IAL Edexcel Chemistry Unit 2 (WCH12):

Energetics, Group Chemistry, Halogenoalkanes

and Alcohols (Part 2/5)
REALLYACADEMICS
Preface
● This series will be divided into 5 parts corresponding to the 5 topics in the 2018 specification
○ PART 1 - TOPIC 6: Energetics
○ PART 2 - TOPIC 7: Intermolecular Forces
○ PART 3 - TOPIC 8: Redox Chemistry and Groups 1, 2 and 7
○ PART 4 - TOPIC 9: Introduction to Kinetics and Equilibria
○ PART 5 - TOPIC 10: Organic Chemistry: Alcohols, Halogenoalkanes and Spectra
● This series will provide you with a means of last minute revision on [WCH12] IAL Edexcel
Chemistry Unit 2
● This series will aim to provide you with an revision in under 50 MINS
● All information here is a summary of the New Specification Book
● This series will not serve as a primary study material but as an adjunct to help you recall and
prepare as a last minute revision
● YOU CAN ALSO SUPPLEMENT THIS WITH MY OTHER VIDEOS ON FREQUENTLY ASKED
QUESTIONS OF UNIT 2
Preface
1. Understand the nature of the following intermolecular forces:
a. London forces (instantaneous dipole-induced dipole)
b. Permanent dipole-permanent dipole interactions
c. Hydrogen bonds
2. Understand the interactions in molecules, such as H2O, liquid NH3 and liquid HF, which give rise to
hydrogen bonding
3. Understand the following anomalous properties of water resulting from hydrogen bonding:
a. Iits high melting and boiling temperature when compared with similar molecules
b. The density of ice compared to that of water
4. Be able to predict the presence of hydrogen bonding in molecules analogous to those mentioned in 2
5. Understand, in terms of intermolecular forces, physical properties shown by substances, including:
a. The trends in boiling temperatures of alkanes with increasing chain length
b. The effect of branching in the carbon chain on the boiling temperatures of alkanes
c. The relatively low volatility (higher boiling temperatures) of alcohols compared to alkanes with a similar number of electrons
d. The trends in boiling temperatures of the hydrogen halides HF to HI
6. Understand factors that influence the choice of solvents, including:
a. Water, to dissolve some ionic compounds, in terms of the hydration of the ions
b. Water, to dissolve simple alcohols, in terms of hydrogen bonding
c. Water, as a poor solvent for compounds (to include polar molecules such as halogenoalkane), in terms of inability to form
hydrogen bonds
d. Non-aqueous solvents, for compounds that have similar intermolecular forces to those in the solvent
1. Understand the nature of the following intermolecular forces:
a. London forces (instantaneous dipole-induced dipole)
b. Permanent dipole-permanent dipole interactions
c. Hydrogen bonds
2. Understand the interactions in molecules, such as H2O, liquid NH3 and
liquid HF, which give rise to hydrogen bonding
4. Be able to predict the presence of hydrogen bonding in molecules
analogous to those mentioned in 2
Overview of non-bonded intermolecular interactions
● A number of interactions between molecules are considerably weaker
than typical covalent and polar covalent bonds.
● These interactions are usually described as:
○ ‘Non-bonded interactions’ or
○ ‘Intermolecular’ because they occur between molecules
● Types of intermolecular forces:
○ London forces
○ Permanent dipole interaction
○ Hydrogen bond
London Forces
● Each molecule in the diagram is non-polar because their distribution of
electron cloud is symmetrical.

● However, this electron density fluctuates over time and may result in a
dipole being formed
London Forces (Continued…)
● Molecule A becomes a dipole and induces a dipole on molecule B because of the
pulling of the electron cloud of molecule B by the partial charge of molecule A.

● There will be london force of attraction between the two molecules

● This fluctuations are instantaneous.
● London forces are always present between molecules.
○ This is the case whether or not they have a permanent dipole and whether or not they form
hydrogen bonds with each other.
London Forces (Continued…)
● Factors affecting the strength of london forces:
○ Number of electrons in the molecule
■ Increase in number of electrons —> stronger london forces
○ Shape and size of the molecules
■ The more points of contact there are between the molecules, the greater the overall
london force.
■ For example: straight chain molecules experience stronger london forces than
branched-chain molecules as they can pack much closer together.
Permanent Dipoles
● If the molecules possess permanent dipoles, they will also interact with one another.

● If the dipoles are aligned correctly, then ● If the dipoles are not aligned they may produce
there will be a favourable interaction and an unfavourable interaction
the two molecules will attract one another.
Summary

Name of interaction Origin

London forces Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole interaction

Permanent dipoles Permanent dipole-permanent dipole interaction

Hydrogen bond
● Hydrogen bonding is the strongest type of intermolecular force.
● Hydrogen bonds only act between hydrogen and the three most
electronegative atoms: nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine.
● The lone pair on these atoms form a bond with a 𝛿+ hydrogen atom from
another molecule.

1. Hydrogen bonding through oxygen

● All compounds containing an OH
group form intermolecular
hydrogen bonds.
2. Hydrogen bonding through nitrogen
● All compounds containing an NH
group can form intermolecular
hydrogen bonds.

3. Hydrogen bonding through fluorine

● The only fluorine compound with
intermolecular hydrogen
bonding is hydrogen fluoride.
3. Understand the following anomalous properties of
water resulting from hydrogen bonding
5. Understand, in terms of intermolecular forces, physical
properties shown by substances
6. Understand factors that influence the choice of
solvents
Boiling temperatures of alkanes - Unbranched
● The only intermolecular forces
present are ‘London Forces’
● There are 2 reasons for the
increase in boiling temperature
with increasing molecular mass:
○ As the molecular mass increases, the
number of electrons per molecule
increases —> instantaneous and
induced dipoles increases
○ As the length of the carbon chain
increases —> more number of places
for interaction.
The graph shows the relationship between the boiling
temperature and the relative molecular mass of the first
10 unbranched alkanes
Boiling temperatures of alkanes - Branched
● Branched chain alkanes have lower boiling temperatures than their
unbranched isomers
● The more the branching —> fewer point of contact between adjacent
molecules —> decrease in intermolecular force of attraction —> decrease
in boiling temperature
Boiling temperatures of alcohols
● They contain an OH group and can therefore form intermolecular
hydrogen bonds + London forces
○ Additional hydrogen bond increases the boiling temperatures.
● Hydrogen bond predominates for the first few members of the alcohol
group. However, when the chain length increases, london forces will
dominate.
Boiling temperatures of the hydrogen halides
● The graph shows the boiling
temperatures of the hydrogen halides
HF to HI.
● Only HF has hydrogen bond so its
boiling point is higher compared to
other hydrogen halides.
● The steady increase in boiling
temperature from HCl to HI is due to
the increase in electrons per molecule
—> increase in london forces.
Anomalous properties of water
● It has a relatively high melting and boiling temperature for a molecule
with so few electrons.
○ Due to hydrogen bonds, the overall intermolecular force increases significantly
● The density of ice at 0oC is less than that of water at 0oC
○ The molecules in ice are arranged in rings of six, held together by hydrogen bonds
○ The structure creates large areas of open space inside the rings.
○ When the ice melts, the ring structure is destroyed and the average distance
between the molecules decreases, causing an increase in density.
Boiling point trend between HF, H2O and NH3
Boiling Temperature Number of electrons per Strength of hydrogen bonding /
molecule kJmol-1

H2O 373 K (100oC) 10 22

NH3 240 K (-33oC) 10 17

HF 293 K (20oC) 10 29

● The hydrogen bond strength for HF is greater than the hydrogen bond strength for
H2O, however, its boiling temperature is lower. This is because:
○ HF forms two hydrogen bonds per molecule, whereas water molecules can form up to four hydrogen
bonds per molecule. This means that the hydrogen bonding is much more extensive in water.
○ Not all of the hydrogen bonds in HF are broken on vaporization, since HF is substantially polymerised,
even in the gas phase
● Ammonia has the lowest boiling temperature because it only has one lone pair for
bonding.
Criteria for dissolving a substance
● For a substance to be able to dissolve in a specific solvent, there are two
conditions:
○ The solute particles must be separated from each other and then become surrounded by
solvent particles
○ The forces of attraction between the solute and solvent particles must be strong enough
to overcome the solvent-solvent forces and the solute-solute forces.
Solvents
● Water is a popular choice of solvent. Its hydrogen bonding capabilities
allow it to dissolve some ionic compounds by solvating the individual ions,
and to dissolve some alcohols by forming hydrogen bonds with their
hydroxyl group
● However, both water and alcohols are poor solvents for the dissolving of
some polar molecules such as halogenoalkanes that cannot form
hydrogen bonds.
● Non-aqueous solvents are often used for compounds which have the
same type of intermolecular force.
○ Non-polar solvent will readily dissolve non-polar solutes
Practice Questions 1
Practice Question 1 Answer
Practice Question 2
Practice Question 2 Answers
 Other Videos
Part 3/5 IAL Chemistry Unit 2 FAQ