VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.

|BSN 1-C
 Justice - giving what is due
ETHICS
 Importance of rules to human beings
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system
ETHICS
 It ensure product safety, employee safety, and product
 Is a branch of philosophy that studies morality or the
quality
rightness or wrongness of human conduct
 Regulate monopolies and competitiveness
 Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos which
means character, custom, or manners MORAL STANDARDS
 These are moral values and moral principles that
Ethical questions:
people have for kinds of actions they believe are
 What is the good and the bad?
morally right/acceptable and wrong/unacceptable,
 Who is a moral person?
 What makes an act right? NON-MORAL STANDARDS
 Rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
Ethics centers on norms of human conduct
considerationsà they are not necessarily linked to
morality or lack ethical sense
MORALITY
 E.g. rules of etiquette, fashion standards, games,
 Speaks of a code or system of behavior in regards to
house rules
standards of right or wrong behaviour
 Religious rules, some traditions, ordinances are
 Morality and ethics are oftentimes used
technically non-moral standards.
interchangeably but both carry the concept of moral
standards or rules with regard to behaviour DISTINCTIONS
 Are you a moral person?  Moral Standards involve serious wrong or significant
 Why do you do good things? benefits
 Are humans by nature good or evil?  Example: lying, deception, killing
 Are humans really altruistic?  Compared to non-moral standards for example;
violating rules in sports does not necessarily affect
What influences the concept of morality?
one’s life or wellbeing
 Religion
 Moral Standards are not established by authority
 Culture
figures- moral standards are not invented, formed, or
 Social contract to live in harmony
generated by authoritative bodies or persons for they
 Evolutionary trait to survive
are socially constructed
 Empathy
 Moral standards cannot be nullified by the decisions
 Others
of particular authoritative body
Importance of rules to human beings  Concept of superiority and achieve social reality apart
 Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or from the individual
principles governing conduct within a specific  Moral Standards have the trait of universalizability -
activity or sphereà dictates what is allowed or not everyone should live up to moral standardsà must
allowed in a particular situation apply to all who are relevantly in the same situation
 What would happen if there are no rules in a specific  E.g. murder is a criminal offense, stealing is wrong
society? Consistency
 Importance of rules to human beings  Moral Standards are based on impartial consideration-
it goes beyond certain personal interests in which
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior each person’s interests are impartially counted as
 Rules limit behavior by imposing consequences to equal and giving equal consideration to the interests
those who will violate them of all concerned parties
 To gain acceptance in a society  Impartiality- free of bias or prejudice
 Fear to be imprison  E.g. observance of laws-objectivity
 E.g. panopticon
DILEMMA AND MORAL DILEMMA
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and
 Dilemma - refers to a situation in which a tough
freedom
choice has to be made between two or more options,
 Rules are framework for society
especially more or less equally undesirable ones, not
 Nation of lawsà Constitution
all dilemmas are moral dilemmas
 Checks and balance of power between government
 Moral/ Ethical Dilemmas - are situations in which a
and its people
difficult choice has to be made between 2 courses of
 Grants freedom and protection
action, either of which entails transgressing a moral
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings
principle. In short, it involves conflicts between moral
 Prevents exploitation and domination of the
requirements
strong/privilege
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 Rules provide justiceà richest and powerful people
have limitations that they need to abide like the rest
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VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
MORAL DILEMMA
 A friend discovers her best friend’s boyfriend is
cheating. She must decide whether to tell her friend or
keep it a secret.
KEY FEATURES OF MORAL DILEMMA
 The agent is required to do each of two (or more)
actions;
 The agent can do each of the actions; but cannot do
both or all the actions
 Often condemned to a moral failure, no matter what
he does, he will do something wrong, or fail to do
something that he ought to do.
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA
1. Personal Dilemmas
 Are those experienced and resolved on the personal
level.
 Since many ethical decisions are personally made,
many, if not most of, moral dilemmas fall under, or
boil down to this level.
2. Organizational Dilemmas
 Refer to ethical cases encountered and resolved by
social organizations. This category includes moral
dilemmas in business, medical field, and public
sector.
 E.g. healthcare orgs - euthanasia, right to die
 Business-related dilemmas - employee rights,
harassment, misleading advertising, job
discrimination, labor unions
 Public government - accepting gifts, transparency,
agenda setting
3. Structural Dilemmas
 Refer to cases involving network of institutions and
operative theoretical paradigm. As they usually
encompass multi-sectoral institutions and
organizations, they may be large in scope and extent
than organizational dilemmas.
 E.g. prices of medicine in the Philippines (conflict
between the buyers and involved researchers)
POLITICAL DYNASTIES
 Only human beings can be ethical
 One basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human
beings can be truly ethical. Most philosophers hold
that unlike animals, human beings possess some traits
that make it possible for them to be moral.
a. Only human being are rational, autonomous, and
self-conscious
 These qualities are believed to confer a full
and equal moral status to those that possess
them as these beings are the only ones
capable of achieving certain values and
goods.
 These qualities are deserve full and equal
moral status. In short, these are only
exclusive to humans.
 E.g. appreciation of art, literature, music that
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 Human have the ability to select his actions and is not
led by blind instinct
 Capable of self-respect through empathy
b. Only humans can act morally or immorally
 Only beings that can act morally or
immorally can sacrifice their interests for the
sake of others
 Other species do things out of instinct
c. Only human beings are part of the moral
community
 The so-called moral community is not
defined in terms of the intrinsic properties
that beings have, but rather in terms of the
essential social relations that exist between
or among beings. Distinctively, only human
beings can possess or practice values such as
love, honor, social relationships, forgiveness,
compassion, and altruism.
 Only human beings can communicate with
each other in truly meaningful ways, and can
form deep personal relationships with each
other (showing concern)
 Only humans has the ability to participate in
collective cognition
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY
 Reason and Impartiality
 “Moral judgments must be backed by sound
reasoning and that morality requires the impartial
consideration of all parties involve” (Rachels, 1941)
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
 Reason as a requirement for morality entails that
human feelings may be important in ethical decisions,
but they ought to be guided by reason. It helps us to
evaluate our feelings and intuitions
 Impartiality known as even-handedness or fair-
mindedness involves the idea that each individual’s
interests and point of view are equally important.
Decisions must be based on objective criteria rather
than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the
benefit to one person over another for improper
reasons
CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
 Kayan Lahwi Tribe
(Thailand/Myanmar)
 Known for wearing neck rings, brass
coils that are placed around the
neck, appearing to lengthen it.
 Lip Plate/Plug/Disc
 Form of body modification
 Located in Africa
 Head Hunting Tribes of Luzon
 These ethnic groups live chiefly in the
Cordillera Central of northern Luzon.
 These groups have traditionally been
somewhat hostile towards each other
and didn’t trade much out of fear of
being attacked.
 Ashura
VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
 Shiite muslims around the world will sometimes celebrate the
death of Imam Hussein, a descendant of the Prophet
Muhammad, who was killed by dagger stabs to his skull.
 They call this day/celebration “Ashura”, and some will
repeatedly hit their heads with daggers or knives or swords,
spilling their own blood to respect Imam Hussein.
 Dani Tribe of Indonesia
 Women cut off the tips of one of their
fingers every time a family member
dies, evidently as a representation of
their grief (and to satisfy ancestral
ghosts).
 Blackening (Scottish wedding custom)
 A traditional wedding custom performed
in the days or weeks prior to marriages
in rural areas of Scotland and Northern
Ireland.
 Covered in food
CULTURE
 Refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge,
experience, beliefs, ideas, values, attitudes, meanings,
hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial
relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects
 Are patterns of behavior implicit or explicit, acquired
and transmitted by symbols
 Is the sum total of learned behavior of a group of people
 A cultivated behavior; totality of person’s learned and
experienced
 Is a symbolic communication
 Includes all the things individuals learn while growing
up in a particular group: attitudes, standards of morality,
rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language,
notions about the proper way to live, and other ideas
about how the world worksà we call this cultural
knowledge
CULTURE’S ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
 Culture is way of life
 Includes moral values and behaviors, along with
knowledge, beliefs, symbols that they accept
“generally without thinking about them, and that are
passed along by communication and imitation from
one generation to the next”
 Social Learning
 Process by which individuals acquire knowledge
from others in the groups to which they belong.
People learn moral and aspects of right and wrong
from transmitter of cultures” parents, teachers,
novels, films, priests etc. People develop a set of
idea of what is right and wrong by observing,
communicating, and engaging to them
It is improbable, if not impossible, to live in a society without
being affected by culture
It is hard to grow up in a particular culture without being impacted by
how it views morality or what is ethically right or wrong
This is the case because individuals are a product of their culture and learning
a culture is an essential part of human development (De Guzman and Pena,
2016)
MORAL STANDARDS AS SOCIAL CONVENTION
CULTURAL
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 Social Fact
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Values, beliefs, cultural norms, and social structures
that transcend the individual and control them.
These are external to us and are outside of our
control.
 Social Convention
 Those agreed upon by people in societyà these are
the usual, customary, and acceptable ways through
which things are done within a group. There is a
blanket of legitimacy.
 Dual Reality of Social Life:
 Man creates social reality but is also a product of
social reality
 So moral law is only a social convention
MORALITY AS AN EFFECT OF SOCIAL
CONDITIONING
 Social Conditioning is the sociological process of
training individuals in a society to respond in a manner
generally approved by the society.
 Conscience are due to societyà as society expresses
disapproval, people become aware of the reproof,
dissatisfaction or contempt that develop into a habit of
conscience when one considers carrying out those
actions.
C.S. LEWIS: MORALITY BELONGS TO THE SAME
CLASS AS MATHEMATICS
A. Although there are differences between the moral ideas
of one time or country and those of another, the
differences are not really very great.
 Nations or cultures only have slightly different
moralities but not quite different ones. We can
recognize the same moral law running through them
all (universal values)
B. We affirm that the morality of a person is better or
worse than that of another, which means that there is a
moral standard or rule by which we measure both
moralities and that standard is real.
 Concept of real morality: thing that is right and
independent of what people think
 Argues that moral law is not a mere social
convention to which each culture or society just
happens to approve
 Social Conditioning Theory of Morality is argued to be
problematic because there are in fact, plenty of
situations where a person, also conditioned and
influenced by his culture to adopt a particular course,
feels the moral obligation to take an entirely different
action.
 We do not submit, nonetheless, that social conditioning
does not in any way affect our ethical knowledge. It is
the intellect that remembers what actions are moral and
what are not, therefore, intellect can be molded or
socially conditioned and not the sense of moral
obligation or conscience
RELATIVISM
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VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
 Is the idea that a person’s beliefs, values, and practices
should be understood based on that person’s own
culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of
another
 Other cultures are not wrong, rather different…
CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN ETHICS
 Cultural Relativism, the most dominant form of moral
relativism, defines moral as what is socially approved
by the majority in a particular culture. In short, an act is
ethical in a culture that approves of it, but immoral in
one that disapproves of it.
 Moral Subjectivism - the standard is a particular agent
 Cultural Relativism - the basis is the given society
 Cultural relativists observe that societies fundamentally
disagree about ethical issues. Morality differs in every
society as concepts of what is right and wrong vary
from culture to culture.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM: AN ANALYSIS
1. Valuable lessons from ethical relativism:
 There is no universal truth, so this encourage
tolerance by being open-minded
 Our feelings and beliefs are only products of
cultural conditioning thus, it do not reflect the truth
 Believes that culture and morality is conventional
2. The theory’s ethical faults
 Cultural Relativism discourages analytical thinking
and independent decision making in ethics as it
requires unsuspecting compliance and subscription
to social norm. Thus, in order to be ethical,
folkways and cultural norms should be followed
uncritically
 Concept of tolerance is self-contradictory
 It begs the question, then is the culture of slavery,
racism, and oppression morally acceptable?
 Cultural Relativism ins only practicable if people
do not belong to more than one institution
 There are not absolutes is self-defeating
RACHEL’S EVALUATION of CULTURAL RELATIVISM
 He explains that the cultural relativists’ approach is to
argue from facts about the differences between cultural
outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality.
 Example: The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the
dead, whereas the Callatians (an Indian Tribe) believed
it was right. Therefore, eating the dead is neither
objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is merely a
matter of opinion which varies from culture to culture.
 Cultural Differences argument - different cultures have
different moral codes. Therefore, there is no objective
truth in morality.
AGAINST THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
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ARGUMENT:
 Another example:
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 People in some societies (primitive tribes) believe that
the Earth is flat, whereas Europeans hold that the Earth
is (roughly) spherical. Therefore, there is no objective
truth in geography. Belief in the shape of the earth is
only a matter of opinion, and opinions vary from
culture to culture.à is this argument valid?
 With this, we can say that just because various societies
disagree with something, it does not mean that there is
no objective truth
 Cultural Relativist goes wrong in sweeping a
conclusion about an issue from the mere fact that people
disagree about it…
JUST HOW MUCH DO CULTURES DIFFER?
 Example:
 Eskimos see nothing wrong with infanticide, whereas
we believe that infanticide is immoral. With this, the
first assumption is that Eskimos have very different
values from ours however:
 Eskimos protect its babies if conditions permit. They
nurse their infant for very long time.
 Infanticide especially among girls (males are primary
food providers, hunters suffer high casualty rate) is a
recognition that drastic measures are sometimes needed
to ensure the family’s survival.
 This shows that it is wrong to conclude that there is
disagreement about values and morality just because
customs differ.
THE BAD CONSEQUENCES OF CULTURAL
RELATIVISM
A. We could no longer say that the customs of other
societies are morally inferior to our own
 Example: We could not say that Anti-Semitism and
Slavery are wrong
B. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just
by consulting the standards of our society
 The implication is that people will think that their
own society’s code is perfect, rather than thinking
of ways it might be improved. In short, cultural
relativism would stop us from criticizing our own
C. The ide a of moral progress is called into doubt
 There is no standard by which we judge the new
ways as better or progressive. (e.g. Social reform)
ASIAN MORAL STANDING
 Eastern Ethics:
 Is very much about the protocol of showing respect
and the notion that one must do what is right and
expected of him and the universe will take care of
the rest
 Western Ethics:
 Is basically about finding truth or what is rationally
or logically true. It puts emphasis on justice and
law.
EAST VS. WEST
Eastern Ethics
FOCUS Finding truth Protocol & Respect
VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
BASIS Rational thought Religious teachings  Is derived from the Greek word ‘charaktêr’
Logic, cause and Respect towards which was initially used us a mark impressed
EMPHASIS upon a coin.
effect family
Hinduism,  The word character later came to mean a
Athens, Rome, distinct mark by which one thing was
Buddhism,
ROOTS IN Judeo, and distinguished from others, and then chiefly to
Confucianism, and
Christianity mean the assemblage of qualities that
Taoism
APPROACH Rational Holistic & Cultural distinguish one person from another
CONFLICT Good and bad, light  This stress on distinctiveness or individuality
& Good over evil and dark all exist in tends to merge “character” with “personality”
HARMONY equilibrium in modern usage.
 At the beginning the Book II of the Nicomachean
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER: STRENGTHS AND Ethics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle tells us that
WEAKNESSES there are two distinct of human excellence;
 Filipino Cultural Morality centers on ideally having a a. Excellences of thought
smooth interpersonal relationship with others through: b. Excellences of character
1. Pakikisama - maintain good public relations  TERMINOLOGY
2. Hiya - concern with how one appears in the eye of  Êthikai aretai - often translated as “moral
others virtue(s)” and “moral excellence”
3. Amor Propio - comes from the tendency of a person  Êthikos (ethical)- the adjective cognate with
to protect his or her dignity and honor ‘êthos’ (character)
4. Utang na Loob - debt of gratitude, balance of  Moreover, philosophers usually think that moral
obligations and debts character traits have an irreducibly evaluative
5. Filipino Hospitality - innate ability and trait of dimension; that is, they involve a normative
Filipinos to be courteous and entertaining to their judgement.
guests 2. THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS AND
6. Respect for elders CHARACTER
UNIVERSAL VALUES: VALUES GENERALLY  Virtues traits of character:
SHARED BY CULTURES  Stable and endure
 Strong proof that cultural relativism is wrong  Not mere products of fortune
 Values that must be generally shared by many cultures  Product of learning, constant practice and
are: cultivation
1. Truth Telling - communication in all forms is  Are called excellences of human being
universal, saying the truth is the most important  Greek moralists believe virtuous acts complete or
reason on what someone is paying attention to what perfect human life.
anyone communicates  Greek philosophers think that it takes someone with
2. Valuing or Respecting Life - necessitates the good moral character to:
prohibition of murder. If everyone is trying to kill  Determine what individual acts are appropriate
each other, everyone is on guard and avoiding and reasonable on certain situations
people that will make societies impossible to  Decide how and when to secure goods and
emerge. resources for himself/herself and others
 This proves that there are some moral rules that all  Aristotle states that it’s not easy to define in rules
societies will have in common because those rules are which acts are deserve moral praise and blame.
necessary for society to exist. Requires judgment of virtuous person (someone
with good moral character).
Lesson II: The Moral Agent 3. MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITIONS
Moral Agent  Moral Character
 Agent - morally responsible for having the moral  Is the existence or lack of virtues.
character or for the outcome of that trait.  Dispositions
 Is a quality of character, a habit, a preparation, a
Developing Virtue as a Moral Habit state of readiness, or a tendency to act in a
 Moral Character - refers to the existence or lack of specified way that may be learned.
virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and  Particular kinds of properties or characteristics
loyalty. that objects can possess.
 The moral character traits that constitute a person’s
1. This
MORAL CHARACTER
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GMTcharacter
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 Character behavioral and effective dispositions.
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VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
 In conclusion: are seen as potentially useful
mechanism that can maintain
 A good moral character is practically the general social order and
dispositions to do virtuous acts. protect individual rights,
rather than as absolute
4. SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT even in adults)
dictates that must be obeyed
simply because they are “the
 Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) law”. People also recognize
 He is an American Psychologist who further the flexibility of rules; rules
that no longer serve society’s
developed the theory of moral development by best interests can and should
a Swiss clinical Psychologist Jean Piaget’s be changed.
Stage 6 is hypothetical,
(1896-1980). “ideal” stage that few people
 He employed Piaget’s storytelling involving ever reach. People in this
moral dilemmas. stage adhere to e few abstract,
universal principles (e.g.,
 Six Stages of Moral Development Stage 6: equality of all people, respect
 Kohlberg stated that these six stages involve the Universal for human dignity,
way a person reason out a decision that was ethical commitment to justice) that
principle transcend specific norms and
made. Decisions that are made by an individual rules. They answer to a strong
depend on the moral reasoning that the inner conscience and
willingly disobey laws that
individual thought to be right and justifiable but violate their own ethical
not ethical in concern to other parties. principles.
 He also stated that ethical reasoning of an
individual change through time as they grow as 5. GETTING TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL,
an adult from being a child. CONSCIENCE-BASED MORAL DECISIONS
AGE NATURE OF MORAL
LEVEL STAGE  Kohlberg and Piaget have combined theory:
RANGE REASONING
People make decisions based another way of view.
Seen in on what is best for
preschool themselves, without regard  Stage 1: Respect for Power and Punishment
children, most Stage 1: for others’ need or feelings.  A young child (age 1-5) choose what to do –
Level I: elementary Punishment They obey rules only f what is right – according to what he/she wants
Preconventio school students, -avoidance established by more powerful
-nal Morality some junior high and individuals; they may disobey to do and can do without getting into trouble.
school students, obedience if they aren’t likely to get  In this level, to be right, one ought to be
and a few high caught. “Wrong” behaviors
school students. are those that will be
obedient to the people in power and, thus, avoid
punished. punishment.
People recognize that others  “Might makes right”
also have needs. They may
try to satisfy others’ needs if  Stage 2: Looking out for #1
Stage 2: their own needs are also met  Children (age 5-10) are disposed to be egotistic
Exchange (“you scratch my back, I’ll
of favors scratch yours). They continue or self-serving.
to define right and wrong  Instead of loyalty, gratitude, or justice, the case
primarily in terms of is more a matter of “you scratch my back and
consequences to themselves.
People make decisions based I’ll scratch yours”.
Seen in a few on what actions will please  “What’s in it for me?”
older elementary others, especially authority
school students, figures and other individuals  Stage 3: Being a “Good Boy” or “Nice Girl”
Level II:
some junior high with high status (e.g.,  People (age 8-16) have shifted from pleasing
school students, Stage 3: teachers, popular peers). They
Conventiona
and many high Good are concerned about themselves to pleasing important others usually
l Morality
school students boy/girl maintaining relationships parents, teachers, or friends.
(stage 4 typically though sharing, trust, and  When charged of doing something wrong their
does not appear loyalty, and they rake other
until the high people’s perspectives and behavior is likely to be justified by stating
school years) intentions into account when “everyone else is doing it” or “I didn’t intend to
making decisions.
People look to society as
hurt everyone”.
whole guidelines about right  “I want to be nice”
and wrong. They know rules
necessary for keeping society  Stage 4: Law and order thinking
Stage 4: running smoothly and believe  The majority of people (16 years old and older)
Law and it is their “duty” to obey have internalized society’s rules about how to
order them. However, they perceive
rules to be inflexible; they behave.
don’t necessarily recognize  Social control in this age is exercised through
that society’s needs change,
rules should change as well.
guilt associated with breaking a rule; though the
Level III: Rarely seen Stage 5: People recognize that rules guilt in this case is an automatic emotional
Postconventi before college Social represent agreements among response,
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-onal (stage 6 is Contract many individuals about
Morality extremely rare appropriate behavior. Rules
based on moral principles.
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 VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
 In this stage, individuals believe that anyone
breaking the rules deserve to be punished and
“play his/her debt to society”.
 “I’ll do my duty”
 Stage 5: Justice through democracy
 In this stage, people understand the underlying
moral purposes that are supposed to be served
by laws and social customs.
 Respect for the law and a sense of obligation to
live by the rules are present as long as rules
established in a fair manner and fulfill a moral
purpose.
 It is said that only 20-25% of today’s adults
ever reach this stage and most of those that do
not supposedly only get there after their mid-
twenties.
 “I’ll live by the rules or try to change them”
 Stage 6: Deciding on basic moral principles buy
which you will live your life and relate to everyone
fairly
 In this stage, rare people have evaluated many
values and have rationally chosen a philosophy
of life that truly guides their life.
 Social control in this stage is exercised through
guilt associated with the rational reaction of
conscience based on moral principles.
 Reaching this stage is thus seen, at least on
Hohlberg ad Piaget’s theories, as getting to the
highest level, conscience-based moral
decisions.

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