MODULE 7

REPORT
Introduction:
Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or
statisticians after analyzing information gathered by conducting
organized research.
Reports usually are spread across a vast horizon of topics but are
focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a
very niche target market. 
Meaning:
A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the
processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an
important document that serves as a first-hand account of the
research process, and it is typically considered an objective and
accurate source of information.
Features:
The following are some characteristics of a research report that
distinguish it from other types of academic texts.
1. clarity of thought and language
 It is one among the most essential characteristics of a research
report.
 It is important to highlight that research is a thought process
that begins even before choosing the topic of study.
 The reasoning power of the researcher is the effective tool for the
decisions that must be made throughout the process. 
 In this way, clear thinking results in clear writing. 
 This clarity will make the reader easily understand what the
author of the report wants to say.
2. Conceptual clarity
 The concepts in a study must be defined and explained.
 Therefore, it is important to be very explicit, even with that
terminology that seems to be very simple.
3. Explicit statement of the research problem
 The research report must establish the problem studied
explicitly and unambiguously.
   In the case of Quantitative investigation, the problem statement
must specify the variables and the population subject to study
and in the qualitative research, the approach is much broader
and indicates the general purpose of the study.
4. Organization and format
 Research reports must observe certain standards of format and
organization.
 The details of the format (type and size of source, margins, form
of citing sources, presentation of the list of references, among
others), are regulated by each institution.
 On the other hand, other characteristics, such as the general
organization, reflect the expectations of the scientific community.
In this way, it is expected that the report contains a general
summary, introduction (with the background and motivation of
the study), materials and methods, results and the analysis of
results.
5. Use of citations and list of references
  In research reports, an appointment should be suitably
included when referring, summarizing, paraphrasing or quoting
from another source. 
  the report must contain the list of references. These offer all the
necessary information to locate the sources.
Types of research report:
`1. Based on nature of research

 Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research. It outlines

the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of
systematic investigation.  It is is usually descriptive in nature.

 Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is

written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of
systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical
values in a bid to find answers to research questions. It works with
numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. 

2. based on purpose
 Informative reports

Unlike other research projects and papers, informative research

normally centres on something new, a new development on a recent
topic, or some facts that the particular audience did not know
before. It is not meant to present an argument, point of view or
opinion.

 Analytical reports

An analytical essay is a piece of writing that provides substantive

analysis of a topic. Analysis papers can be written about art, music,
literary works, current events, historical events, politics, scientific
research, and philosophy, among other topics.

3. Based on target audience

 Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present

after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly
specialized because it provides information for a technical audience;
that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of
study. 

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide

specific information about the research process, including statistical
analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly
specialized and filled with jargon. 

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical

research reports. 

 Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for
individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of
study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible
to everyone. 

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to

understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular
research reports are the information contained in newspapers and
magazines. 
For detailed answer: Technical & Popular reports: Type of Reports
(slideshare.net)

Importance of a Research Report 

 Knowledge Transfer:  one of the reasons for carrying out

research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and
this is made possible with a research report. A research report
serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a
systematic investigation to all and sundry.  
 Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, we
can identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research
report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas
needing systematic investigation. 
 Understanding market needs: In market research, a research
report would help you understand the market needs and
peculiarities at a glance. 
 Presentation of information: A research report allows you to
present information in a precise and concise manner. 
 Time efficiency: It is time-efficient and practical because, in a
research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the
findings of your research work in person.

Detailed answer: Importance & characteristics: Research Report.pdf

(jiwaji.edu)

Requisites of a good report:

13 Essential Characteristics or Features of a Good Report | Business
Consi (bconsi.blogspot.com)
Steps in writing a research report:
How to Write a Report in 7 Steps | Indeed.com
Components of a research report: PPT
Conclusion:
A research report is a reliable source to recount details about
conducted research and is most often considered to be a true
testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Introduction:
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of
questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview
consisting standardized questions which can be answered over the
telephone, through the post, or even online.
Definition:
According to Goode and Hatt, “It is a device for securing answers to
questions by using a form which the respondent fills in himself”.
Types:
1. Structured questionnaire:
According to P.V. Young structured questionnaires are those which
pose definite, concrete and pre-ordained questions, i.e., they are
prepared in advance and not constructed on the spot during the
questioning period. This questionnaire uses highly standardized
techniques and set of pre-determined questions.
It includes both closed and open-ended questions.
2. Unstructured questionnaire
Unstructured questionnaires are frequently referred to as ‘interview
guides’, also aim at precision and contain definite subject matters
area, the coverage of which is required during the interview.
The researcher is also having a greater freedom to ask any
supplementary question of the respondents.
This is characterized by a greater flexible approach in questioning the
respondents.
It is of a non-directive type which involves relatively much less
standardization of techniques and operation.
3. Pictorial questionnaire
Pictures have been used in some questionnaires in order to promote
some interest and motivation among the respondents for answering
the questions.
It is useful for those respondents who are least educated.
4. Computer questionnaire.

Respondents are asked to answer the questionnaire which is sent by

mail.
Advantage: inexpensive price, time-efficiency, and respondents do not
feel pressured, therefore can answer when they have time, giving more
accurate answers.

Shortcoming: sometimes respondents do not bother answering them

and they can just ignore the questionnaire.

5. Telephone questionnaire. 

Researcher may choose to call potential respondents with the aim of

getting them to answer the questionnaire.

Advantage: It can be completed during the short amount of time.

Disadvantage: It is expensive most of the time. Moreover, most people

do not feel comfortable to answer many questions asked through the
phone and it is difficult to get sample group to answer questionnaire
over the phone.

6. In-house survey. 

This type of questionnaire involves the researcher visiting respondents

in their houses or workplaces.

Advantage: more focus towards the questions can be gained from

respondents.

Disadvantages: time consuming, more expensive and respondents may

not wish to have the researcher in their houses or workplaces for
various reasons.

7. Mail Questionnaire.

This sort of questionnaires involves the researcher to send the

questionnaire list to respondents through post, often attaching pre-
paid envelope.

Advantage: provide more accurate answer, because respondents can

answer the questionnaire in their spare time.

Disadvantages: expensive, time consuming and sometimes they end

up in the bin put by respondents.

Types of questions in a questionnaire:

Open question questionnaires. Open questions differ from other
types of questions used in questionnaires in a way that open
questions may produce unexpected results, which can make the
research more original and valuable. However, it is difficult to analyze
the results of the findings when the data is obtained through the
questionnaire with open questions.

Multiple choice questions. Respondents are offered a set of answers

they have to choose from. The downsize of questionnaire with multiple
choice questions is that, if there are too many answers to choose from,
it makes the questionnaire, confusing and boring, and discourages the
respondent to answer the questionnaire.

Dichotomous Questions. Thes type of questions gives two options to

respondents – yes or no, to choose from. It is the easiest form of
questionnaire for the respondent in terms of responding it.

Scaling Questions. Also referred to as ranking questions, they

present an option for respondents to rank the available answers to
questions on the scale of given range of values (for example from 1 to
10).

Questionnaire wording, order, steps to design a questionnaire

Questionnaire Design | Methods, Question Types, Steps (scribbr.com)

Essentials of a good questionnaire: Write down the essential qualities

of a good questionnaire. from Statistics Use of Statistical Tools Class
11 Haryana Board - English Medium (zigya.com)

D/b reliability & validity: Difference Between Validity and Reliability

(with Comparison Chart) - Key Differences

Explanation for reliability & validity: Difference Between Validity and

Reliability - Pediaa.Com

Pre test & Pilot test: Distinguish between Pilot study and Pre-test -
(spykan.com)

Questionnaires as primary data collection method offer the following

advantages:

 Uniformity: all respondents are asked exactly the same questions

 Cost-effectiveness
 Possibility to collect the primary data in shorter period of time
  Minimum or no bias from the researcher during the data
collection process
 Usually enough time for respondents to think before answering
questions, as opposed to interviews
 Possibility to reach respondents in distant areas through online
questionnaire

At the same time, the use of questionnaires as primary data collection

method is associated with the following shortcomings:

 Random answer choices by respondents without properly

reading the question.
 In closed-ended questionnaires no possibility for respondents to
express their additional thoughts about the matter due to the
absence of a relevant question.
 Collecting incomplete or inaccurate information because
respondents may not be able to understand questions correctly.
 High rate of non-response

Q1. Explain Pure and Applied Research

Introduction:
Research is classified based upon many criteria, once such being the
goal of the research. Based on the goal of the research, it is classified
into 2 types: pure and applied.
Pure research: done without knowing the practical use and Applied
research: derive possible solutions to solve practical problems
Pure research:
 Fundamental/basic research
 Has no specific goal
 Aim: to increase knowledge
Identify the relationship between variable
 Uses: Helps to derive new ideas, theories, principles, etc.
 Basis for applied research
 Driven by curiosity, intuition, interest
 Future use
 Descriptive method
Applied research:
 Empirical research
 Goal to identify solutions to solve problems
 Explanatory method
  Based on the ideas, theories, principles derived from pure
research
 Current use
 Applied research is used in a variety of fields such as medicine,
technology, education, or agriculture. Studying the relationship
between genetics and cancer, observing the behaviour of
children to identify the effectiveness of various interventions are
some examples of applied research studies. 
Q3. Bring out the steps in formulating Research Problems.
Introduction:
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a
difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory,
or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.
Steps in formulation:

Identification of the problem

The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the
identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against
certain criteria, which may be grouped into:
Internal Criteria consists of:
1. Researcher’s interest: 2. Researcher’s own resource:
3. Researcher’s competence:
External Criteria
1.Research-ability of the problem: 2. Novelty of the problem: 3.
Importance and urgency:4. Facilities: 5. Feasibility:6. Usefulness and
social Relevance:
Definition of the problem
The definition of a problem amounts to specifying it in detail and
narrowing it down to workable size.
Each question and subordinate question to be answered is specified at
this stage and the scope and limits of investigation are determined.
Statement of the problem
A good statement of a problem must clarify exactly what is to be
determined or solved or what is the research question.
It must restrict the scope of the study to specific and workable
research questions.
So, you are required to describe the background of the study, its
theoretical basis and underlying assumptions, and specify the issues
in concrete, specific, and workable questions.
All questions raised must be related to the problem.
Each major issue or element should be separated into a subsidiary or
secondary elements, and these should be arranged in a logical order
under the major divisions
Operationalisation of variables
In stating a problem, the researcher should make sure that it is
neither stated in terms so general as to make it vague nor specified so
narrowly as to make it insignificant and trivial.
Variables should be properly operationalised to the social problem.
Evaluation of the problem
in the light of the competence and professional experience of the
researcher, possible difficulties in the availability of data, the financial
and field constraints, and limitations of time should be evaluated.
4 imp questions to be answered:
i) Is the problem researchable ii) Is the problem new iii) Is the problem
significant iv) Is the problem feasible for the particular researcher
Conclusion:
A research problem helps you formulate that sequence. Research problem also helps you
avoid unnecessary steps during the research. A research problem is the preliminary step in
conducting a research study. A research problem helps you understand the research
procedure in a better manner.

Q4. Explain hypothesis and the various types of Hypotheses.

Introduction:
Hypothesis is an assumption that is made on the basis of some
evidence.
This is the initial point of any investigation that translates the
research questions into a prediction.
It includes components like variables, population and the relation
between the variables.
Definition:

Research hypothesis:
A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the
relationship between two or more variables.
It tested using scientific methods that involve an independent and
some dependent variables.
Characteristics:
= clear & precise = capable of being tested = state relationship
between variables = specific = simple and understandable =
consistent = amendable = explain the facts that gave
rise to it
sources of hypothesis:
• Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and
from the competitors.
• Scientific theories.
 General patterns that influence the thinking process of people
Types:
1. Simple hypothesis - It shows a relationship between one
dependent variable and a single independent variable.
2. Complex hypothesis- It shows the relationship between two or
more dependent variables and two or more independent
variables
3. Directional hypothesis - It shows how a researcher is intellectual
and committed to a particular outcome. The relationship
between the variables can also predict its nature.
 4. Non-directional hypothesis - It is used when there is no theory
involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists between two
variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the
relationship.
5. Null hypothesis - It provides the statement which is contrary to
the hypothesis. It’s a negative statement, and there is no
relationship between independent and dependent variables.
6. Associative hypothesis- Associative hypothesis occurs when
there is a change in one variable resulting in a change in the
other variable.
7. Causal hypothesis - proposes a cause-and-effect interaction
between two or more variables
Following are the functions performed by the hypothesis:
1. Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments
possible.
2. It becomes the start point for the investigation.
3. Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
4. It helps in directing the inquiries in the right directions.
Difficulties in the Formulation of hypothesis:
1. Lack of clear theoretical background
2. Lack of logical background
3. Lack of knowledge of scientific method
4. Scientific theory
5. Analogies
6. Personal experience
Conclusion: