Mutations‌  ‌
● Random‌  ‌
● Inheritable‌‌(DNA‌‌gets‌‌passed‌‌down,‌‌you‌‌might‌‌get‌‌that‌‌segment)‌  ‌
● Permanent‌  ‌

If‌‌DNA‌‌is‌‌wrong,‌‌the‌‌mRNA‌‌will‌‌also‌‌code‌‌for‌‌the‌‌wrong‌‌protein,‌‌and‌‌thus‌‌the‌‌human’s‌‌cells‌‌
 
may‌‌be‌‌fundamentally‌‌different‌‌(dominoes)‌  ‌

- Could‌‌be‌‌somatic,‌‌so‌‌it‌‌only‌‌affects‌‌one‌‌generation‌‌full-on‌  ‌
- Could‌‌be‌‌in‌‌germ‌‌cells,‌‌which‌‌would‌‌mean‌‌many‌‌cells‌‌would‌‌get‌‌passed‌‌down‌‌and‌‌the‌‌
 
infant‌‌has‌‌a‌‌high‌‌chance‌‌of‌‌being‌‌affected.‌‌
   ‌

If‌‌it‌‌keeps‌‌getting‌‌passed‌‌down‌‌but‌‌it‌‌is‌‌advantageous‌‌(mutations‌‌get‌‌selected‌‌for)‌‌then‌‌that‌‌
 
could‌‌lead‌‌to‌‌evolution‌‌(antibiotic‌‌resistance‌‌and‌‌virus‌‌immunity‌‌etc.)‌‌
   ‌

- Covid:‌‌original‌‌strain‌‌mutated‌‌→‌‌multiple‌‌new‌‌variants‌‌
   ‌

Could‌‌be‌‌caused‌‌by:‌  ‌

- Error‌‌in‌‌replication/repair‌  ‌
- Radiation,‌‌chemicals‌  ‌

Mutagen:‌‌anything‌‌that‌‌causes‌‌a‌‌mutation‌  ‌

Teratogen:‌‌causes‌‌mutation‌‌in‌‌embryonic‌‌development‌‌(crosses‌‌placenta)‌‌
 
(eg:‌‌thalidomide)‌   ‌

Carcinogen:‌‌causes‌‌cancer‌‌(uncontrolled‌‌cell‌‌division/tumours)‌‌
   ‌

Cancer:‌  ‌

Oncogenes‌  ‌
● Cancer‌‌cells‌‌often:‌  ‌
○ Display‌‌nitrogen‌‌base‌‌substitutions‌‌    ‌
○ Some‌‌other‌‌cause‌‌of‌‌mutation‌‌in‌‌the‌‌cell‌  ‌
○ Inheritable‌‌(because‌‌it's‌‌in‌‌the‌‌genes)‌  ‌
● Oncogenes‌  ‌
○ Cancer‌‌causing‌‌genes‌‌that‌‌turn‌‌on‌‌cell‌‌division‌‌
   ‌
○ Lacking‌‌regular‌ ‌genes‌‌which‌‌produce‌‌repressor‌‌proteins‌‌(t‌ urn‌‌off‌s‌ tructural‌‌
 
genes)‌‌   ‌

Beneficial‌‌Mutations‌  ‌

● Gives‌‌organism‌‌a‌‌selective‌‌advantage‌‌   ‌
● Tends‌‌to‌‌become‌‌more‌‌common‌‌over‌‌time‌‌    ‌
● Leads‌‌to‌‌new‌‌evolutionary‌‌change‌‌
   ‌

 ‌
 ‌

Harmful‌‌mutations‌  ‌

● Reduce‌‌on‌‌individual’s‌‌fitness‌  ‌
● Tends‌‌to‌‌be‌‌selected‌‌against‌  ‌
● Occur‌‌at‌‌low‌‌rates‌‌
   ‌

Neutral‌‌mutations‌  ‌

● No‌‌benefit‌‌nor‌‌a‌‌cost‌‌
   ‌
● Not‌‌acted‌‌on‌‌by‌‌natural‌‌selection‌‌
   ‌

 ‌

Types:‌‌
   ‌

 ‌

Point‌  ‌
One‌‌nucleotide‌s‌ wapped‌‌‌for‌‌another‌  ‌
mRNA‌‌has‌‌one‌‌fault‌‌codon‌  ‌
One‌‌amino‌‌acid‌‌is‌‌wrong‌‌
   ‌ the‌‌position‌‌of‌‌each‌‌base‌‌within‌‌a‌‌group‌‌of‌‌3 ‌‌
Frameshift‌  ‌
The‌‌removal‌‌or‌‌addition‌‌(or‌‌both‌‌at‌‌seperate‌‌  
locations)‌‌of‌‌a‌‌nucleotide:‌‌same‌‌order,‌‌but‌‌ 
is‌‌different‌  ‌
 ‌
mRNA‌‌codons‌‌will‌‌all‌‌start‌‌and‌‌end‌‌with‌‌  
different‌‌bases‌‌and‌‌thus‌‌most‌‌amino‌‌acids‌‌  
will‌‌be‌‌wrong‌‌    ‌

Silent:‌‌different‌‌codon,‌‌same‌‌amino‌‌acid‌‌(redundancy‌‌comes‌‌in‌‌handy)‌‌    ‌
 ‌
Missense:‌‌different‌‌codon‌‌=‌‌different‌‌amino‌‌acid,‌‌but‌‌chain‌‌still‌‌keeps‌‌going‌‌after‌‌the‌‌one‌‌ 
problem‌  ‌
 ‌
Nonsense:‌‌different‌‌codon‌‌happens‌‌to‌‌be‌‌faulty‌‌or‌‌a‌‌stop‌‌codon;‌‌cuts‌‌the‌‌protein‌‌off‌‌too‌‌early‌‌
 
so‌‌synthesis‌‌never‌‌finishes‌‌as‌‌it‌‌should‌  ‌

  ‌
Types‌‌of‌‌DNA‌‌that‌‌can‌‌mutate‌  ‌

Mitochondrial‌‌DNA‌‌(mtDNA):‌‌circular‌‌and‌‌short‌‌fragment‌‌from‌‌DNA‌‌found‌‌within‌‌mitochondria‌‌  
instead‌‌of‌‌nucleus‌‌→‌‌signifies‌‌mitochondria‌‌might‌‌have‌‌lived‌‌as‌‌individual‌‌organisms‌‌before‌‌
 
evolving/getting‌‌swallowed)‌‌(endosymbiotic‌‌theory;‌‌they‌‌also‌‌have‌‌2‌‌membranes)‌‌    ‌

Always‌‌identical‌‌between‌‌mother‌‌and‌‌child:‌‌can‌‌trace‌‌maternal‌‌ancestry‌  ‌

 ‌
 ‌

Through‌‌this‌‌discovery,‌‌the‌‌Eve‌‌project‌‌has‌‌been‌‌developed:‌‌we‌‌can‌‌trace‌‌many‌‌people’s‌‌mtDNA‌‌to‌‌
 
find‌‌a‌‌common‌‌ancestor‌  ‌

 ‌

 ‌

 ‌

 ‌

 ‌

 ‌

 ‌

 ‌

 ‌