Class &Subject : VII English

Month & Year : April – June 2022-23

Term :I

Transformation of Sentence

It is possible to transform one type of sentence to another type without changing the meaning of
the sentence. This process is known as transformation of sentences.

Eg. A declarative sentence can be changed to the interrogative and vice versa.

o No one knows when the train will arrive in Delhi. (declarative)

o Does no one know when the train will arrive in Delhi? (interrogative)
o Is this the kind of dress to wear to school? (interrogative)
o This is not the kind of dress one should wear to school. (declarative)

Rules of transforming Affirmative into Negative Sentences or vice versa:

1. Sentences with ‘only/alone’, changes into ‘none but/nothing but/not more than/not less
than’ Examples: Affirmative: A brave man alone can do this.

Negative: None but a brave man can do this.

2. ‘Must/have to/can’ turns into ‘cannot but’

Examples: Affirmative: You have to drink clean water.

Negative: You cannot but drink clean water.

3. ‘And/both’ becomes ‘not only.... but also’

Example: Affirmative: He ate eggs and vegetables.

Negative: He ate not only eggs but also vegetables.

4. ‘Every’ becomes ‘there in no ...but’

Example: Affirmative: Every mother loves her child.

Negative: There is no mother but loves her child.

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5. In case of ‘everybody’, an affirmative sentence can also be changed into negative using
‘nobody’ and ‘opposite of verb/adjective’:

Example: Affirmative: Everybody likes flowers.

Negative: Nobody dislikes flowers.

6. ‘Always’ in affirmative becomes ‘never + opposite word’ in negative statements:

Example: Affirmative: I am always against of smoking.

Negative: I am never in favour of smoking.

7. Universal truths are changed into ‘interrogative negative sentences’:

Example: Affirmative: Knowledge is power

Negative: Isn’t knowledge power?

8. Many affirmative can be changed into negative by using negative word ‘Not’ and an
‘opposite word’ of the verb:

Example: Affirmative: I missed the train.

Negative: I could not catch the train.

9. ‘Sometimes’ in affirmative becomes ‘not always’ in negative:

Example: Affirmative: The poor are sometimes happy.

Negative: The poor are not always happy.

10. ‘Many’ becomes ‘not a few’:

Example: Negative: I don’t have many dolls.

Affirmative: I have a few dolls.

11. ‘Too..to’ in affirmative becomes ‘so ... that ...+ cannot + verb’:

Example: Affirmative: He is too weak to walk.

Negative: He is so weak that he cannot walk.

12. ‘As soon as’ in Affirmative becomes ‘No sooner had...than’ in Negative:

Example: Affirmative: As soon as he came, the students stood up.

Negative: No sooner had he came than the students stood up.

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 13. ‘As+ adjective + as’ in affirmative becomes ‘not less + adjective... than’ in negative
sentence:

Example: Affirmative: Rahim is as good as Karim.

Negative: Rahim is not less good than Karim.

Rules of Transforming Assertive into Interrogative Sentences:

1. In case of auxiliary verb:

Example: Affirmative: Smoking is a bad habit.
Interrogative: Isn’t smoking a bad habit?
2. Affirmative sentence without auxiliaries are changed into interrogative with ‘Wh’
question word + Do/did/Does:
Example: Affirmative: All hates a liar.
Interrogative: Who doesn’t hate a liar?
3. Nobody/none/never/no are changed into who + affirmative verb, and anybody/ever are
changed into who + negative verb:
Example: Assertive: None can deny the truth.
Interrogative. Who can deny the truth?
4. Questions with ‘do/did/does’:
Example: Negative: He said nothing about the matter.
Interrogative: Did he say anything about the matter?
5. ‘There is no.../nothing but’ becomes ‘who/what is...’:
Example: Negative: There is no use of this book.
Interrogative: What is the use of this book?
Negative: Our life is nothing but a struggle.
Interrogative: What is our life but struggle?
Rules of Transforming Assertive to Imperative Sentences:
1. Starting with a verb:
Example: Affirmative: You are ordered to go there.
Imperative: Go there.

2. Starting with ‘let’:

Example: Affirmative: You are commanded to let him go.
Imperative: Let him go.

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Rules of Transforming Affirmative to Exclamatory Sentences:
1. What a/how:
Affirmative: It is a great river.
Exclamatory: What a great river it is!
2. If I were/If had....:
Affirmative: I wish I were a king.
Exclamatory: If I were a king!

Exercise A Change the sentences from Affirmative into Interrogative

1. Nobody can do it.
___________________________________________________________________________
2. I can never forget you.
___________________________________________________________________________
3. You are a coward.
___________________________________________________________________________
4. He can do the work.
__________________________________________________________________________________
5. Everybody wants to be win.
___________________________________________________________________________
Exercise B: Change the sentences from Affirmative into Exclamatory
1. The night is very beautiful.
___________________________________________________________________________
2. It is a very wonderful scene.
___________________________________________________________________________
3. I wish I were a king.
___________________________________________________________________________
4. I wish I had the wings of a bird.
__________________________________________________________________________________
5. You draw very well.
___________________________________________________________________________
Exercise C: Change the sentences from Affirmative into Imperative
1. You should do the work.
___________________________________________________________________________
2. He should do the work.
___________________________________________________________________________
3. You should always speak the truth.

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 ___________________________________________________________________________
4. You are requested to help me.
___________________________________________________________________________
5. We should not break rules.
___________________________________________________________________________

Exercise D: Change the sentences into negative

1. He is honest.
_____________________________________________________________________
2. He won all the matches.
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Where there is fire, there is smoke.
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Jamil is the best student.
_____________________________________________________________________
5. As soon as the teacher arrived, the noise stopped.
_____________________________________________________________________

Exercise E: Change the sentences into affirmative

1. The old man is so weak that he cannot walk.

_____________________________________________________________________
2. None but the brave deserve the fair.
_____________________________________________________________________
3. No sooner had I reached the station than the train left.
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Nobody likes a liar.
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Not only Rina but also Rahim will go there.
_____________________________________________________________________

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 Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of comparison refers to adjectives being written in different forms to compare one, two
or more nouns which are words describing persons, places and things. The three different forms
of comparison are the positive, the comparative and the superlative.

The positive degree is the basic, uncompared form of an adjective or adverb, as opposed to
either the comparative or superlative. Also called the base form or the absolute degree. The
concept of positive degree in the English language is one of the simplest to grasp.
Examples: Mohan is a tall boy.
India is as powerful as China.
She is beautiful girl. ...

The Comparative degree is a syntactic construction that serves to express a comparison

between two (or more) entities or groups of entities in quality, or degree.
Examples: The train runs faster than the bus.
I am richer than he. ..

The Superlative Form of an adjective or adverb that is used to indicate the greatest degree of a
particular quality.
Example: Lead is the heaviest metal.
Ravi is the strongest boy in his class.

Fill in the blanks with the comparative or superlative form of the adjective given in the
brackets.

1. How is your mother today? Is she any …………………………..? (good)

2. In India, May is …………………………… than June. (hot)

3. Julie is ………………………….. than her sister. (pretty)

4. Who is the ………………………… girl in your class? (beautiful)

5. Which is the ………………………….. of all metals. (precious)

6. Her husband is ten years ……………………………… than her. (old)

7. All of us are bad singers, but I sing the ………………………….. of all. (bad)

8. I think you require a ………………………….. diet. (nutritious)

9. Which is the ………………………… part of India? (dry)

10. It was the ……………………….. moment of my life. (proud)

11. This summer is ………………… than the previous summer. (hot)

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12. Harsha is the ……………………………. boy in the class. (intelligent)

13. Name the ……………………. city in the world. (big)

14. Apples are ………………….. than oranges. (costly)

15. He is the …………………. Member in the Rajya Sabha. (old)

Rewrite as directed:

1. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world. (Comparative Degree)

__________________________________________________________________
2. Very few oceans are as deep as the Pacific. (Comparative Degree)
__________________________________________________________________
3. Ravi is taller than any other boy in the class. (Superlative Degree)
__________________________________________________________________
4. Silver is not as precious as gold. (Comparative Degree)
__________________________________________________________________
5. The pen is mightier than the sword. (Positive Degree)
__________________________________________________________________
6. No other animal is as ferocious as lion. (Superlative Degree)
__________________________________________________________________

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 Pronouns

A pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that is used as a substitution for a noun or noun phrase,
which is known as the pronoun’s antecedent.

Types of Pronouns

Pronouns can be divided into numerous categories including:

• Indefinite pronouns – those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or

places, such as someone, anybody, nothing. Eg: Anyone, Somebody, Whichever, Whoever,
Other, Something, Nobody

Eg: a. Would anyone like a coffee?

b. Take whatever you like. Jamie took one cookie and Ben took the other.

• Personal pronouns – those associated with a certain person, thing, or group; all except
you have distinct forms that indicate singular or plural number. Personal pronouns are always
specific and are often used to replace a proper noun (someone’s name) or a collective group of
people or things. Personal pronouns have two main groups, one referring to the subject of the
sentence and one to the object.

The first is used to replace the subject of the sentence: I, you, he, she, it, we, you and they.

For Eg: a. Jack and David are friends. They play basketball together.

The second group of pronouns replaces the object of the sentence: me, you, him, her, it, us, you,
them.

Consider the sentence: We will be late if you don’t hurry up.

In the above example, we is the subject of the sentence, but you is the object.

• Demonstrative pronouns – those used to point to something specific within a sentence.

There are only four demonstrative pronouns – this, that, these, those – but the usage can be a bit
tricky at times. This and that are singular, whereas these and those are plural.

a. I prefer this.

b. These are beautiful, but those belong to Danny.

• Possessive pronouns – those designating possession or ownership. Examples include:

mine, its, hers, his, yours, ours, theirs, whose. Consider the example:This cat is mine.

Mine is indicating possession, that the cat belongs to me.

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a. Are these bananas yours?

b. This money is ours.

• Interrogative pronouns –Those which introduce a question. Examples include: who,

whom, whose, what, which.

Some examples of interrogative pronoun

a. Who will come to the party?

b. Which do you prefer?

• Relative pronouns –those which refer to nouns mentioned previously, acting to

introduce an adjective (relative) clause. They will usually appear after a noun to help clarify the
sentence or give extra information. Examples include: who, which, that, whom, whose. Consider
the following sentence: The man who stole the car went to jail.

The relative pronoun who acts to refer back to the noun man. It acts to open a clause by
identifying the man as not just any man, but the one who stole the car. Some examples:

a. The table, which sits in the hallway, is used for correspondence.

b. The car that crashed into the wall was blue.

• Reflexive pronouns are formed by the addition of the suffix self (singular) or selves
(plural) to simple pronouns such as my, your, her, him, it, them and our.
When the subject and the object refer to the same person, a reflexive pronoun is used for the
object. For eg:

a. I cut myself. (Here the subject and the object refer to the same person – I.)

b. You cut yourself. (Here the subject and the object refer to the same person – you.)

c. She cut herself. (Here the subject and the object refer to the same person – she.)

• Emphatic pronouns When reflexive pronouns are used to put emphasis on a particular
noun they are called emphatic pronouns. For Eg:
a. He himself told me this.
b. I finished the job myself.
Difference between reflective and emphatic pronouns

A pronoun is a reflexive one if the action of the subject reflects upon the doer. Emphatic
pronouns, on the other hand, are used to just emphasize the action of the subject.

a. He cut himself. (Reflexive: here the subject and object refer to the same person.)

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 b. He himself cut the cake. (Emphatic: here the emphatic pronoun himself merely puts
emphasis on the noun he.)
Note that an emphatic pronoun can be removed from the sentence and the core meaning would
not be affected. A reflexive pronoun, on the other hand, is indispensable. The sentence wouldn’t
make complete sense if you remove the reflexive pronoun. For Eg.

He himself cut the cake. He cut the cake.

He cut himself. He cut …what?

In the first pair of sentences, the core meaning doesn’t change when the emphatic pronoun
himself is removed from the sentence. In the second pair of sentences, the meaning changes or
becomes incomplete when the reflexive pronoun is removed.

Exercise A: Choose the correct pronoun from the bracket

1. Did you ask David or _____. (I, me)

2. Sachin and ______ (I, me) went to the railway station.

3. Where is Diana? I want to see ____________. (she, her)

4. I am younger than _________. (he, him)

5. That book is hers; this is ______ (my, mine).

6. Are these books ________? (your, yours)

7. ___________ is the purpose of your visit? (whose/what)

8. ___________ is at the door? _________ do you wish to meet? (whom/who )

Exercise B: Join the sentences using relative pronoun

1. I have found the gold ring. I had misplaced it.

________________________________________________________________________
2. This is the house. I lived in it for many years.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Mars is 140 million miles away from Earth. It is called the Red Planet.
________________________________________________________________________
4. I mended the flower vase. I had broken it.
________________________________________________________________________
5. I have done something. I am not sorry for it.
________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise C: Underline the pronouns in the following sentences and state its kind

1. I myself heard his remarks.

2. We often deceive ourselves.
3. He himself said so.
4. I myself went to the market and bought it.
5. He himself painted the walls.
6. Raju did it himself.
7. Don’t touch that electric wire. You will hurt yourself.
8. I will give myself five days to finish that job.

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 Subject - Verb Agreement
*A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. In other words, the verb should be of
the same number as the subject in a sentence.
*Two or more singular subject joined by ‘and’ take a plural verb.
Ex: Rajani and Rita have come.
My sister and I went to the market.
Note: 1. Sometimes two subjects are regarded as presenting one idea, then the verb will be
singular.
Ex: Slow and steady wins the race.
Bread and butter is wholesome food.
*Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘or’ ‘nor’ ‘either…….or’ ‘neither……..nor, take
a singular verb.
Ex: Either he or she is present.
Any boy or girl sees it at once.
Neither you nor me is wrong.
*If two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’, the verb is singular.
Ex. Each boy and each girl looks so fresh.
Every man and every woman in the village is terrified.
*If two nouns are joined by ‘with’ or ‘as well as’, the verb agrees with the first noun. In other
words, if the verb is singular, even if the sentence noun is plural.
Ex. Rama, as well as his friend, has won the prize.
The king with all his ministers, was killed.
*A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb according to the sense. If the idea of oneness is
expressed, the verb must be singular, if the individuals of the collection are referred to the verb
must be plural.
Ex. The jury (= men of the jury) were divided in their opinions.
The jury (= one body) has elected its president.
*Two singular nouns qualified by ‘each and every’, even though connected by and must be
followed by a verb in the singular.
Ex. Each boy and each girl was given a prize.
Every man and every woman in the village knows him.
*When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole, the verb
is generally singular.
Ex. Ten kilometers is not a long distance these days. (not are)
Four weeks is a good holiday. (not are)
*A similar rule applies to titles of book and names of sciences.
Ex. The Arabian Nights is an interesting book. (not are)
The United States has a big army. (not have)
*When the subject is ‘one of’, followed by a plural noun. (one of the pupils, one of the players),
the verb is singular, to agree with one.
Ex. One of the boys in our class has won a prize.
*But two of, many of, several of, the majority of, must be followed by a plural verbs.
Ex. Two of the boys in our class have won prizes.
The majority of the boys like playing football.

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*A lot of, plenty of, some of, half of, most of, take a plural verb if the reference is to number ( that
is, to things that are countable). But they will take a singular verb if the reference is to amount or
quantity, (that is non-countable).
Ex. A lot of work still remains to be done.
Most of the houses in the street are old.
Half of the mangoes were sour.
Some of the luggage was spoilt by the rain.
*A number of ‘is always followed by a plural verb, since it means several or many.
Ex. There have been a number of accidents this year.
A large number of books are missing from the library.
A great deal of, a good deal of, a large quantity of, are always followed by a singular verb, since
these expressions denote amount or quantity.
Ex. A great deal of money was spent on the repairs of the old house.

Exercise:

1. Either the photographer or her companions (was/were) to see the gorilla.

2. Some of our luggage (was/were) lost.
3. Billy (swim/swims) in the cold water often.
4. None of his advice (make/makes) sense.
5. Almost everybody (has/have) some difficulty with writing.
6. Each (serve/serves) a different purpose.
7. He (is/are) my boss and friend.
8. The twins and their parents (travel/travels) together.
9. The good students (try/tries) hard in class.
10. We (have/has) a lot of homework today.

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 Class &Subject : VII English
Month & Year : September – November 2022-23
Term : II

TENSES

Present Tense

Present tense is a grammatical term used for verbs that describe an action happening in the
present time. An example of present tense is "I eat."

Simple Present Tense

Simple present tense is used to talk about habitual or usual actions in the present and it also talks
about daily event or universal fact. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a scheduled event or
something that often happens.
Structure: (Subject + 1st form of verb +(s, es or ies) + Object)
Examples:
*For habits: He drinks tea at breakfast.
They watch television regularly.
*For repeated actions or events: We catch the bus every morning.
It rains every afternoon in the hot season. ...
*For general truths.: Water freezes at zero degrees.
The Earth revolves around the Sun.

Present Progressive Tense

The Present Progressive Tense indicates continuing action, something going on. This tense is
formed with the helping ‘to be’ verb, in the present tense, plus the present participle of the verb
(with an -ing ending):

Structure: (subject + am/is/are +verb + ing + object)

Examples:

I am buying all my family's Christmas gifts early this year.

She is working through the holiday break.

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Present Perfect

Present perfect tense combines the present tense and the perfect aspect used to express an event
that happened in the past that has present consequences. This tense is used to show a link
between the present and past and is commonly used in everyday conversations, in the news, on
the radio, and when writing letters.

Structure: (subject + have/has + verb(3) + object)

Examples: She has lived here all her life.

They have written three letters already.
I have worked here since I graduated school.
He has finished his homework.
We have been to Canada.

Present Perfect Progressive

The present perfect continuous is used to refer to an unspecified time between 'before now' and
'now'. The speaker is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in that
period of time. He/she is interested in the process, as well as the result, and this process may still
be going on, or may have just finished.

Structure: (subject + have/has +been + verb + ing + object)

She has been cooking since last night

I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (= and I still haven't finished it).
They have been travelling since last October (= and they're not home yet).

Past Tense

In English, the past tense (or preterite) is one of the inflected forms of a verb. The past tense of
regular verbs is made by adding -d or -ed to the base form of the verb, while those of irregular
verbs are formed in various ways (such as see→saw, go→went, be→was/were).

Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense, is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now. The simple
past is the basic form of past tense in English. The time of the action can be in the recent past or
the distant past and action duration is not important.

Structure: (Subject + 2nd form of verb + Object)

Examples: John Cabot sailed to America in 1498.

My father died last year.
He lived in Fiji in 1976.

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 We crossed the Channel yesterday.

Past Progressive

The past continuous tense is formed by combining the past tense of ‘to be’ (i.e., was/were) with
the verb's present participle (-ing word). There are many situations in which this
verb tense might be used in a sentence. For example, it is often used to describe conditions that
existed in the past.

Structure: (subject + was/were + ing + object)

Examples: We were camping when I got stung by a bee.

When I visited him in the hospital, he was snoring loudly.
While he was reading the newspaper, he fell asleep.
While I was talking to him, his gaze was somewhere else.

Past Perfect

The past perfect tense indicates that an action was completed (finished or "perfected") at some
point in the past before something else happened. This tense is formed with the past tense
form of ‘to have’ (HAD) plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or
irregular in form):The past perfect tense is used to show that something happened before another
action in the past. It can also be used to show that something happened before a specific time in
the past.

Structure: (subject + had + verb(3) + object)

Examples: She had met him before the party.

The plane had left by the time I got to the airport.
I had written the email before he apologized.

Past Perfect Progressive

This tense indicates a continuous action that was completed at some point in the past.
This tense is formed with the modal ‘had’ plus ‘been’, plus the present participle of the verb
(with an -ing ending): I had been working in the garden all morning.

The duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past.

Structure: (subject + have/has +been + verb + ing + object)

Examples: They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.
She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.

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 Future Tense

A tense expressing an action that has not yet happened or a state that does not yet exist.

Simple Future Tense

The simple future refers to a time later than now and expresses facts or certainty. In this case
there is no 'attitude'. It is used to predict a future event, to express willingness, etc.

Structure: (Subject + will/shall + verb (1) + Object)

Examples: It will rain tomorrow.

Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
You will do exactly as I say.

Future Progressive

The future progressive tense indicates continuing action, something that will be happening, going
on, at some point in the future.

Structure: (subject + am/is/are +verb + ing + object)

Examples: I will be running in next year's Boston Marathon.

What will they be doing all night long?
I will be watching TV when you call me this evening.

Future Perfect

The future perfect tense indicates that an action will have been completed (finished or perfected)
at some point in the future.

Structure: (subject + have/has + verb(3) + object)

Examples: I will have spent all my money by this time next year.
He will have worked here for 10 years by the end of this year.

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Future Perfect Progressive

The future perfect continuous is composed of two elements. The future perfect continuous refers
to events or actions that are currently unfinished but will be finished at some future time. It is
most often used with a time expression.

Structure: (subject + will/shall + have +been + verb + ing + object)

Examples: I will have been waiting here for three hours by six o'clock.
By 2001 I will have been living in London for sixteen years.
When I finish this course, I will have been learning English for twenty years.

1. We ___________ TV when it started to rain. (to watch)

2. I ____________ to visit you yesterday, but you __________not at home. (to want) (to be)
3. Look! It ___________ so we can't __________to the beach. (to rain) (to go)
4. There are a lot of clouds! It __________ soon. (to rain)
5. The sun _______________ in the east. (to rise)
6. Since 2011 they _______________ their son every year. (to visit)
7. While the doctor ____________ Mr Jones, his son ______________outside this
morning. (to examine) (to wait)
I. Fill in the blanks with simple present or present continuous tense.
1. Mr Ghosh _______________(look) for a new apartment.
2. Who among you ________________ (bake) the Christmas cake this year?
3. I always _________________(tell) the truth.
4. She _____________ (go) to Cuba for ten days.
5. The teacher ________________________(check) our homework now.
6. Kania ___________________(prefer) chocolates to yoghurt.

II. Fill in the blanks with simple past or past continuous tense
1. As he ______________________(climb) up the ladder, he suddenly _______(fall) down.
2. When the mechanic _______________(arrive), I was already at work.
3. The plumber _________________(discover) the fault when
he_______________________(investigate) the matter.
4. The bus _____________(leave) an hour ago.
5. I____________________ (feel) cold as I _______________________(not wear) a jacket.

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III. Fill in the blanks with simple past, present perfect or present perfect continuous
tense.
1. Mr Raj _______________to his new flat in 2015. (shift)
2. He just ____________the latest edition of a science book. (just buy)
3. I __________________(leave) the house quite early today.
4. ___________he ______________to you lately? (write)
5. They ____________________________clothes for sometime. (wash)
6. We _____________________our dinner. You may ___________yours (eat)
7. Salman ________________________________ skiing. He’s quite good at it. (take)
8. My friend ______________________(buy) a new computer. I ____________________to
see it for some days. (wait)
IV. Fill in the blanks with past tense of the verb.
1. I ___________________asleep when someone knocked on the door. (fell)
2. The play _____________________before I reached the theatre. (begin)
3. Karan __________________with a band until he decided to start his own business. (sing)
4. Sunita _____________________(wait) for her friend for over an hour before
she______________. (come)
5. After they ______________the marathon, the boys felt tired. (run)
6. When we arrived at the party, everyone else had_____________. (leave)
V. Fill in the blanks with future tense.
1. I __________________at the event this evening. (dance)
2. The train ____________________at 9:30 am (leave)
3. I ______________________________my mother next week. (visit)
4. We believe that all the flowers _____________________by the time winter arrives.
(bloom)
5. In 2020, Miss Rose ____________________in this house for 20 years. (live)

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 Finite and Non-finite Verbs

Gerunds

A gerund is a noun made from a verb. To make a gerund, you add "-ing" to the verb.

For example: In the sentence "I swim every day", the word "swim" is a verb.

In the sentence "I like swimming", the word "swimming" is a noun. Therefore, "swimming" is a
gerund.

The gerund as the subject of the sentence: A gerund can be used as subject of a sentence.

For Eg: a. Hunting tigers is dangerous. b. Flying makes me nervous.

The gerund as the complement of the verb 'to be': For Eg: One of his duties is attending
meetings.

The gerund after prepositions: The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a
preposition. This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, for example the
expressions in spite of & there's no point in. Some examples are:

Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?

She is good at painting.

As the complement of a verb: For eg: What I dislike the most is screaming.
Like a verb, it may act as an object. For eg: She believes in talking rubbish.
After such verbal phrases as: keep on; leave off; give up etc
For Eg: Keep on trying
Gerunds are also used as simple nouns. For eg: Partings are always painful
Exercise: Fill in the blank with the gerund form of the words in the bracket

1. Children do not enjoy __________ (go) to the dentist.

2. I hate ____________ (borrow) money.
3. Would you mind _______________ (write) your address here?
4. Stop ______________ (arguing) and start ________________ (think)
5. He is thinking of _____________ (make) his will.
6. Is there anything here worth _____________ (buy)
7. It is of no use _______________ (cry) over spilt milk.

20
 Infinitives

To sneeze, to smash, to cry, to shriek, to jump, to drink, to read, to eat, etc. are infinitives.
An infinitive will almost always begin with to followed by the simple form of the verb:
To + verb= infinitive
Note: As an infinitive is not a verb, you cannot add s, es, ed, or –ing to the end.

Infinitives can be used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs.

Examples.
1. To sleep is the only thing Eli wants after his double shift waiting tables at the neighborhood
cafe.
To sleep functions as a noun because it is the ‘subject’ of the sentence.
2. No matter how fascinating the biology dissection is, Emanual turns his head and refuses to
look.
To look functions as a noun because it is the ‘direct object’ for the verb refuses.

Recognize an infinitive even when it is missing the ‘to’.

An infinitive will almost always begin with to. Exceptions do occur, however. An infinitive will
lose its to when it follows certain verbs. These verbs are feel, hear, help, let, make, see, and
watch.
The pattern: Special verb+ Direct Object +Infinitive - to

Examples:
As soon as Theodore felt the rain splatter on his hot, dusty skin, he knew that he had a good
excuse to return the lawn mower to the garage.
Felt = special verb; rain = direct object; splatter = infinitive minus the to

When Danny heard the alarm clock buzz, he slapped the snooze button and borrowed under the
covers for ten more minutes of sleep.
Heard = special verb; alarm clock = direct object; buzz =infinitive minus the to

Exercise: Join each pair of sentences by using infinitives:

1. He did not have even a penny with him. He could not buy a loaf of bread.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Every cricket team has a captain. He leads other players.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. You must part with your belongings. Only on this condition you can save your life.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

4. He went to England. He wanted to learn English.

21
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. The robber took out a knife. He wanted to frighten the traveller.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. I speak the truth. I am not afraid of it.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. He wants to be a millionaire. He works hard for that reason.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. He has five children. He must provide for them.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Exercise: Fill in the blank with the correct infinitives:

1. like ___________ (leave) home before 8.15 in the morning

2. Fortunately I remembered _________ (bolt) the door.
3. Nobody owned up __________ (take) the bag.
4. It is considered _________ (be) one of the nicest cities in England.
5. Lata likes______________(live) a happy life.
6. Mother tried ___________(bake) a pie on Friday.

Participles

A participle is a word formed from a verb which can be used as an adjective.

The two types of participles are the present participle (ending ‘ing’) and the past participle
(usually ending –ed, d, -t, -en, or- n)

Some participles being used as adjectives are:

The verb The Past Participle The Present Participle

To rise the risen sun the rising sun

To boil the boiled egg the boiling egg

To break the broken news the breaking news

Present Participles:
Present participles end in- ‘ing’.

22
 Example: boiling water

Past Participles:
Past participles have various endings, usually –‘ed’, -‘d’, -‘t’, -‘en’, or –‘n’.’
Example: broken window

Perfect Participle
Perfect participles are formed like this
“Having” + (past participles)
Example: having taken

Exercise:
Write the participles for the following verbs:

Present Participle Past Participle Perfect Participle

Work
Go
Come

Exercise A: Fill in the correct participle form. (Present Participle, Past Participle or
Perfect Participle):

1. He was sitting in an armchair ___________ a magazine. (reading/read)

2. _____________ in the company for many years, he knew everyone and everything. (having
worked/working)
3. The cup _________________ with milk stood on the table. (filled/having filled)
4. _______________ each other for ages, they had a lot to talk about. (not seen / not having seen)
5. ________________ into a rich family, she got everything she wished for. (born / having born)
6. ______________ the child of poor people, he often went to bed hungry. (being / having been)
7. _____________ his words, he apologized. (regretting / having regretted)
8. Well ______________ , we are very proud of you. (done / doing)
9. _______________ the car, he went to a restaurant.(parking / having parked)
________________ the film a dozen times, she knew the dialogues by heart. (having watched /
watched)

Exercise B: Combine the sentences using the participles

1. He hurt his leg. He stopped walking.

________________________________________________________________________

2. He was unwilling to make another attempt. He decided to quit.

23
 ________________________________________________________________________

3. The magician took pity on the mouse. He turned it into a cat.

________________________________________________________________________

4. He lost a large amount of money. He gave up gambling.

_______________________________________________________________________

5. I received no reply. I sent another letter.

_______________________________________________________________________

6. He wife encouraged him. He persevered.

_______________________________________________________________________

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Verbs in English can be divided into two groups: Transitive verbs and Intransitive verbs.

TRANSITIVE VERBS

Transitive verbs require an object to complete their meaning.

For Eg consider the sentence ‘I bought.’ This sentence is incomplete. There is information that is
missing.You are probably wondering what I bought. This sentence is incomplete because
BOUGHT (the past of buy) is a transitive verb and a transitive verb needs an object after it to
complete the sentence. The object after a transitive verb can be a noun or a pronoun.

he man stole a bike.

We need to say WHAT the man stole in order to understand the sentence/situation. Steal (stole is
the past tense of steal) is a transitive verb. The object in this sentence is the bike.

So transitive verbs need an object after them. This object receives the action of the verb.

Transitive verbs always ask “what?” or “whom?”

For Eg: What did you buy? – I bought a car.

Whom did she invite? – I invited Angelica.

Subject + transitive verb + object

24
INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Intransitive verbs cannot have a direct object after them. The subject is doing the action of the
verb and nothing receives the action. An intransitive verb does not pass the action to an object.

For Eg: He arrived.

Here we cannot have an object after the intransitive verb arrive.

An intransitive verb expresses an action that is complete in itself and it doesn’t need an object to
receive the action.

For Eg: The baby smiled.

Here we cannot have an object after the intransitive verb smiled.

Verbs that are Transitive and Intransitive

Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive. They can be transitive in one sentence and
intransitive in another sentence. (These are called ambitransitive verbs)

For Eg: You have grown since I last saw you. (intransitive)

You have grown a beard since I last saw you. (transitive)

Sometimes the meaning changes depending on whether the verb is transitive or intransitive

For Eg: He runs along the beach every morning (intransitive: run – the action/sport)

He runs a small grocery store (transitive: run = manage)

The plane will take off in five minutes. (intransitive: take off = to leave the ground and
begin to fly)

Exercise: State whether the verbs in the following sentences are used transitively or
intransitively.

1. Heat expands metals.

2. Metals expand on heating.

3. The driver stopped the car.

4. The car stopped abruptly.

5. You must speak the truth.

6. You must speak loudly.

25
7. The boy is flying the kite.

8. The birds are flying in the sky.

9. The rider fell off the horse and broke his arm.

10. The woodcutter felled a huge tree.

Exercise: Underline the verb in each sentence and state whether it has been used
transitively or intransitively. If the verb is transitive, identify the direct and indirect object
of the verb.

1. Some ants fight fiercely.

2. The explosion sank the ship.

3. He spoke the truth.

4. He spoke loudly.

5. Boil the water.

6. The motorman stopped the train.

7. The horse kicked the boy.

8. The sun rises in the morning.

26
 Adverbs

Adverbs describe verbs (actions). They give more detail about the action.

My cat eats slowly.

The word ‘slowly’ is an adverb since it describes the way my cat eats.

of Adverbs

Exercise: Change the given adjectives into adverbs

1. Jake plays ____________ in the garden. (happy)

2. Mr Brown drives ________________. (bad)

3. Pete runs ____________. (fast)

4. Jake does his homework_______________. (slow)

5. They ran out of the cinema ________________. (quick)

6. We did the test _____________. (good)

There are many types of adverbs. Some are:

Adverbs of Place/Location -give us information about where an action takes place

For Eg: here, there, above, everywhere

Adverbs of Manner – tells us how or in what manner an action is done.

For Eg: carefully, slowly, loudly

Adverbs of Time – gives us information about when an action takes place.

For Eg: tomorrow, now, this year, next week, soon, then

Adverbs of Degree – express the strength/intensity of an action. They answer the question how
much, how far, and to what extent

For Eg: very, extremely, rather, almost, nearly, too, quite, almost, enough, much, more, most

Adverbs of Frequency – gives us information about how often an action takes place

For Eg: always, sometimes, never, once a week, hourly, etc.

Exercise: Choose adverbs from the box below to fill in the blanks. Also, identify their type

27
Politely, often, inside, outside, hence, yesterday, surely, tomorrow, when, where, therefore,
where

1. He left for London _________________. ____________________

2. Please tell him that we are waiting ________________._________________
3. He ___________ told us to come __________________.
_________________,__________________
4. We ________________meet our former teacher in the neighbourhood.
___________________
5. Please tell her _____________ you plan to see her. _______________
6. You can ______________ have a word with the boss. _______________
7. ________________ is she going? __________________

Position of adverbs

The position of adverbs in a sentence is different for different kinds of adverbs. Adverbs can be
placed at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.

i. At the beginning: Before the subject of the sentence. It gives information in advance,
to set the scene for the action that follows.
For Eg: Yesterday, I was planning to meet you.
ii. In the middle: If there is an auxiliary verb, the adverb is placed between the auxiliary
and main verb For Eg: She resolved she would never see him again.)
If there is a negative auxiliary, the adverb normally goes after the negative element
For Eg: We don’t usually go to restaurant on Sundays.
We can also emphasize negation by placing the adverb just before it
For Eg: She probably won’t meet him.
iii. At the end: Adverbs are placed at the end. Adverbs of manner, place, time and
frequency can be placed at the end of a clause if the focus is not on the adverb.
For Eg: She sings well. He goes to the mall often.
iv. Adverbs as modifiers: When the adverbs modify an adjective or another adverb, they
are usually placed just before the word they modify.
For Eg: Dinesh walked very quickly towards the teacher.

Exercise: Place the given adverbs in appropriate position

1. I catch a cold. (often)

________________________________________________________________________
2. We don’t recruit students who are pursuing full-time education. (usually)

28
 ________________________________________________________________________
3. The lights went off. (suddenly)
________________________________________________________________________
4. He accepted the invitation. (never)
________________________________________________________________________
5. I go for a walk in the evening. (usually)
________________________________________________________________________
6. He comes back early. (normally)
________________________________________________________________________
7. We meet our cousins. (occasionally)
________________________________________________________________________
8. She is wrong. (seldom)
________________________________________________________________________

Comparison of Adverbs

Like adjectives, adverbs too have three degrees of comparison. Adverb of one syllable form their
comparative by adding -er and their superlatives by adding -est to the positive.
For Eg: soon sooner soonest
We can compare adverbs of manner, time and degree only.
Adverbs ending in -ly form their comparative and superlative by more and most
For eg: wise more wisely most wisely
Some adverbs form the degrees of comparison in an irregular manner
For Eg: late later latest
Exercise: Fill in the blanks with the correct degree of adverbs given in the bracket.

1. King Solomon was the ___________ of all the men. (wise)

2. He who works ____________ will bear the frit of his labour. (hard)

3. Harsh stood _________ the lion but Varsha stood ___________ (near)

4. I came _______________but my teacher was _____________than me. (early)

5. Of all the students Kamla spoke the ______________ on the topic. (long)

29
6. I know _______, she knows ____________, but he knows the __________. (little)

7. Dolly has a _________ voice, Ninni has a _______voice but Jani has the

____________voice among them. (sweet)

30
 Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words which join phrases, clauses and sentences. There are three types of
conjunctions in English: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions and subordinating
conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunctions: allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal
grammatical rank in a sentence. The most common coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, and so; you can remember them by using the mnemonic device FANBOYS.

For Eg: I’d like pizza or a salad for lunch.

We needed a place to concentrate, so we packed up our things and went to the library.

Jesse didn’t have much money, but she got by.

Correlative Conjunctions: are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Some examples are
either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also.

For Eg: Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing my history
essay.

Subordinating Conjunctions: join independent and dependent clauses. A subordinating

conjunction can signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast, or some other kind of
relationship between the clauses. Common subordinating conjunctions are because, since, as,
although, though, while, and whereas. Sometimes an adverb, such as until, after, or before can
function as a conjunction.

For Eg: I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.

Here, the adverb until functions as a coordinating conjunction to connect two ideas: I can stay
out (the independent clause) and the clock strikes twelve (the dependent clause). The
independent clause could stand alone as a sentence; the dependent clause depends on the
independent clause to make sense.

The subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the middle of the sentence. It has to be part
of the dependent clause, but the dependent clause can come before the independent clause. For
Eg: Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.

If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before the independent clause.

For Eg: I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty. Because I was thirsty, I drank a glass of
water.

31
Exercise A: Fill in the blanks with an appropriate conjunction.

1. He fled ……………… he was afraid. (for / and)

2. ……………… you try, you will not succeed. (Unless / If)
3. Wait ………………….. I return. (till / when)
4. He finished first ……………….. he started late. (though / even if)
5. She is older …………….. I thought. (than/because)
6. He stayed at home ………………. he was ill.(because/ unless)
7. ……………….. he was industrious, I encouraged him. (as/ and)
8. He was acquitted ………………. there was no evidence against him. (since/ when)
9. He lost his balance ……………… fell off the bicycle. (and/or)
10. Water ……………. oil do not mix. (and/or)
Exercise B: Complete each sentence using the subordinating conjunction from the
parenthesis:

1. I visit the Grand Canyon _________ I go to Arizona. (once, whenever, wherever)

2. This is the place _________ we stayed last time we visited. (where, when, how)
3. _________ you win first place, you will receive a prize. (wherever, if, unless)
4. You won’t pass the test _________ you study. (when, if, unless)
5. I could not get a seat, _________ I came early. (as, though, when)
6. We are leaving Wednesday _________ or not it rains. (if, whether, though)

Exercise C: Complete each sentence using the correct correlative conjunction pair from the
parenthesis:

1. I plan to take my vacation _________ in June _________ in July. (whether / or, either /
or, as / if)
2. _________ I’m feeling happy _________ sad, I try to keep a positive attitude. (either / or,
whether / or, when / I’m)
3. _________ had I taken my shoes off _________ I found out we had to leave again. (no
sooner / than, rather / than, whether / or)
4. _________ only is dark chocolate delicious, _________ it can be healthy. (whether / or,
not / but, just as / so)

32
5. _________ I have salad for dinner, _____________________I can have ice cream for
dessert. (if /then, when / than, whether / or)
6. _________ flowers _________ trees grow during warm weather. (not only / or, both /
and, not / but)
7. _________ do we enjoy summer vacation, _________ we _________ enjoy winter break.
(whether / or, not only / but also, either / or)
8. Calculus is _________ easy _________ difficult. (not / but, both / and, either / or)

Ex 3.

Fill in the blanks with coordinating conjunctions

1. Would you rather have cheese _____ bologna on your sandwich?

For
Nor
Or
So

2.His two favorite sports are football ______ tennis.

Or
And
Nor
For

3.I wanted to go to the beach, _______ Mary refused.

But
Or
So
For

33
4.I am allergic to cats, ______ I have three of them.
Or
For
Yet
So

5. I am a vegetarian, ______ I don’t eat any meat.

So
Yet
Nor
But

6. Thomas will be late to work, _____ he has a dental appointment.

A. but
B. or
C. for
D. nor

7. Jennifer does not like to swim, ____ does she enjoy cycling.
A. and
B. or
C. but
D. nor

8. Jackson wanted to eat another piece of cake, ____ he was on a diet.

A. for
B. but
C. yet
D. so

34
 Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences

The sentences are classed in three categories depending on the number and types of finite

Clauses: Simple, Compound and complex sentences

i) Simple Sentence

The sentence contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.

Example: Rahman (subject) plays (verb) football every afternoon.

In this type of sentence, there is only one independent clause and there might be multiple
dependent clauses joined by non-finite verbs. But there can be only one finite verb.

Example: While going (non-finite verb: present participle) there, I (subject) met (finite verb)
him. Despite being (non-finite verb: present participle) sick, he attended (finite verb) the
meeting.

ii) Compound Sentence

In this type of sentence, there are multiple independent clauses and no dependent clause. All the
clauses are joined together by coordinating conjunctions. Such sentences have two finite verbs
and two subjects.

Example: I (subject) tried (finite verb) to speak Spanish, and my friend (subject) tried (finite
verb) to speak English.

iii) Complex Sentence

This type of sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause. There
are two finite verbs joined by subordinating conjunction.

Subordinate conjunctions connect two unequal parts, e.g., dependent and independent clauses.

Example: When (subordinator) he (subject) handed (finite verb) in his homework, he (subject)
forgot (finite verb) to give the teacher the last page.

Complex sentences with relative pronouns as subordinators/subordinating conjunctions:

The woman (subject), who (subordinate) my mom (subject) talked to, sells (verb) cosmetics.

The book (subject) that (subordinate) Ria (subject) read is (verb) on the shelf.

35
Rules of Transforming Complex-Simple-Compound Sentences:

To Transform into Simple Sentence:

a) Use non-finite verb

b) Don’t use any conjunction.

c) Always maintain the meaning of the given sentence

To Transform into Compound Sentences:

a) Use coordinating conjunctions like and/but/or/and/so/and then

b) Use separate subjects and verbs for each clause

c) Always maintain the meaning of the given sentence

To Transform into Complex Sentence:

a) Use subordinating conjunctions like though/since/as/when/relative pronoun

b) Use separate subjects and verbs for each clause

c) Always maintain the meaning the of given sentence

Examples:

1. When/as/since/because (Complex) ---- verb+ing or being+v3 or because of (Simple) ---

and (Compound) Example:

Complex: When he saw the police, he ran away.

Simple: Seeing the police he ran away.

Compound: He saw the police and ran away.

2. If/Unless (Complex) --- by+verb+ing/without+verb+ing (Simple) --- or (Compound)

Example:

Complex: If you work hard you will succeed.

Simple: By working hard you will succeed.

Compound: Work hard or you won’t succeed.

36
 3. Relative pronoun (wh word/that) (Complex) ---- non-finite form/direct adjective/adverb
(Simple) --- and (Compound) Example:

Complex: The sum which has been done by him was very hard.

Simple: The sum done by him was very hard. (Participle)

Compound: The sum was done by him and it was very hard.

4. Though/Although (complex) --- inspite of/despite (simple) + but (compound) Example:

Complex: Though he tried hard, he failed.

Simple: In spite of trying hard, he failed.

Compound: He tried hard but failed.

5. So... that (Complex) --- to infinitive (Simple) --- and (Compound) Example:

Complex: We eat so that we can live well.

Simple: We eat to live well.

Compound: We eat and we live well.

Exercise A: Change the Simple sentences into Complex

1. I saw a beautiful girl.

_____________________________________________________________________

2. Being sincere and hardworking, Mitu earned the reward.

_____________________________________________________________________

3. She was too poor to educate her children. ( too in the simple sentence changes to so/that in
compound)
_____________________________________________________________________

4. He liked my suggestion.
_____________________________________________________________________

5. In spite of his being tall, he does not play basketball.

_____________________________________________________________________

37
 Exercise B: Change the Complex sentences into Compound

1. Though he is not sick, he feels weak.

____________________________________________________________________
2. As soon as the electricity went out, the thief entered the house.
____________________________________________________________________

3. If you work hard, you will shine in life.

_____________________________________________________________________

4. He bought a pen which was very nice.

_____________________________________________________________________

5. The man went home so that he could see his grandson.

_____________________________________________________________________

Exercise C: Change the Compound sentences into Simple

1. I went to his home but he did not meet me.

_____________________________________________________________________

2. He was ill and so he could not attend the meeting.

_____________________________________________________________________
3. I woke up and received your phone call.
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Work hard and you will be successful.
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Salman saw a snake and killed it at once.
_____________________________________________________________________

Ex D-State whether the following sentences are simple, complex or compound.

1. We met rather few people who spoke English.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

38
2. I have been on rather too many planes and trains recently.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

3. We drove right up to Helsinki in two days.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

4. I don’t care how expensive it is.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

5. Two minutes ago the child was fast asleep, but now he is wide awake.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

6. He is not tall enough to be a soldier.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

7. I have got four sisters and each of them is quite different from the others.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

39
8. You can either come with me now or walk home.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

9. He will never leave home because he hasn’t got the courage to.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

10. When all else fails, read the user manual.

Simple sentence

Complex sentence

Compound sentence

Direct and Indirect Speech

Quoting the exact words of the speaker is called “The Direct Speech”.
David said, “I am writing a letter now”.

Reporting what a speaker said without quoting his exact words is called ‘Indirect Speech’.
David said that he was writing a letter then.

Rules of changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech:

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Now Then
-
EX: He said to her, “Don’t go out now.” EX: He told her not to go out then.

Here There
EX: She said, ‘I worked here for two - EX: She said that she had worked there for two
years.” years.

This That
-
EX: He said to me, “I am happy to be EX: He told me that he was happy to be there.

40
here.”

These Those
EX: Jivan said, “These papers have to be - EX: Jivan said that those papers had to be
removed from the table.” removed from the table.

to-day that day

-
EX: He said, “What did you eat today?” EX: He asked me what I had eaten that day.

to-night that night

-
EX: “I will see you tonight,” she said. EX: She said that she would see me that night.

last night the previous night

EX: Ravi said, “I went to movie last - EX: Ravi said that he had gone to movie the
night.” previous night.

the day before (or)

Yesterday
EX: “My teacher taught me this problem
yesterday.” Rahul said to me.
EX: the previous day
-
Rahul told me that his teacher had taught him
that problem the previous day.

the next day (or)

Tomorrow
the following day
EX: He said to me, “I shall pay your fee -
EX: He told me that he would pay my fee the
tomorrow.”
next day.

Simple present tense Simple past tense

Ex: She said, “she loves music.” Ex: She said that she loved music.

Present Continuous Tense Past Continuous Tense

-
Ex: Raja said, “I am reading a book” Ex: Raja said that he was reading a book

Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense

Ex : She said, “I have written a story”
-
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
The boy said, “I have been preparing for
my exams”
Ex: She said that she had written a story.
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
The boy said that he had been preparing for his
exams”

Simple Past Tense Past Perfect Tense

Ex: Angel said, “I brought a pen Ex: Angel said that she had bought a pen the day
yesterday”. before.

Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

Ex: Nelson said, “I was playing cricket”. Ex: Nelson said that he had been playing cricket.

41
 Must Had to or must
Ex: Johnsi said, “I must go now”. Ex: Johnsi said that she must (or) had to go then.

Exception to the above rule:

If the direct speech contains the Universal Truth, the tense of the direct speech remains
unchanged even if the reporting verb is in the past.

The teacher said, “The sun rises in the East”.

The teacher said that the sun rises in the East.

Statement (or) Assertive Sentence

Rules :

• Remove the quotation marks in the statement

• Use the conjunction ‘that’
• Change the reporting verb ‘say ’ into ‘tell’
• Change the reporting verb ‘said’ into ‘told’
• He said that (correct)
• He told me that (correct)
1. “I will work hard to get first class” said Lazar
Lazar said he would work hard to get first class.
2. “You can do this work” said Nelson to Johnsi
Nelson told Johnsi that he could do that work.
3. He says, “I am glad to be here this evening”
He says that he is glad to be there that evening.
4. “I‘m going to the library now” said David
David said that he was going to the library then.

Imperative Sentence (Order or Request)

* Remove the quotation mark in an Imperative sentence.

*Use ‘to’ if it is an affirmative sentence. (without don‘t)
*Use ‘not to’ if the sentence begins without Don‘t.
*Don‘t use ‘that’
42
*Omit the word ‘please’. Use the word ‘request’ instead of ‘say’.
*If the direct speech contains a request or a command, the reporting verb (say, said) change to
tell, request, order, command etc. in its correct tense.
Examples:
1. “Don‘t talk in the class,” said the teacher to the boys.
The teacher advised the boys not to talk in the class.
2. “Please give me something to eat. I am hungry” the old man said to them.
The old man requested them to give him something to eat and said that he was hungry
3. “Be careful” said he to her.
He ordered her to be careful.
4. “Bring me a cup of tea” said Nelson to Andriya.
Nelson asked Andriya to bring him a cup of tea.

Interrogative Sentence (Questions)

*Remove the quotation marks and question mark in the interrogative sentence.
*Use ‘if’ or ‘whether’ if the sentence inside the quotation marks begins with a helping verb
(Auxiliary verb).
*Use the given interrogative word (what, when, where, why, who, whom, whose, which, now
etc.) if it does not begin with the helping verb.
*Don‘t use ‘that’
*Change the reporting verb (say, said) into ‘ask’ or ‘enquire’ in its correct tense.
*Omit helping verbs like ‘do, does, did’. But don’t omit them when they are with ‘not’.
Examples:
1. “Won’t you help me carry this box?” said I to my friend.
I asked my friend if he would not help me carry that box.
2. Mohan said to Stalin, “Why did you not attend the meeting yesterday”?
Mohan asked Stalin why he had not attended the meeting the day before.
3. “How often do you go to the theatre?” said David to John.
David asked John how often he went to the theatre.
4. Mohamed said to Sultan, “Do you like mangoes?”
Mohamed asked Sultan if he liked mangoes.

Exclamatory Sentence

*Change the exclamatory sentence into statement or Assertive

*Remove the quotation marks and exclamatory mark.
*Use the conjunction ‘that’
*Omit the interjections such as Oh, O, Alas, how, what, hurrah.
*Add the word ‘very’ to the adjective or adverb if necessary.
*If the verb is not given, use ‘Be’ form verb (is, was, are, were, am) in its correct tense according
to the subject.
*Change the reporting verb (say, said) to ‘exclaim joyfully’
*Use ‘exclaim’ sorrowfully for sorrowful incidents.
Examples:

43
1. “O, what a beautiful flower that is!” said she.
She exclaimed joyfully that that was a very beautiful flower.
2. “What a horrible sight!” we all exclaimed.
We all exclaimed that it was a horrible sight.
3. “Alas! I have broken my brother’s watch” said he.
He exclaimed sorrowfully that he had broken his brothers watch.
4. “How beautiful she is!” said Boon.
Boon exclaimed joyfully that she was very beautiful.

Exercise
I. Change the following sentences from Direct Speech to Indirect Speech:
i) She says, “I want to sleep.”
_____________________________________________________________________________________

ii) He says, “I like sweets.”

_____________________________________________________________________________________

iii) You said, “I will meet the doctor.”

_____________________________________________________________________________________

iv) They said, “We are starting now.”

_____________________________________________________________________________________

v) Mother said to me, “I was waiting for you for a long time.”
_____________________________________________________________________________________

vi) I said to you, “what do you want?”

_____________________________________________________________________________________

vii) She said to me, “when will you start from London?”
_____________________________________________________________________________________

viii) She said to my brother, “where were you this morning?”

_____________________________________________________________________________________

ix) The teacher said to Sarah, “who were you waiting for?”
_____________________________________________________________________________________

x) Sarah said to her sister, “Do you always get up early?”

_____________________________________________________________________________________

xi) Father said to children, “Have you prepared well for the test?”
_____________________________________________________________________________________

xii) Kamal said to the driver, “Can you take me to the lawyer now?”

44
Class &Subject : VIII English
Month & Year : December – February 2022-23
Term : III

Phrases and Clauses

Phrases
There are many different types of phrases and clauses. The first step to identifying the different
types, though, is to understand the difference between a phrase and a clause.
A phrase is a related group of words. The words work together as a "unit," but they do not have a
subject and a verb.
Examples of Phrases
1. the boy on the bus (noun phrase)
2. will be running (verb phrase)
3. in the kitchen (prepositional phrase)
4. very quickly (adverb phrase)
5. Martha and Jan (noun phrase)
A Noun Phrase is a group of words that work together to name and describe a person, place,
thing, or idea. When we look at the structure of writing, we treat a noun phrase the same way we
treat a common noun.
Example
The quick, brown fox jumped over the lazy dog
This noun phrase is the subject of the sentence. In other words, this sentence is about ‘the quick,
brown fox.’ But, instead of just saying ‘fox,’ the rest of the noun phrase works to describe it.
An Adverb Phrase:. An adverbial phrases is a group of two or more words operating
adverbially. It can modify a verb, adverb, or adjective and can tell “how”, “where”, “why”, or
“when.” An adverb clause which also modifies verbs, adverbs and adjectives; but, an
adverb clause also includes a subject and a verb.

An Adjective Phrase (or adjectival phrase) is a phrase whose head word is an adjective, e.g.
fond of steak, very happy, quite upset about it, etc.

Exercise
A Prepositional Phrase is a group of words that lacks either a verb or a subject, and that
functions as a unified part of speech. It normally consists of a preposition and a noun or
a preposition and a pronoun. Remember the following rules for prepositional phrases and you
will find that using them becomes much easier.

45
Exercise: Identify the noun phrases in the following sentences.

1. I dislike having to punish my children.

2. I live in a good, family home.
3. She is my favorite English teacher
4. I decided to walk down the yellow, brick road.
5. Has anyone seen my big, brown, dog?
6. The kids were surprised by the summer rain.
7. I went to watch the beautiful play.

Exercise: Identify the adjective phrases in the following sentences.

1. Have you ever seen an elephant with a white skin?

2. He was wearing a crown made of gold.
3. There I met a girl with blue eyes.
4. Wild beasts in small cages are a sorry sight.
5. We visited many villages without any inhabitants.
6. A friend in need is a friend indeed.
7. He was a young man of great promise.

Exercise: Underline the prepositional phrase in each sentences:

1. It is a gift from my great grandmother.

2. The cat was sleeping under the warm blanket.
3. The pretty girl in my class has stopped talking to me.
4. The library across the street is well-stocked with books.
5. The girl from Mexico impressed everyone with her quick wits.
6. I took a nap in the afternoon.
7. The boy is leaning on the wall.

Clauses
A Clause is a group of words that does have both a subject and a verb. Some clauses
are independent, meaning that they express a complete thought. An independent clause is the
same as a complete sentence. Some clauses are dependent, meaning that they cannot stand alone.
They do have a subject and a verb, but they do not express a complete thought. Another word
for dependent is subordinate.

A Noun Clause is a dependent clause that can be used the same ways as a noun or pronoun. It
can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the
preposition. Some of the words that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, why, whom,
what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words also
introduce adjective and adverb clauses. (To check a noun clause substitute the pronoun it or the
proper form of the pronouns he or she for the noun clause.)
Examples: I know who said that. (I know it.)

46
 Whoever said it is wrong. (He is wrong.)

Sometimes a noun clause is used without the introductory word.

Example: I know that he is here. (I know he is here.)

The Adjective Clause is used to modify a noun or a pronoun. It will begin with a relative
pronoun (who, whose, whom, which, and that) or a subordinate conjunction (when and where).
Those are the only words that can be used to introduce an adjective clause. The introductory
word will always rename the word that it follows and modifies except when used with a
preposition which will come between the introductory word and the word it renames. Examples:
The student whose hand was up gave the wrong answer. Whose hand was up is the adjective
clause with whose, the relative pronoun, renaming and modifying student. Jane is a
person in whom I can place my confidence. Whom I can place my confidence is the adjective
clause with whom, the relative pronoun, with the preposition in between it and person the word
that whom renames and modifies.

An Adverb Clause is a dependent clause that modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb. It
usually modifies the verb.
Adverb clauses are introduced by subordinate conjunctions including after, although, as, as if,
before, because, if, since, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, where, and while. These are
just some of the more common ones.

Example: They arrived before the game had ended. ("before the game had ended" is the adverb
clause modifying the verb arrived telling when.)

Exercise: Find out the noun clauses in the following sentences:

1. On weekends, we can do whatever we want.

2. Choose a gift for whom ever you want.
3. Do you know what the weather will be ?
4. I am packing extra snacks for when we get hungry.
5. Always give whichever audience you perform for a great show.
6. My greatest asset is that I am a hard worker.
7. It is certain that we will have to admit defeat.
8. I cannot rely on what he says.

Exercise: Identify the Adjective clauses in the given sentences.

1. The theft was committed last night. The police has caught the man
2. You are looking upset. Can you tell me the reason?
3. He had several plans for making money quickly. All of them have failed.
4. The landlord was proud of his strength. He despised the weakness of his tenants.
5. This is the village. I was born here.
6. You put the keys somewhere. Show me the place.
47
7. Paul was an old gentleman. He was my travelling companion.
8. A fox once met a crane. The fox had never seen a crane before.

Underline the adverb clauses in these sentences :

1. You seem very happy when you help other people.

2. I am happier than I ever was before.
3. That horse is more obstinate than a mule.
5. The woman took notes while being taught to cook with broccoli.
6. Ben fields baseballs better than he hits.
7. As the lions approached the carcass, the cheetahs retreated once more
8. While eating. I choked on a bone.

Conditionals
What are conditionals? Sometimes we call them 'if clauses'. They describe the result of
something that might happen (in the present or future) or might have happened but didn't (in the
past). They are made using different English verb tenses.
Uses of the Conditional
First conditional
The first conditional (also called conditional type 1) is a structure used for talking about
possibilities in the present or in the future
a. Nature: Open condition, what is said in the condition is possible.
b. Time: This condition refers either to present or to future time.
e.g. If he is late, we will have to go without him.
If my mother knows about this, we will be in serious trouble.
Structure : if + present simple and will + infinitive
It's not important which clause comes first.

Second conditional
a. Nature: unreal (impossible) or improbable situations.
b. Time: present; the TENSE is past, but we are talking about the present, now.
e.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you.
If I were you, I would tell my father.
Structure: If + past simple,……….. would + infinitive

Third conditional
a. Nature: unreal
b. Time: Past (so we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.)
e.g. If you had warned me, I would not have told your father about that party.(But you didn't, and
I have).

48
 Structure: If + past perfect,…….would + have + past participle
REMEMBER: The third conditional is used to talk about unreal situations in the past (things that
were impossible, that didn't happen, etc.
Exercise
I. Choose the correct response for each of the sentences:

1. If they hadn't been drunk, the doorman _________.

a) would have let them in b) had let them in
2. If you _________ your last exam, you would have graduated in May.
a) have not failed b) hadn't failed
3. My mother _________ this apartment if she had known it was so noisy.
a) wouldn't have rented b)did not rent
4. I would not ________ to see this movie if I had known how boring it was.
a) go b) have gone
5. If I hadn't lost my cell phone, I ________ you.
a) would have called b) would call
6. If I hadn't driven so fast, I ________ into an accident.
a) would not get b) would not have gotten
7. If the store ________ open, I would have bought some food.
a) would be b) had been
8. I ________ on time if I hadn't missed the bus.
a) had been b) would have been
9. If you hadn't changed your hairstyle, I _________ you.
a) would have recognized b)had recognized
10. If I ________ full, I would have eaten more.
a) would not have been b)hadn't been

II. Choose the correct answer.

1. If I (didn’t have/don’t have)………………………… this homework to do, I would have gone
out with my friends.
2. She (wont come/wouldn’t have come)…………………..by train if she could drive.
3. They (would/would have)……………………………. gone for a walk if it wasn't raining.
4.. If I (am/were)……………..him, I wouldn't have quit my job until I'd found another.
5.. If they(hadn’t eaten/wouldn’t eaten)……………………. so much, they wouldn't feel ill now.
6. You (are/wouldn’t be)……………………… so tired if you'd gone to bed earlier.
7. David (would be moving/would moved)…………………………… to Germany next month if
he'd got the job.
8. If we (won/had won)………………….the lottery last night, we'd be rich.

49
III. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the words given in the brackets:
1.If I (see) …………………… you waiting at the bus stop, I (stop) ……………………. for
you.
2. I (go) …………….. swimming every week, if I (know) ……………………. how to swim
properly.
3. If I (catch)……………. that plane to New York [the one that crashed!], I (be) …………….
dead now.
4. If we (live)…………………… in China, we (speak)………………………. Cantonese or
Pekingese.
5. I (stop) …………………… smoking, if I (be) …………………… you; it's terrible for your
health!
6. I (like)………………………. being with you more if you (not laugh)………………………
at me all the time.
7. I (buy) ……………… my house a long time ago if the prices (be)…………………… a bit
lower.
8. Do you think they (like) …………………. our teacher if they (be)……………………………
in our class?
9. We (not miss) ……………………….. the beginning of the film last night if we (find)
…………………………… a parking place straight away.
10. I (call) …………………… you earlier, if I (find) ………………………my phone card.
11. If you (not get) ………………….. on the bus without a ticket, you (not
get)………………………… a fine.
12. I (not win)…………………….. any gold medals if I (be) ……………………………. in
Sidney in 2000.

50
Class &Subject : VIII English
Month & Year : April – February 2022-23
Term : I - III

Reading Comprehension

I. Read the passage given below and complete the statements that follow:

Cancer has emerged as the second-leading cause of death globally after cardiovascular disease.
Proportion of deaths due to cancer around the world increased from 12% in 1990 to 15% in
2013, while the number of new cases almost doubled in India during the period.

In India, deaths from the disease have increased by 60%, according to the latest report ‘Global
Burden of Cancer-2013’, released worldwide on Friday.

“Even if we adjust for the rise in population in India over this period the new cancer cases have
increased by 30% per unit population and deaths have risen by 10%” says Lalit Dandona, co-
author of the study and Professor at the Public Health Foundation of India and Institute for
Health Metrics and Evaluation.

In 2013, there were 14.9 million new cancer cases registered globally, whereas 8.2 million
people died due to the disease. The report is based on a global study of 28 cancer groups in 188
countries by a consortium of international researchers from University of Washington and
Institute of Health Metrics and Evolution.

The report suggests the new cases of virtually all types of cancer are rising in countries globally-
regardless of income but the death rates from cancer are falling in many countries primarily due
to its prevention and treatment. However, it says there is a threat of increasing incidence in
developing countries due to ill-equipped health systems.

While incidence of breast cancer is highest in India as well globally, most number of cancer
deaths in India are caused due to stomach cancer, which is globally the second most common
reason for death.

(a) Cancer is next only to …………. diseases resulting in deaths, worldwide.

(b) The report ………… claimed that cancer deaths in India has risen.
(c) The Death rates from cancer in many countries is coming down mainly due to …..………
and treatment.

51
(d) The developing countries have failed to control the death rate due to ………….
(e) All types of cancer are on an increase regardless of …………...

II. Read the following poem carefully and answer the questions that follow:
Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening
Whose woods these are I think I know
His house is in the village, though;
He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.

My little horse must think it queer

To stop without a farmhouse near
Between the woods and frozen lake
The darkest evening of the year.

He gives his harness bells a shake

To ask if there is some mistake.
The only other sound’s the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake.

The woods are lovely, dark and deep,

But i have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.

by Robert Frost
1. The woods belonged to _________________.
a) a rustic fellow (b) an urbanite
c) the forest officer (d) the forest staff
2. The poet was accompanied by _________________.
a) his village folk (b) his horse
c) the woods (d) the snow
3. The only sounds heard in this darkest evening were ______________.
a) that of the harness bells (b) of the easy wind
c) of the downy flake (d) all of the above
4. ‘Miles to go’ means __________________.
a) He has to travel miles together (b) He has to accomplish many tasks
c) Promises to make (d) Crosses through the dark wood

52
5. Despite the darkest evening, the poet is _________________.
a) Delighted (b) Optimistic (c) Pessimistic (d) promising

III. . Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.

The Silk Route was an ancient road that linked China with Europe. Much of the Silk Route was
across trade-routes through deserts. There were many oases along the way where caravans
stopped; where men and camels rested. Dunhuang was one such oasis town on the edge of the
Takla Makan desert. Being the gateway to China, it was a melting-pot for different cultures. As a
result, many splendid works of art from different countries can still be seen in Dunhuang.
Besides getting China’s silk to Europe, the Route carried new ideas and manufacturing processes
like the techniques for making iron and paper and the art of cultivating silkworms across various
countries. But the Silk Route changed with historical events. For instance, during the fighting in
Mesopotamia between the Byzantine Empire and Persian rulers, caravans took a more northerly
route. The central Silk Route was no longer used and oases along the way lost their business and
fame.

1) The Silk Route is important _________________.

a. for the war between the Byzantines and the Persians.

b. for trade between the East and the West.

c. for the exchange of ideas between the East and the West.

2) The most suitable title for the passage would be _______________.

a. The Silk Route.

b. Dunhuang, the Oasis Town.

c. The Marvel of Ancient Travel.

3) What were oases originally meant for?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4) Why did the oases along the Silk Route die out?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5) Pick out word from the passage which mean the same as ‘meeting point of different customs
and traditions’.
______________________________________________________________________________

53
IV. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follow.

Leaving Her Mark

Wherever she goes, Molly leaves her mark. Without saying a word, she speaks to people with
her kind eyes. Even when she walks away, she leaves an impression. Molly’s mark is a smile,
stamped into the ground by the horseshoe at the bottom of her false leg. A few years ago, Molly,
a pony, was badly attacked by a dog. The dog bit all four of Molly’s legs and left large gashes in
her face. Molly’s owner, Kaye Harris, took her to an animal hospital. Veterinarians there were
able to save Molly’s life, but soon one of her legs became very infected. The only way to save
her life was to amputate, or remove, the infected leg. At first, veterinarians thought Molly would
have to be euthanized ( put to sleep). But Molly changed their minds. This pony, doctors noticed,
shifted her weight, and rested her good leg from time to time. Doctors knew that Molly had
amazing intelligence, and that she wanted to live. Several veterinarians operated on Molly, and
amputated her infected leg. A false leg, called a prosthesis was made for her. Molly’s prosthesis
was a hollow cast with a pole at the bottom for balance. Doctors gave Molly a special horseshoe
at the bottom of her prosthesis. This horseshoe had a stamp of a smiley face in it!
After the operation, Molly walked around on all four legs, as if nothing had ever happened to
her! Now, with every step she takes, she stamps a smile in the dirt. But she leaves her mark in
other ways, too. Kaye Harris took Molly to the prosthesis center. There were children there who,
like Molly, had artificial limbs. They were amazed to see a pony with a prosthetic leg. Molly
made them smile and gave them hope. Soon, Molly began to visit schools, nursing homes, army
bases, and hospitals. A book was even written about Molly! Molly has become a symbol of hope
for people of all ages. Her story leaves a smile on people’s faces, just as clearly as her horseshoe
leaves a mark in the sand.

1) Explain why Molly has a false leg.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2) What is unique about the horseshoe at the bottom of Molly's false leg?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

3) What did Molly do after she got her artificial limb?

a) She ran a race. (b) She visited schools and hospitals.
c) She moved into a petting zoo (d) She gave rides to young children.

54
4) Explain why this story is titled, “Leaving Her Mark.”
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

V. Read the following passage and answer the questions.

There are thousands of volcanoes all over the world. What causes volcanoes? The inside of the
earth is very, very hot. It is so hot that the rock has melted like ice. It has become liquid, like
water. It is always boiling, like water in a kettle. The very hot melted rock inside the earth tries to
get out. Usually it cannot because the outside of the earth is too thick and strong.

But in some places the outside of the earth is thin and weak. Sometimes a crack appears. The hot
melted rock, which we call ‘lava’, pushes up through the crack and bursts through. Steam and
gas shoot up into the air and the hot melted lava pours out. Big pieces of rock maybe thrown,
high into the air. After a while the volcano becomes quite again. The melted lava becomes hard.
Later the same thing happens again and again. Each time more hot lava pours out on top of the
cold lava and then becomes hard. In this way a kind of mountain is built up.

Although there are thousands of volcanoes in the world, most of them are dead. Only about 500
sometimes start to throw out lava again. A famous volcano which is now dead is Mount
Fujiyama in Japan. It is covered in snow with the winter. Another one is Vesuvius, in Italy. It
first came to life many years ago. It was quite for hundreds of years. Then in the year 1979 it
suddenly burst through. A great cloud of smoke shot up into the sky with great burning rocks,
which fell all around. Hot lava poured down its sides and 3000 people were killed.

This has happened again many times since the year. Sometimes no damage was caused, or only a
little damage. But there was serious damage in the years 472, 1631, 1794, 1861, 1872 and 1906.
A volcano can stay alive for many years. In 1906 part of the top of the mountain fell off. There
was also serious damage in 1914 but there has not been any since that year.

Choose the best answer:

1. Inside a volcano there is ______________.

a. Boiling water
b. Melted ice
c. Steam
d. Melted rock
2. The lava bursts out where there is ___________.
a. a crack
b. A mountain
c. Melted rock
d. Water
55
 3. When lava cools it becomes ____________.
a. Steam
b. Snow
c. Hard
d. Liquid
4. We are told that Vesuvius has caused serious damage ___________.
a. 6 times
b. 7 times
c. 8 times
d. Times
5. Find Synonyms of:
a. Destruction: __________
b. Flow: __________

VI. Read the following passage and answer the questions.

The giant panda is one of the rarest and most striking mammals in the world. It is usually
associated with bears. The giant panda remains mostly solitary, forming small groups only
during the breeding season. Giant pandas live in the wild and only in the high mountains of the
isolated parts of China. They eat only one kind of food – bamboo shoots, and lots of them;
chewing the tough parts of the root and shoot very slowly. They use the extra bone in their hands
like a thumb to grasp the food. Occasionally they hunt small mammals and birds. Many pandas
die due to starvation when there is a failure in the crops. The giant panda has a life span of about
twenty six years. In the wild, the giant panda gives birth to two or three young ones. The fact that
these giant pandas are very rare is mainly because of changes in climate and vegetation since the
end of the ice age. It is not really due to human activity that pandas are rare. The giant panda is
the symbol of the World Wildlife Fund and appears on lots of leaflets and posters campaigning
for the cause.

Answer the questions.

1. To which animal is the Panda linked?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. How does the panda eat its food?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Why is the panda not a common sight these days?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

56
4. What does the symbol of the Panda represent?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What kind of life they like to live?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

VII. Read the following passage and answer the questions.

On a ship, far out at sea, a sailor looks up at the sky. He sees a beautiful white bird. It is flying
high up in the sky. It is an albatross. The sailor is happy to see it. Many sailors believe that if
they see an albatross, they will have good luck. Albatrosses are sea birds. They fly over the sea
looking for fish to eat. They only go onto land to look after their babies, or ‘chicks’. Albatross
chicks cannot fly. They live on land until they learn to fly. Their parents bring them fish to eat.
Sometimes an albatross has to fly more than 1,000 km to find fish for its chick. It may be away
for two weeks. The chick must learn to fly fast. When it is four months old, the parents leave it.
Then the young albatross must find its own food. Albatrosses can live for forty or fifty years.
Like sailors, they live most of their lives at sea. Perhaps that is why sailors call albatrosses their
friends.

Choose the correct answer to complete the statements.

1. The sailor is happy to see the albatross because ___________________.

a. it is a sea bird white and beautiful.
b. it is believed to bring good luck.
c. it could be seen from the ship.

2. Albatross goes to the land to __________________.

a. feed its baby.
b. live on land.
c. learn to fly.

Answer the questions.

3. What do albatrosses eat?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. How far do albatrosses sometimes fly to find food?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

57
5. How long do chicks live on land?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

VIII. Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.

Once upon a time, a king had a boulder placed on a roadway. Then, he hid himself and watched
to see if anyone would remove the huge rock. Some of the king’s wealthiest merchants and
courtiers came by and simply walked around it. Many loudly blamed the king for not keeping the
roads clear, but none did anything about getting the big stone out of the way. Then, a peasant
came along, carrying a load of vegetables. On approaching the boulder, the peasant laid down his
burden and tried to move the stone to the side of the road. After much pushing and straining, he
finally succeeded. As the peasant picked up his load of vegetables, he noticed a purse lying on
the road where the boulder had been. The purse contained many gold coins and a note from the
king indicating that the gold was for the person who had removed the boulder from the roadway.
The peasant learnt what many others never understood—every obstacle presents an opportunity
to improve one’s condition.

Answer the questions.

1. Why does the king hide and watch the boulder?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the different expressions used for the boulder?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What kind of people do the merchants and courtiers represent?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. This is a story with a moral. What is it trying to teach us?
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5. Find a word in the passage which means the opposite of ‘failure’.
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