piecewise function,
f ( 12 ) =12+5=17 .
f ( x )=x +5. Therefore,

1. f ( 0 ); and since 0 ≤ 1 This means that the cost of the ride if you travelled
a total of 12-km distance from your home to school
f ( 0 )=2(0)2=2 ( 0 ) =0
is 17 PHP.
2. f ( 1 ) ; and since 1=1
OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
2
f ( 1 ) =2(1) =2 ( 1 )=2
Fundamental Operations on Functions
3. f (2); and since 2>1
Sum, Difference, Product, and Quotient of
f ( 2 ) =3 ( 2 )−1=6−1=5 Functions

Examples: Given two functions f and g, then for all values

1. A mobile phone company realizes that they can
only serve people truthfully through fair
computation of monthly cost for calls. They
noticed that the previous plan they offered
focused on their profit than their service. To
correct this, they created another plan for their
customers.
of x for which both are defined, the function
f +g , f −g , fg and f /g are as follows:
1. Sum: ( f + g )( x )=f ( x )+ g ( x )
2. Difference: ( f −g ) ( x )=f ( x )−g ( x )
3. Product: ( fg ) ( x )=f ( x ) ∙ g ( x )
4. Quotient: ( fg ) ( x )= gf (x)
(x)
, where g(x )≠ 0

- ₱400 per month buys 60 minutes of call

Examples:
- Additional time costs ₱4 per minute of call
1. If f ( x )=x −9 and g ( x )=√ x−1, find the domain
2

{
f ( x )= 400 , if ∧0< x ≤ 60
400+ 4 ( x−60 ) ,if ∧x >60 of f +g , f −g , fg, and
f
g
.

a. Find and interpret f ( 30 )

To find f (30), we let x=30 . Because 30 lies
between 0 and 60, we use the first line of the
piecewise function, f ( x)=400 .
Therefore, f (30)=400 . This means that with 30
calling minutes, the monthly cost is 400 PHP.
b. Find and interpret f (100)
To find f (100), we let x=100 . Because 100 is
greater than 60, we use the second line of the
piecewise function, f ( x)=400+ 4( x−60) .
Note that f has the domain of all real numbers
and g has the domain { x∨x ≥1 } . Therefore, the
domain of f +g , f −g , and fg is { x∨x ≥1 } . Also,
f
because g(x )=0 when x=1, so the domain of is
g
{ x∨x ≥1 }.
** Reminder, the domain is every number that is a
possible value of x. It can be the set of all real
numbers and can be denoted as (−∞, ∞) or
{ x∨x ∈ R }. If they have exceptions or conditions, it
can be denoted as {x∨x ∈ R , x ≠ n }.

Therefore, Addition of Functions

f ( 100 )=400+ 4 ( 100−60 )=400+4 ( 40 )=400+160=560 - Add the functions (in any order).
.
 - Combine like terms and simplify.
- Evaluate if indicated that it needs to be
evaluated.
Example:
1. f ( x )=x−5g ( x )=x+9
( f + g )( x )= ( x −5 ) + ( x+ 9 )
( f + g )( 0 )=2 ( 0 ) +4=4
2
2. h ( x )=2 x−1 j ( x )=x + x−2
- There is no need for performing division of
polynomials in long division or synthetic
division.
- Just write the function in rational/fractional
form (ordering is important).
- It is needed to put a condition, a forbidden
value of x of the denominator. (It is because
¿ 2 x+ 4 the function divided would be undefined.
So, equate the denominator to zero and
find the value of x.)

( h+ j )( x )=( 2 x−1 )+( x 2+ x−2) Example:

¿ x 2+ 3 x−3 1. f ( x )=x−5g ( x )=x+ 9
( h+ j )( 2 ) =( 2 )2+3 ( 2 ) −3¿ 7

Subtraction of Fractions ( fg ) ( x )= x−5

x +9
, where x ≠−9

- Subtract the functions (ordering is *Equate x +9 to 0 .

important). x +9=0x=−9
- Combine like terms and simplify.
- Evaluate if indicated.
( gf ) ( x )= x−5
x +9
, where x ≠ 5
Example:
*Equate x−5 to 0 .
1. f ( x )=x−5g ( x )=x+9
x−5=0x=5
( f −g ) ( x )=( x−5 )− ( x +9 ) ¿−14 2
2. h ( x )=2 x−1 j ( x )=x + x−2
( g−f ) ( x )=( x+ 9 )−( x−5 )¿ 14

2. h ( x )=2 x−1 j ( x )=x + x−2

2 ( hj ) ( x )= x2+x−1
2
x−2
, where x ≠−2 , 1

( j−h ) ( x ) =¿( x 2+ x−2)−( 2 x−1) *Equate x 2+ x−2 to 0 .

¿ x 2−x−1 x 2+ x−2=0 ( x +2 )( x−1 ) =0
Multiplication of Functions x +2=0 ; x−1=0x=−2 ; x=1

()
2
j
- Multiply the functions (in any order). Note: ( x )= x + x−2 , where x ≠ 1
You can use different strategies in h 2 x−1 2
multiplying functions such as FOIL Method,
*Equate 2 x−1 to 0 .
Distribution Property of Equality, etc… 2x 1 1
- Combine like terms and simplify. 2 x−1=02 x=1 = x=
2 2 2
- Evaluate if indicated.
Composition of Functions
Example:
Composition of Functions
1. f ( x )=x−5g ( x )=x+9
- is just a function inside a function
( fg ) ( x )=( x−5 ) ( x+ 9 )
- is a method of combining functions that uses
x −5 the output of one function as the input for a
x x
2
−5 x second function (“f of g of x”)
9 9x −45 The composition of the function f with g is
2 2
¿ x + 9 x −5 x −45¿ x + 4 x−45 denoted by f ∘ g and is defined by the equation:
2
2. h ( x )=2 x−1 j ( x )=x + x−2 ( f ∘ g )( x )=f (g ( x ))
( hj ) ( x ) =(2 x−1)¿ ) The domain of the composition function f ∘ g id the
2x −1 set of all x such that:
2
x 2 x3 −x 2 1. x is the domain of g; and
x 2x
2
−x 2. g ( x ) is in the domain of f .
−2 −4 x 2
3 2
¿ 2 x + x −5 x +2 Examples: *more examples in Module 2, p. 4-5

Division of Functions 1. f ( x )=x +2g ( x )=3 x−1

 ( f ∘ g )( x )=f [ g ( x ) ]¿ ( 3 x−1 ) +2¿ 3 x+1 Using these values, the points

( g ∘ f )( x )=g [ f ( x ) ]¿ 3 ( x+ 2 )−1¿ 3 x+ 6−1¿ 3 x+5 (−3 , −31 ) ,(−2 , −21 ) ,(−1 ,−1) , ( 1,1) ,(2 , 12 ) , and
2
2. g ( x )=x +1h ( x )=2 x−3 (3 , 13 ) can be plotted in a plane.
( g ∘h )( x )=g [ h ( x ) ]¿ ( 2 x−3 )2 +1¿ 4 x2 −12 x +9+1
2
¿ 4 x −12 x +10

( h ∘ g )( x )=h [ g ( x ) ]¿ 2 ( x 2+1 ) −3¿ 2 x2 +2−3

2
¿ 2 x −1
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Rational Function
x
- is a ratio of one polynomial function to another Another example: g ( x )=
x +1
polynomial function
x
A rational function, r (x ), is a function of the form  equation: y=
x +1
p (x)  table of values:
r ( x )= , where p(x ) and q (x) are polynomial
q ( x)
functions, and q ( x) ≠ 0. x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 3 2 undefined 0 1 2 3
- The domain of r ( x ) is the set of all real 2 2 3 4
numbers such that q ( x ) is not zero. Note: Any number divided by 0 is undefined and 0
Examples: divided by any number is 0.

x 3 −1 Using these values, the points

a. r ( x )= , x ≠−1
x +1
3 x +2 ( 3
) ( )( ) ( )
1 2
−3 , , (−2,2 ) , ( 0 , 0 ) , 1 , , 2, , and 3 ,
2 2 3
3
4
can
b. p ( x ) = 2 , x≠±2
be plotted in a plane.
x −4

- It can be represented by an equation, a table of

values, or a graph.

Equation and Table of Values

(Rational Functions)

For a rational function to be represented as Graphing Rational Functions

an equation, change “ f ( x)” into y . Table of Values
1
For example: The rational function f ( x )= can be Table of Values is used to graph rational
x
functions by acquiring enough points (coordinates)
1
represented as the equation y= . to “connect-the-dots’ the graph in the plane.
x
Algebraic Analysis
For a rational function to be represented as
(Intercepts, Zeroes, Asymptotes)
a table of values, take the equation, assign a value
for one variable to acquire the value of another. These, on the other hand, helps to graph rational
Usually, values of x are given for finding the value functions as a guide.
of y. In finding the value of y, just substitute the
Intercepts
given value to the variable and list the acquired
values in a table. Also, ordered pairs of points can These are the points of intersection of its
be found in here. graph and on its axis. The x-intercept is the graph’s
point of intersection to the x-axis while the y-
intercept is the graph’s point of intersection to the
1 y-axis.
For example: y=
x
To solve for x-intercept, substitute y to 0
x -3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 (x, 0). And to solve for y-intercept, substitute x to 0
y 1 1 −1 undefined 1 1 1 (0, y).
−3 −2 2 3
Examples: **more examples in Module 3, p. 7-9 Asymptotes

( x +1)( x−3)(x+ 2) These are imaginary lines to which a graph

1. f ( x )=
(x−1)( x +3) gets closer and closer as it increases or decreases
its value without limit. A graph of a rational
x-intercept: y=0 function may have a vertical and horizontal
( x +1 )( x−3 )( x +2 ) ( x +1 ) ( x−3 ) ( x +2 ) asymptote, or vertical and oblique asymptote. A
y= 0= rational function can have one or more vertical
( x−1 )( x +3 ) ( x−1 ) ( x+3 )
asymptote. However, a graph may only have one
( x +1 )( x−3 )( x +2 )=0 x +1=0 ; x−3=0 ; x+ 2=0 horizontal or oblique asymptote, but not both.
x=−1 ; x=3 , x=−2(−1 , 0 ) , ( 3 , 0 ) , (−2 , 0 )
Vertical Asymptote
y-intercept: x=0
In finding the vertical asymptote of a
( x+1)(x−3)( x +2) rational function, find the zeroes of the
y=
(x−1)( x+3) denominator that are not zeroes of the numerator.
Also, try factoring both the numerator and the
( 0+1 ) ( 0−3 ) ( 0+2 ) ( 1 ) (−3 ) (2 ) −6 denominator and cancel the common factors of
y= y= =
( 0−1 ) ( 0+3 ) (−1 ) (3 ) −3 them.
y=2;(0 ,2)
Examples: **more examples in Module 3, p. 11-12
x +3 x−4 ( x+ 4)(x−1) x−1
2
( x +1 ) ( x−3 ) ( x+ 4 )
2. r ( x )= = =
x2 −16 (x−4)(x +4 ) x−4 1. r ( x )=
( x−1 ) ( x +2 )
x-intercept: y=0
denominator: ( x−1 ) ( x+2 )( x−1 ) ( x+2 ) =0
x−1 x−1 x−1=0 ; x +2=0VA → x=1; x=−2
y= 0= x−1=0 x=1 ; ( 1,0 )
x−4 x−4 ( x −1 )( x−3 )( x−2 ) ( x−1 ) ( x−3 )
2. r ( x )= =
y-intercept: x=0 ( x +1 ) ( x −2 )2 ( x +1 )( x−2 )

x−1 0−1 −1 1 1 cancel → ( x −2 )denominator: ( x ∓1 ) ( x−2 )

y= y= = y= ;(0 , )
x−4 0−4 −4 4 4 x +1=0 ; x−2=0VA → x=−1; x=2

Zeroes Horizontal Asymptote

These are the values that makes the In finding the horizontal asymptote of a
numerator zero, provided that it is not a zero of the rational function, compare the degrees of the
denominators. Basically, zeroes are the x-intercepts polynomial in the numerator and the denominator:
of the rational function (this time, it’s not an  If n< d , then y=0.
ordered pair). The purpose of solving for the zeroes a
is for finding the hole of the graph. These are  If n=d , then y= .
b
coordinates that the function passes through but  If n> d , then there is no horizontal asymptote.
are not part of the function’s domain and range.

In solving for the zeroes of the rational - n is the degree of the polynomial in the
function, equate the function to 0. Common factors numerator
that are cancelled along the way are the holes. - d is the degree of the polynomial in the
denominator
Examples: **more examples in Module 3, p. 9-10 - a is the leading coefficient of the polynomial in
3x the numerator
1. r ( x )= - b is the leading coefficient of the polynomial in
x 2 +6
the denominator
3x 3x 0
=0 →3 x=0 → = x=0 Note: The graph of a rational function may or may
2
x +6 3 3
not intersect a horizontal or oblique asymptote.
x 2+2 x−8
2. p ( x) = Examples: **more examples in Module 3, p. 12-13
x 2 +3 x−4
x
2
x + 2 x−8 ( x+ 4 ) ( x−2 ) 1. g ( x )=
=0 =0 ; cancel → ( x + 4 ) 9 x 2−1
2
x +3 x−4 ( x+ 4 ) ( x−1 )
x−2 where n=1 ,d =2
=0 x−2=0x=2 ; hole → x=−4 and since 1<2 , n<d ,
x−1
HA → y=0
 7−3 x where n=1, d=1
2. r ( x )=
2 x+1 and since 1=1, n=d,
a
where n=1 ,d =1 y= ; a=1, b=1HA → y=1
b
a
and since 1=1 , n=d , y= ; a=−3 , b=2 HA
b c. oblique asymptote
−3
→ y= there is no oblique asymptote
2
2
2 x −3 x−1 2 x3 −5 x 2 + x−4
3. g ( x )= 2. f ( x )=
x−2 −x 2 +4
a. vertical asymptote
where n=2 , d=1and since 2>1 , n>d ,
there is no horizontal asymptote denominator: −x 2+ 4 ;−x 2 +4=0−x 2=−4 ; x 2=4
VA → x=±2
Oblique Asymptote
b. horizontal asymptote
If a graph of a rational function doesn’t have
a horizontal asymptote (if the degree of the where n=3, d=2
polynomial in the numerator is greater than that of and since 3>2, n>d,
the denominator or n> d ), then it has an oblique there is no horizontal asymptote
asymptote. c. oblique asymptote
In finding the oblique asymptote of a using long division
rational function, divide (using long division or −2 x+5
synthetic division) the numerator by the 2 3 2
−x + 4 2 x −5 x + x−4
denominator. Ignore the remainder and equate the
quotient to y. −( 2 x 3−8 x )
2
Example: **more examples in Module 3, p. 13 −5 x + 9 x −4

2 x 2−3 x−1 −(−5 x 2 +20)

1. g ( x )= 9 x−24
x−2
Using long division, OA → y=−2 x+5
2
2 x+1 −x +1
3. f ( x )=
x−2
x−2 2 x2 −3 x −1
a. vertical asymptote
−( 2 x 2−4 x)
denominator: x−2 ; x−2=0VA → x=2
x−1
b. horizontal asymptote
−( x−2)
1 where n=2, d=1
and since 2>1, n>d,
there is no horizontal asymptote
OA → y=2 x+1
c. oblique asymptote
Using synthetic division,
using synthetic division

2 2−3−1 2 −1 0 1
−2−4
42 −1−2−3
2 x11 OA → y=−x−2

OA → y=2 x+1 Domain and Range of Rational Functions

More examples (asymptotes): Domain

x - the set of all values of x

1. f ( x )= - it is the same as the condition in division of
x +4
a. vertical asymptote functions
- in rational functions:
denominator: x +4 ; x + 4=0VA → x=−4

b. horizontal asymptote
 It is the set of all real numbers except those that
make the denominator zero and the function
undefined.

In finding the that exception in the domain,

inequate the denominator to 0 and find the value
of x. Then put it in the denotation where it should
not be equal to 0.
But in the graph, y=1 is intersected at one point by
Range a part of a graph. Therefore, y=1 is not an
- the set of all values of y exception.
- the same as the horizontal asymptote, line R={f ( x)∨f (x )∈ R }or R = set of all real numbers
not intersected by the graph
- in rational functions: EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

It is the set of all values that the function takes. Exponent

In finding that exception in the range, look in - is a number that tells how many times a
the graph and check for the horizontal line that it number is multiplied to itself.
doesn’t intersect. - is located at the upper-right side of its base.

Also, try solving for its horizontal asymptote but Exponential Function
for it to be considered as an exception to the range, x
- is a function defined by f ( x )=a where
it should not intersect the graph at any point.
a> 0 and a ≠ 1
Examples: **more examples in Module 3, p. 5-7 - a number base and a variable exponent
where the base should be greater than 0
x
1. f ( x )= and not equal to one
x +1
- if the base is greater than 0, the function
A. Domain
would be complex (having a 3d graph) and
Inequate x +1 to 0: if the base is equal to 1, the function would
x +1≠ 0x ≠−1 be linear
- can be represented through its equation,
D={x∨x ≠−1} table of values, and graph.
B. Range Examples:
where n=1, d=1 x
- y=8
and since 1=1, n=d - y=2.56 x
a
y= ; a=1, b=1 y=1 And the graph doesn’t - Laboratory findings show that the SARS-causing
b
corona virus, upon reaching maturity, divided
intersect y=1.
itself into two after every hour. How many cells
R={f ( x)∨f ( x )≠ 1} of the virus will be present after 1 day if it
started with just one cell?

x 2−4 x−5
2. p ( x) =
x 2−2 x−8
- f ( x )=19 x
A. Domain 7x
- y=7
Inequate x 2−2 x−8 to 0: Representing Exponential Functions
x −2 x−8 ≠ 0( x +4 )( x−2 ) ≠ 0 x +4 ≠ 0 ; x−2 ≠ 0
2
Equation
x ≠−4 , x ≠2
For an exponential function to be represented as an
D={x∨x ≠−4∧x ≠2 } equation, change “f(x)” into y.
B. Range x−4
For example: The exponential function f ( x )=2
where n=2, d=2 can be represented as the equation y=2x−4 .
and since 2=2, n=d,
Table of Values
a
y= ; a=1, b=1 y=1
b For an exponential function to be
represented as a table of values, take the equation,
assign a value for one variable to acquire the value
of another. In finding the value of y, just substitute x 1 2 3 4 5
the given value to the variable and list the acquired y 1 1 1 1 2
values in a table. Also, ordered pairs of points can 8 4 2
be found in here.  Domain: D={x∨x ∈ R}
 Range: R={f ( x)∨f ( x )> 0}
For example: y=2x−4
 x-intercept: none
x 1 2 3 4 5 1
 y-intercept: (0 , )
y 1 1 1 1 2 16
8 4 2  Trend: increasing
Note: Any number raised to 0 is 1. And 1 raised to
x
number is 1. 2. f ( x )=2
 Equation: y=2x
Using these values, the points
 Table of Values:
(1 , 18 ) ,(2 , 14 ) ,(3 , 12 ) ,( 4,1) , and( 5 , 2) x 1 2 3 4 5
can be plotted in a plane. y 2 4 8 16 32
 Domain: D={x∨x ∈ R }
Graph (Properties)  Range: R={f ( x)∨f ( x )> 0}
Determine the answer to these guides to help  x-intercept: none
you graph exponential functions.  y-intercept: (0,1)
 Trend: increasing
 Domain: D={x∨x ∈ R }

()
x
**In exponential functions, the domain is fixed and 1
3. f ( x )=
always the set of all real numbers. 2

()
x
1
 Range: R={f ( x)∨f ( x )> 0}  Equation: y=
2
**In exponential functions, the range is fixed and  Table of Values:
always the set of all positive real numbers or all real
x 1 2 3 4 5
numbers greater than zero.
y 1 1 1 1 1
 x-intercept: none 2 4 8 16 32
 Domain: D={x∨x ∈ R}
**In exponential functions, it is fixed that there is no
 Range: R={f ( x)∨f ( x )> 0}
x-intercept because x-intercept is the intersection
 x-intercept: none
point of the graph to the x-axis and the x-axis is
 y-intercept: (0,1)
asymptotic to the graph. In other words, the graph
 Trend: decreasing
does not intersect the x-axis at any point.
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
 y-intercept: (0, y)
Logarithmic Function
**In exponential functions, solve for the y-intercept
by substituting x by 0. - is the inverse of exponential function.
- The graph of logarithmic functions is
 trend: increasing or decreasing
mirrored to the graph of exponential
functions.

Law of Exponent

**In exponential functions, if the graph turns

upward, it is increasing. While if it turns downward,
it is decreasing. To easily identify if a graph is
increasing or decreasing, look at the base. If
0< base<1, then the graph is decreasing. While if
base >1, then the graph is decreasing.
Examples:
x−4
1. f ( x )=2
 Equation: y=2x−4
 Table of Values: Laws of Logarithm
  Property of Equality The logarithm of the quotient of two positive real
for Logarithmic Equations numbers is equal to the logarithm of the dividend
minus the logarithm of the divisor. In symbols,
Let b be a positive real number and b ≠ 1. M
Then, log b M =log b N if and only if M =N . log b =log b M −log b N
N
- If two logarithms have the same bases, then - If the powers of the logarithm is in fraction
their powers are equal. form, it can be expanded as subtraction.
Example: Examples:
1. log 2 x=log 2 7 , x=7 x
2. log 9 xy=log 9 z , xy=z 1. log 2 =log 2 x−log 2 y
2
y
2
3. 6 log x =x+ 30log 6 ( x +30 )=log 6 x x +30=x 2
6
80
2. log a 80−log a 5=log a =log a 16
x −x−30=0( x−6 )( x +5 )=0
2 5
x−6=0 ; x +5=0 x=6 , x=−5 5
3. log 2 5−log 2 x=log 2
x
 1st Law of Logarithms Combination of the 2nd and 3rd Law of Logarithms:

For any base b (any real number), 7x

4. log 4 = log 4 7 x )−( log 4 y z2 )
2 (
log b b=1 yz
i. 2
log b 1=0 ¿ log 4 7+ log 4 x−log 4 y−log 4 z
ii.
x
iii. log b b =x
 4th Law of Logarithms: Logarithm of
- log b b=1; in exponential form, any number
Power
raised to 1 is still that number. Ex: 21=2
- Again, if the base and the power have the The logarithm of the power of a positive real
same quantity, then the exponent is 1. number is equal to the exponent times the
- log b 1=0; in exponential form, any number logarithm of the number to the given base. In
raised to 0 is 1. symbols,
a
- If the exponent is 0, the power is log b M =a log b M
automatically 1.
x - If a power of a logarithm has an exponent,
- log b b =x ; in exponential form, is just
x x we can bring them down by multiplying it to
b =b .
the logarithm.
Examples:
Examples:
1. log 2 2=1 2
1. log 4 z =2 log 4 z
2. log 7 7=1
3. log 7 1=0 Combination of 2nd to 4th Laws of Logarithm:
4. log 2 2x = x
1
2. 3 log b x +2 log b y− log b z
2
 2nd Law of Logarithms: Logarithm of
x3 y2
¿ log b x +log b y −log b √ z=log b
3 2
Products
√2
1 1
The logarithm of the product of positive real 3. log ( x +3 ) 2 ( 2 x )=log ( x +3 ) 2 +log 2 x
numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of b b b
1
the factors of the given base. In symbols, ¿ log b ( x+ 3 ) +log b 2+log b x
log b MN =log b M +log b N . 2
Exponential to Logarithmic and
- If powers in a logarithm is factorable, factors
Logarithmic to Exponential
can be expressed as sum of logarithms.
(Notation)
Examples:
- In writing exponential to logarithmic form,
1. log 2 xy=log 2 x +log 2 y identify the base, exponent, and power.
2. log 5 x+ log 5 10+log5 y=log 5 10 xy exponent
log 7 2 yz=log 7 2+ log 7 y + log 7 z base =power
3.
2 2
4. log 4 7 xy z =¿log 4 7 +log 4 x +log 4 y + log 4 z - Write “log ” and follow it with a subscript,
 rd
3 Law of Logarithms: Logarithm of the base, and then the power. Equate it to
Quotients the exponent.
log base power=exponent
 - In writing logarithmic to exponential form, log b N =x if and only if b x =N
do the inverse of the steps above.
- is a function defined by y=log b x if and
Examples: only if x=b y for all positive real numbers x
2 and b , and b ≠ 1.
1. 2 =4 → log 2 4=2
1
2 1 Representing Logarithmic Functions
2. 25 =5 → log 25 5=
2 Equation
x
3. 2 =2048→ log2 2048=x
4.
3
log 10 1000=3 → 10 =1000 For a logarithmic function to be represented
as an equation, change “f(x)” into y.
5. log 4 16=x → 4 x =16
152
6. log 7 x=152 →7 =x For example: The logarithmic function f ( x )=log 2 x
can be represented as the equation y=log 2 x .
Common and Natural Logarithm
Table of Values
Common Logarithm
For a logarithmic function to be represented
- is a logarithm to the base 10
as a table of values, take the equation, assign a
- also called as Briggsian Logarithm (named
value for one variable to acquire the value of
after
another. In finding the value of y, just substitute the
- commonly found in the calculator
given value to the variable and list the acquired
- a logarithm without an indicated base,
values in a table. Also, ordered pairs of points can
automatically have 10 as its base (invisible)
be found in here.
log 10 x=log x
In solving logarithmic functions, use a
- Base 10 logarithms are the most widely scientific calculator. Manual solving is also possible
used logarithm because the universal but converting it to exponential functions is
system is the decimal system. necessary.
- Common logarithms are used in many
For example: y=log 2 x
physical quantities such as the Richter scale
readings of earthquake, decibels of sound x 1 1 1 1 2 4 8
and intensity, and the pH levels of chemical 8 4 2
substances. y -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Note: Since logarithmic functions are inverses of
Natural Logarithm
exponential functions, it can be observed that the
- is a logarithm to the base e exponential’s x-values are the logarithm’s y-values
- e is Euler’s number, e=2.7182818 … and exponential’s y-values are the logarithm’s x-
- also called as Napierian Logarithm (named values.
after John Napier)
Using these values, the points
- commonly found in the calculator
- a special logarithm with a different
denotation and without an indicated base
( 18 ,−3) ,( 14 ,−2) ,( 12 ,−1) , ( 1, 0) , ( 2 ,1) ,(4 , 2) and
(automatically have e as its base)
( 8 , 3 ) can be plotted in a plane.

log e x=ln x Graph (Properties)

- The natural logarithm of a number N is Determine the answer to these guides to help
denoted by ln N . you graph exponential functions.
- is read as “el-en of N”  Domain: D={x∨x >0 }
- has two important properties:
**In logarithmic functions, the domain is fixed and
ln x
e =x always the set of all positive real numbers or all real
and numbers greater than zero.
x
ln e =x
 Range: R={f ( x)∨f ( x ) ∈ R }
Logarithmic Functions
**In logarithmic functions, the range is fixed and
- is the inverse of exponential functions. always the set of all real numbers.
The logarithm of a number N to the base b is the  x-intercept: (x, 0)
exponent of the power to which b is raised to
obtain N . In symbols, **In exponential functions, solve for the x-intercept
by substituting y by 0.
  y-intercept: none

**In logarithmic functions, it is fixed that there is no

y-intercept because y-intercept is the intersection
point of the graph to the y-axis and the y-axis is
asymptotic to the graph. In other words, the graph
does not intersect the y-axis at any point.

 trend: increasing or decreasing

EXPONENTIAL MODELS

Exponential Models

- are situations that illustrate the concepts of

exponents and logarithm: y=a b x

**In logarithmic functions, if the graph turns Exponential Growth

upward, it is increasing. While if it turns downward,
it is decreasing. To easily identify if a graph is
increasing or decreasing, look at the base. If
0< base<1, then the graph is decreasing. While if
base >1, then the graph is decreasing.
Examples:
1. f ( x )=log 2 x
 Equation: y=log 2 x
Examples: **more examples in Module 6, p. 2-3
1. A town has a population of 40,000 that is
increasing at the rate of 5% each year.
Approximate the population of the town after 6
years.
Let: a=40,000r =5 %∨0.05t=6
t
y=a ( 1+ r ) y= ( 40000 ) ( 1+ 0.05 )
6

 Table of Values: 6
y= ( 40000 ) ( 1.05 ) y ≈ 53,603.83
x 1 1 1 1 2 4 8
8 4 2 ∴ , the population of the town after 6 years is
approximately 53,603.
y -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
 Domain: D={x∨x >0 } 2. Suppose a culture of 300 bacteria is put in a
 Range: R={f ( x)∨f ( x ) ∈ R } petri dish and the culture doubles every hour.
 x-intercept: (1, 0) Approximately, how many bacteria will there be
 y-intercept: none after 9 hours?
 Trend: increasing
Let: a=300r =100 %∨1t=9

y=a ( 1+ r )t y= (300 )( 1+1 )9 y= (300 )( 2 )9

y=153,600
∴, there will be approximately 153,600 bacteria
after 9 hours.

Continuous Exponential Growth Model

2. f ( x )=2+ log 2 x
 Equation: y=2+ log 2 x - is another model for exponential growth
 Table of Values: - more accurate, preferred by scientists
kt
x 1 1 1 1 2 4 8 y=a e
8 4 2 - where:
y -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 o y – amount (final)
 Domain: D={x∨x >0 } o a – initial amount
 Range: R={f ( x)∨f ( x ) ∈ R } o e – Euler’s number → 2.7182818…
1
 x-intercept: ( , 0) or (0.25 , 0) o t – time period
4
o k – growth constant
 y-intercept: none
 Trend: increasing Example:

1. A biologist is researching a newly-discovered

species of bacteria. At time t=0 hours, he puts
one hundred bacteria into what he has
determined to be a favorable growth medium.
After an hour, there are already 128 bacteria.
 a. Assuming continuous exponential growth, ∴ , the population in 2010 will be
what is the growth constant? approximately 26743.

Let: a=100 , y=128 , t =1 Continuous Exponential Decay Model

kt 138 100 e k
k (1 ) k - is another model for exponential decay
y=a e 138=100 e 138=100 e =
100 100 - more accurate, preferred by scientists in
1.28=e log e 1.28=k k =ln 1.28k ≈ 0.25
k solving problems involving radioactive
decay
b. How many bacteria will he measure after 6 kt
hours? y=a e

Let: a=100 , k=0.25 ,t=6 - where:

o y – amount (final)
( 0.25 ) ( 6 )
y=100 e y ≈ 448.17∨448
kt 1.5
y=a e y=100 e o a – initial amount
o e – Euler’s number → 2.7182818…
∴ , there will be 448 bacteria after 6 hours.
o t – time period
Exponential Decay o k – negative, decay constant
- half-life – the amount of time that must
- occurs when a quantity decreases by a fixed elapse before only half of the original
percent each time period amount of substance remains unchanged
- the amount y of that quantity after t time - formula derivation (Module 6, p. 5-6)
period is given by

()
t
1 n
y=a(1−r) t y=a
2
- where:
Example: **more examples in Module 6, p. 5-7
o y – amount (final)
o a – initial amount 1. Suppose that the half-life of a certain
o r – rate of decay, percent of decrease radioactive substance is 20 days and there are
expressed as decimal 10 grams initially. Determine the amount of
o t – time period substance remaining after 75 days.
- in this formula the value of b in y=a b x is Let: n=20 , a=10 , t=75
changed to (1−r) .

()
1 nt
()
75
1
Examples: y=a y=10 20
y ≈ 0.74
2 2
1. A cup of Batangas coffee contains 130
milligrams of caffeine. If caffeine is eliminated ∴, only 0.74 gram of the substance
from the body at a rate of 11% per hour, how will remain after 75 days.
long will it take for half of this caffeine to be
eliminated?
130
Let: y= =65 , a=130 , r=11 %∨0.11
2
t t t
y=a ( 1−r ) 65=130 (1−0.11 ) 65=130 ( 0.89 )
t
65 130 ( 0.89 )
0.5=0.89 log 0.89 0.5=t t ≈ 5.95
t
=
130 130
∴ , it will take approximately six hours.
2. In 1910, the population of a city was 120,000.
Because of scarcity, the population has
decreased by 1.5% per year. If the population
continues to decay at this rate, what will the
population be in 2010?

Let: a=120,000 , r=1.5 %∨0.015 , t=100

t 100
y=a ( 1−r ) y=120000 ( 1−0.015 )
y=120000 ( 0.985 )100 y ≈ 26473.07∨26473