rinciple of Operation

        Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging.  The term "radio" 
refers to the use of electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the so-called radio 
wave portion of the spectrum, which covers a wide range from 104 km to 1 cm.  Radar 
systems typically use wavelengths on the order of 10 cm, corresponding to frequencies 
of about 3 GHz.  The detection and ranging part of the acronym is accomplished by 
timing the delay between transmission of a pulse of radio energy and its subsequent 
return.  If the time delay is t, then the range may be determined by the simple 
formula:

R = ct/2

where c = 3 x 108 m/s, the speed of light at which all electromagnetic waves propagate.
The factor of two in the formula comes from the observation that the radar pulse must 
travel to the target and back before detection, or twice the range.

Mechanization

        A practical radar system requires seven basic components as illustrated below:

ransmitter. The transmitter creates the radio wave to be sent and modulates it to form the pulse train. 
The transmitter must also amplify the signal to a high power level to provide adequate range.  The
source of the carrier wave could be a Klystron, Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) or Magnetron.  Each has its
own characteristics and limitations.  

2.  Receiver.  The receiver is sensitive to the range of frequencies being transmitted and provides
amplification of the returned signal. In order to provide the greatest range, the receiver must be very
sensitive without introducing excessive noise.  The ability to discern a received signal from background
noise depends on the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N).

1.) Pulse Integration.  The receiver takes an average return strength over many pulses.  Random
events like noise will not occur in every pulse and therefore, when averaged,  will have a
reduced effect as compared to actual targets that will be in every pulse.

2.)  Sensitivity Time Control (STC).  This feature reduces the impact of returns from sea state.  It
reduces the minimum SNR of the receiver for a short duration immediately after each pulse is
transmitted. The effect of adjusting the STC is to reduce the clutter on the display in the region
directly around the transmitter.  The greater the value of STC, the greater the range from the
transmitter in which clutter will be removed.  However, an excessive STC will blank out potential
returns close to the transmitter. 

3.) Fast Time Constant (FTC).  This feature is designed to reduce the effect of long duration
returns that come from rain.  This processing requires that strength of the return signal must
change quickly over it duration.  Since rain occurs over and extended area, it will produce a long,
steady return.  The FTC processing will 
filter these returns out of the display.  Only pulses that rise and fall quickly will be displayed.  In
technical terms, FTC is a differentiator, meaning it determines the rate of change in the signal,
which it then uses to discriminate pulses which are not changing rapidly. 
3.  Power Supply.  The power supply provides the electrical power for all the components.  The
largest consumer of power is the transmitter which may require several kW of average power. 
The actually power transmitted in the pulse may be much greater than 1 kW.  The power supply
only needs to be able to provide the average amount of power consumed, not the high power
level during the actual 
pulse transmission.  Energy can be stored, in a capacitor bank for instance, during the rest time. 
The stored energy then can be put into the pulse when transmitted, increasing the peak power. 
The peak power and the average power are related by the quantity called duty cycle, DC.  Duty
cycle is the fraction of each transmission cycle that the radar is actually transmitting. 
Referring to the pulse train in Figure 2, the duty cycle can be seen to be:

2.) DC = PW / PRF

3.) Synchronizer. The synchronizer coordinates the timing for range

determination.

4.) It regulates that rate at which pulses are sent (i.e. sets PRF) and resets the timing
clock for range determination for each pulse.  Signals from the synchronizer are sent

5.)  simultaneously to the transmitter, which sends a new pulse, and to the display, 
which resets the return sweep.
 6.) Duplexer. This is a switch which alternately connects the transmitter or receiver to the
antenna. Its purpose is to protect the receiver from the high power output of the
transmitter. During the transmission of an outgoing pulse, the duplexer will be aligned to
the transmitter for the duration of the pulse, PW. After the pulse has been sent, the
duplexer will align the antenna to the receiver. When the next pulse is sent, the duplexer
will shift back to the transmitter. A duplexer is not required if the transmitted power is
low.

7.) Antenna. The antenna takes the radar pulse from the transmitter and puts it into the air.
Furthermore, the antenna must focus the energy into a well-defined beam which increases
the power and permits a determination of the direction of the target. The antenna must
keep track of its own orientation which can be accomplished by a synchro-transmitter.
There are also antenna systems which do not physically move but are steered
electronically (in these cases, the orientation of the radar beam is already known a
priori).

Basic Principle of Operation

The basic principle of operation of primary radar is simple to understand. However, the theory
can be quite complex. An understanding of the theory is essential in order to be able to specify
and operate primary radar systems correctly. The implementation and operation of primary
radars systems involve a wide range of disciplines such as building works, heavy mechanical and
electrical engineering, high power microwave engineering, and advanced high speed signal and
data processing techniques. Some laws of nature have a greater importance here.

Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made possible because of the properties of radiated
electromagnetic energy.

1. Reflection of electromagnetic waves

The electromagnetic waves are reflected if they meet an electrically leading surface. If
these reflected waves are received again at the place of their origin, then that means an
obstacle is in the propagation direction.
 
2. Electromagnetic energy travels through air at a constant speed, at approximately the
speed of light,
o 300,000 kilometers per second or
o 186,000 statute miles per second or
o 162,000 nautical miles per second.

This constant speed allows the determination of the distance between the reflecting
objects (airplanes, ships or cars) and the radar site by measuring the running time of the
transmitted pulses.
 

3. This energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and will vary only slightly
because of atmospheric and weather conditions. By using of special radar antennas this
 energy can be focused into a desired direction. Thus the direction (in azimuth and
elevation of the reflecting objects can be measured.

The information provided by radar includes the bearing and range (and therefore
position) of the object from the radar scanner. It is thus used in many different fields
where the need for such positioning is crucial. The first use of radar was for military
purposes: to locate air, ground and sea targets. This evolved in the civilian field into
applications for aircraft, ships, and roads.

In aviation, aircraft are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or
approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings. They can land in fog at
airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, in
which the plane's flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio landing
directions to the pilot.

Marine radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to prevent collision
with other ships, to navigate and to fix their position at sea when within range of shore or
other fixed references such as islands, buoys, and lightships. In port or in harbour, vessel
traffic service radar systems are used to monitor and regulate ship movements in busy
waters. Police forces use radar guns to monitor vehicle speeds on the roads.

Meteorologists use radar to monitor precipitation. It has become the primary tool for
short-term weather forecasting and to watch for severe weather such as thunderstorms,
tornadoes, winter storms, precipitation types, etc. Geologists use specialised ground-
penetrating radars to map the composition of the Earth's crust.

Information on Pulse Radar

A pulse radar transmits a sequence of short pulses of RF energy. By

measuring the time for echoes of these pulses scattered off a target to
return to the radar, the range to the target can be estimated by the pulse
radar.
     The major components of a pulse radar are:
    

 the transmitter, consisting of an oscillator and a pulse modulator;

    
 the antenna system, which passes electromagnetic energy from the
transitter to the transmission medium, and receives reflections from the
target;
    
 the receiver, which amplifies the signal received by the pulse radar and
detects returns from targets; and

 interfaces, including displays and interfaces to other electronic systems.