Conservation of Architectural Ironwork - Decay Mechanisms and Hazards by David Mitchell

Mitchell, David S. "Decay mechanisms and hazards." Conservation of Architectural Ironwork. Abingdon: Routledge, 2017.
41–52. Bloomsbury Architecture Library Platform. Web. 29 Oct. 2021. <https://www.bloomsburyarchitecturelibrary.com/

encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9781315685304&tocid=b-9781315685304-chapter3>.
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3 Decay mechanisms and hazards

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Principles of corrosion
There are few areas where there is so much confusion and mythology in the
conservation and maintenance of architectural ironwork as in relation to corrosion.
The process and environmental conditions which induce or accelerate such decay are
however of fundamental importance and should greatly inform our approach,
understanding and decision making process.
There are around ninety metals and only copper, gold, silver, mercury and meteoric-
derived iron are found in their ‘natural’ metallic or stable state.
It is useful to understand that iron oxide is the ‘natural’ state of the material and
anything we do to it is forcing it away from that state in which it is chemically
‘content’ and seems determined to once again return to that state through the
corrosion process. Anything that we do to it in terms of processing, protection or
coating is an attempt to prevent the inevitable – often with variable success. Iron as
steel, cast or wrought iron is fundamentally unstable in general terms unless in low
relative humidity environments, or where a stable oxide layer has formed or been
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created.
Metals corrode fundamentally because we use them in environments where they
are not stable. Gold for example is thermodynamically stable in a normal atmospheric
environment and will be ‘content’ if to remain like that. Most metals are not like
that however and would much prefer to be in their natural occurring mineral form.
Some metals (particularly forms of wrought iron) can form a protective film on
their surface which prevent or slow down corrosion. These layers (usually oxide layers)
can be microscopically thin but highly effective. We will consider this in due course.
To fully understand corrosion a little science is necessary. All matter is composed
of protons, neutrons and electrons. These components combine in different forms to
create elements. There are over 100 elements which have so far been discovered and
illustrated in the Periodic Table. Their shorthand names derive from Latin and for
our purposes the following are in the frame:
• O – Oxygen;
• H – Hydrogen;
• Fe – Iron;
• Zn – Zinc;
• Cu – Copper.

Figure 3.1 Extensive de-lamination of wrought iron railings in an aggressive marine

environment, Western Isles, Scotland
Source: Photograph by the author
Molecules are groups of elements that form a very stable or unstable relationship.
Water in the form of H2O is the best known example with two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom. Ions are formed when atoms, or groups of atoms, lose or gain
electrons. Metals lose some of their electrons to form positively charged ions, e.g.,
Fe2+, Al3+, Cu2+, etc. Non-metals gain electrons and form negatively charged ions,
e.g., Cl–, O–2, S–, etc.
Oxidation and reduction

Metals tend to lose electrons when they are involved in a chemical reaction while
non-metals tend to gain electrons. When an atom or ion loses electrons it is described
as being oxidised, so in the case of iron: Fe to Fe2+ plus 2 free electrons.
These electrons need to go somewhere so they tend to combine with a non-metallic
atom to create a negatively charged ion. The ion or atom which has gained the
electrons is described as being reduced. For most reduction reactions the presence
and availability of oxygen is a key driver in the process of oxidation and inter-
changeable term for corrosion. A useful mnemonic device for remembering this
principle is:
Decay mechanisms and hazards 43

O.I.L. R.I.G. – Oxidation Is a Loss of electrons while Reduction Is a Gain.
As a general rule iron will corrode more readily in an acidic environment than a
neutral or alkaline one.
Corrosion types relative to architectural ironwork

Uniform or general corrosion is a general surface corrosion which causes the metal
surface to roughen from a smooth surface. It is the most common form of corrosion
best demonstrated on steel.
Concentrated cell corrosion happens when two or more areas of a metal surface
come into contact with different concentrations of the same solution. Water in contact
with a metal surface will usually contain dissolved oxygen. An oxygen concentration
cell can develop under deposits on the metal surface – these might be dirt, lap joints,
under gaskets or other materials.
Pitting corrosion is most likely to occur in the presence of chloride ions. A small
‘rust bubble’ forms over the pit and the environment within the bubble usually has
high chloride levels and is more acidic, therefore concentrating corrosion at this
particular point. This type of corrosion can be seen on cast iron surfaces. The pitting
corrosion principle also applies within cracks or crevices. It can be much worse
beneath the surface than it appears.
Contact corrosion is the corrosion produced at the region of contact of metals
with metals or metals with non-metals. Threads on screws and fasteners are common
sources of contact corrosion.
Filiform corrosion is a particular problem for architectural ironwork. It occurs
when moisture gets beneath the paint surface. It is particularly problematic where
there is poor adhesion between the paint and the metal surface. It can start at very
small failures in the paint surface and spread beneath the paint – potentially separating
the interface further and extending the corrosion. Contact damage on assembly of
pre-painted castings can be particularly susceptible to this kind of damage, particularly

on edges where paint adhesion is harder to achieve.
Exfoliation corrosion is typical of certain types of wrought iron and steel. It is
also described as expansive corrosion or de-lamination. Corrosion products cause
expansion of the space between surface grains and de-lamination occurs. The
de-lamination process promotes water penetration and causes other forms of corrosion
and it becomes self-perpetuating. This type of corrosion can be quite spectacular as
the corrosion products expand considerably. Wrought iron interfacing with other
materials and suffering this type of corrosion can often cause stress fractures to the
surrounding materials – commonly with materials with low tensile strength –
particularly stone but also cast iron.
Fretting corrosion happens at the interface between metal surfaces under load,
exacerbated by vibration. This type of corrosion is common with iron wires or chains
rubbing against other iron components. It can also occur where iron components are
bolted together and the bolts are under load and some motion is occurring. Fatigue
cracking can also occur precipitating other forms of corrosion.
Microbial influenced corrosion is caused by corrosion occurring in pits forming
beneath biological matter. A biological film on the metal surface creates a micro-environ-
ment where corrosion can accelerate, and that environment can be very aggressive.

The stress created by expansive corrosion is quite remarkable. Wrought iron
particularly starts to de-laminate or exfoliate as it corrodes expanding as much as ten
times its original volume. Cast iron corrosion products have the same effect although
not so dramatic. This can easily fracture surrounding masonry or cause stress fractures
in surrounding cast ironwork. Wrought iron tends to deform under these conditions.
This effect is sometimes described as ‘corrosion heave’. The image below shows the
remnants of a wrought iron railing surrounding by hot poured lead. The expansive
corrosion stress was so significant that the entire stone cope fractured along its length.
Areas where dissimilar materials find themselves together encouraging galvanic
corrosion (see subsequent section) or where the material is physically constrained –
within masonry, as fixings of some sort (usually wrought iron) are common defects
for historic ironwork. The combination of cast iron structure and wrought iron fixings
is extremely common and one which can become a structural hazard where the fixings
fail. Cast iron facades, fountains and a host of other structures erected in the 19th
century have this as a common problem.
Cast iron railing panels topped by a cast iron cope rail commonly used a thin flat
bar of wrought iron as a fitting strip between the two – where water has penetrated
the resulting ‘heave’ can be very damaging.
This type of expansive corrosion can however look worse than it actually is. Once
removed during conservation work the component may be perfectly serviceable.
Bi-metallic corrosion
Also described as galvanic and sacrificial corrosion, this electrochemical process
occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other in the presence of
an electrolyte and one metal corrodes preferentially to the other based on its potential
to act as an electrode.
Different metals and their alloys have varying potential to act as an anode and
the other as a cathode in the presence of an electrically conductive solution or
electrolyte. Anodic or least noble metals will corrode sacrificially to cathodic or most
noble metals. This relationship is what creates voltage within a simple battery. The
comparative relationship and their potential to behave in this manner is illustrated
in the galvanic series or table.
The electrolytic potential of the electrolyte can accelerate the process and is most
simply illustrated in salt water.
Illustrative examples include:
• zinc (galvanising) corroding to protect underlying iron in corrugated iron until

it fails and the iron then fails quickly;
• zinc bolts (galvanising) corroding to protect cast iron plates;
• iron corroding to protect copper fixings or sheeting (the Statue of Liberty suffered
from this once the shellac insulation had failed); and
• wrought iron bolts corroding to protect cast iron. Since cast and wrought iron
are relatively close to each other the speed of corrosion would be less than that
of galvanised bolts against cast iron but the end result would be the same.
The photograph in Figure 3.2 shows a railing section that was heavily painted
yet was showing extreme corrosion to the horizontal rail. The removal of the paint

Figure 3.2 Lineal fracture of sandstone cope stone from expansive corrosion stress

Figure 3.3 Galvanic corrosion relationship between selective metals

Source: The author
by blasting revealed the cause of the problem – the ring above the rail corroding is
bronze which is causing the wrought iron bar to corrode sacrificially to it. The nature
of this wrought iron is such that the deep corrosion is the pure iron parts of the
wrought iron matrix.
Impact
All ferrous metals are susceptible to damage from impact damage but cast iron
particularly so. While steel and wrought iron will deform under impact (mild steel
less so than wrought iron) cast iron’s weakness is its general lack of ductility.
Depending on the composition of the cast iron it can shatter or fracture if the energy
of impact is sufficient. Vandalism can be problematic but vehicle impacts are most
common.
While the zone of impact and the immediate damage may be more than apparent,
it is important to understand that the damage is likely to extend beyond this area
and may not be visible at first. As client or specifier you should be aware that more
detailed inspection on repair is very likely to identify additional problems. Where

impact damage has happened it is important that close inspection to identify fractures
using dye penetrant or similar happens to identify issues not immediately apparent.
Vegetation
Vegetation growth poses a risk to ironwork in two principle ways – corrosion and
woody growth causing stress fractures. The slow growth of vegetation such as trees
and shrubs will exert stress on ironwork and cast ironwork is particularly susceptible
to this kind of damage. Adjacent growth will stress the ironwork or often surrounding
masonry and the effects of wind movements can cause the growth to exert shock
impacts.
The presence of vegetation in the form of grasses, ferns, etc retain moisture close
to the metal surface and into joints. The wet vegetation forms an ideal corrosive
environment – moist and possibly slightly warmer than the surrounding environment.
This type of corrosion is often seen around gate piers and onto the heel post of a gate.
Wrought iron gates are susceptible to this kind of corrosion. Where the vegetation
starts to affect the movement and operation of gates it can provide additional stress.
Decaying vegetation can release mild acidic compounds which can assist the
formation of active corrosion cells.
Figure 3.4 Vigorous sacrificial corrosion from wrought iron bar to protect bronze ring

Poor interventions
With some irony one of the biggest hazards stems from intervention in an attempt
to be helpful. Inappropriate repairs with incorrect materials can negate the significance
and aesthetic of ironwork but also promote decay.
The ingenuity of approach in effecting repairs to ironwork is quite remarkable –
few other materials prompt such a desire to ‘bodge’ repairs. Repairs might employ
wire, string, plastic cable ties and tape to hold ironwork together.
Poorly executed mechanical repairs by an enthusiastic amateur or more depressingly
by a ‘blacksmith’ (usually self-titled rather than warranted) are often weld repairs
made more in hope than conviction and lead to unsightly, damaging and often
quickly failing repairs.
The application of ‘gunk’ is a curious approach commonly seen with cast ironwork.
The enthusiasm for epoxy fillers for cars in the 1970s found a fair amount smeared
over ironwork thereafter, this developed into all manner of silicone mastics and it is
not unusual to see cement and concrete deployed to make repairs – the bases of railings
in copes can sometimes be shuttered and concrete deployed to cover up all manner
of issues.
Repairs which are correct in principle but not execution are a step in the right
direction but often problematic. The use of incorrect fixings which instantly prompt
galvanic corrosion, sealing in moisture and corrosion activity with paint – the great
temporary fix, welding, plating and pinning are usually delaying the requirement to
undertake the job properly. That is not to say that a temporary repair executed
properly does not have its place – temporary bracing, securing ironwork and even
wiring elements together can be better than nothing but it is a temporary solution
pending further intervention.
Taste
I include this with no apology as a hazard. The introduction of poorly designed,

poorly made ironwork with the wrong details, the wrong materials and some kind
of disturbed nostalgic notion of what historic metalwork should look like is little
short of an abomination and is disrespectful of centuries of skill and understanding.
Perhaps the worst aspect is that it has created a new aesthetic. Mock historic ‘cast
ironwork’ made in aluminium is a particular bugbear – akin to the ‘pestilence’ that
Morris used to describe corrugated iron.
While colour is dealt with elsewhere, the notion that forest green and black are
authentic colour schemes for ironwork is now approaching an international standard,
with gold paint liberally applied to finials and other details rapidly turning brown
in some kind of fairground nightmarish design.
The mixing of styles is perhaps down to personal taste and while not desirable
can be forgiven up to a point. One of my favourite examples is the ironwork replaced
on this Victorian villa of around 1880 during the 1980s revival of interest in the
architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh. Now while I am a fan of Mackintosh and his
undoubted genius, this ironwork jars with the house from a design perspective and
transfers his furniture designs into mild steel – the result is quite spectacular.
Mild steel railing replacement is very common, particularly in the UK where so
much ironwork was given up for the war effort. It is very rare to see this executed

Figure 3.5 Charles Rennie Mackintosh inspired replacement ironwork to 19th century villa,
Stirling, Scotland
well, and the introduction of a pastiche cast or stamped metal railing head welded
on does little to improve the situation. Even cast iron railings can be seen enclosed
in mild steel frames with the railings suspended above the masonry dangling in a
forlorn manner above the stone cope.
The example shown in Figure 3.6 is a combination of horrors. The cope shows
evidence of square bars which have been replicated but not at matching centres. The
railings are not secured to the cope, in fact nothing is secured to the cope at all.
The newel post is in the wrong location and as you can see the step in level between
the two copes has been dealt with in a novel manner by cutting out the mid-section.
A cast iron finial has been deployed atop the newel post, but welded (badly) to a an
oversized piece of steel flat bar, welded to a piece of hollow section, in turn welded
to the cope rail, in turn to another piece of hollow section. There are seven joints in
the newel section which would have had none originally.
Masonry and subsidence

Ironwork and masonry are often found together – sandstone particularly the ideal
partner for architectural metalwork in walls, copes and gate piers where a penetration
into the stone can secure ironwork with hot tamped lead traditionally. Issues affecting

Figure 3.6 A contender for the worst architectural ironwork ever manufactured?

the masonry will invariably affect the ironwork and place stress on the elements until
the point of failure – cast iron particularly.
The build-up of streetscapes in terms of roads and paving can increase lateral load
on railings, with low walls fronting basement areas particularly exposed. Poorly built
masonry in terms of inadequate foundations or changes in ground conditions can
cause lateral or vertical movement.
Stone decay, whether natural or man-made inappropriate interventions can increase

stress on ironwork. The socket penetration to capture the ironwork can be a weak
point for a number of reasons. Where the socket was not dry, the ironwork not
adequately protected, or the lead not staved into the socket and tamped to deflect
rainwater, an ideal environment for a corrosion cell is created which can cause
expansive corrosion which stress fractures the masonry.
Environmental
In this context we should consider immediate environmental conditions and their
effects. As the primary engine of decay, water is key. Relative humidity is integrally
linked to corrosion activity and moisture usually provides the electrolyte for corrosion
to occur. Hot and humid environments with alternate drying periods will accelerate
corrosion.
Maritime environments with salt laden moisture increase the potential of the
electrolyte – the corrosive marine environment is often the one which is home to a
great deal of decorative ironwork ironically. Road salt thrown up in spray causes
similar problems to both ironwork and surrounding masonry. The salt levels of
ironwork in such exposed areas should be tested during any conservation project.
Atmospheric pollution can play a part. Acidic compounds in the atmosphere find
themselves in solution in precipitation and the dilute acid can promote corrosion.
Sulphur compounds from carboniferous fuels commonly form weak sulphurous acid
and carbon deposits from soot can also cause localised attacks. While ‘acid rain’ is
a decreasing problem in more developed countries, developing countries in the process

of rapid industrialisation are exposed in this regard. Chlorides present will further
increase the potential.
Tice illustrated in 1962 that the comparative weight loss from a 4 2 1/8 inch
specimen of iron in one year ranged from 0.16 grams in a dry inland environment
(Egypt) to 14.81 grams in a temperate maritime climate (Frodingham, UK) which
was also an industrial site.
Water in the form of ice and the freeze–thaw cycle is particularly damaging to
porous masonry and brickwork, but also to architectural ironwork where the
expansive action of water (much like corrosion of wrought iron) can exert considerable
pressure and cause stress fractures.
Of particular risk are cast iron components designed to shed water (gutters and
downpipes) which become blocked, the water freezes, expands and has an inadequate
void space into which to expand. Bandstands commonly used supporting columns
to shed surface water from the roof until this problem was realised and stress fractures
arising from freezing in certain climates are commonly found. The penetration of
water into void spaces by poor design or other deterioration can have a similar effect
– cast iron flanges with inadequate jointing material or exposure to standing water
are problematic.

Table 3.1 Loss of iron structures in public parks. Data adapted from Public Park
Assessment: a survey of local authority owned parks focusing on parks of historic
interest, May 2001, Urban Parks Forum1
Feature Total no. of:
Features Lost Unused Abandoned Total lost % of

to use total
Glasshouses 410 236 7 41 284 69.3

Bandstands 438 203 27 22 252 57.5
Fountains 449 141 26 59 226 50.3
Shelters/pavilions 1792 443 23 48 514 28.7
Ornamental gates 1430 350 33 10 393 27.5
Bridges 1041 72 9 17 98 9.4
Inherent design issues

A perpetual conservation dilemma – what do you do when the original design is
fundamentally flawed? A good example is where a wrought iron ornament has been
designed and executed in such a way that it does not shed water, but encourages it
to collect, pond, or even direct into an area with high corrosion potential. While it
may not be appropriate to redesign the original fabric, it can be sensible to ensure
that water run-off is more efficient by ensuring water is encouraged to run off and
potential water traps or faces are well sealed. Where galvanic corrosion potential has
been designed in, it is often possible to use a more appropriate fixing material and
it is good practice to insulate between dissimilar metals.
Other forms of risk

Changes in taste, social change and shifting priorities mean that buildings and
structures can become lost to use unless they are so culturally significant that they
are worthy of preservation in their own right or can be adapted to fulfil new purposes.
Iron structures in public parks have been particularly affected in this regard as the
19th century drive for clean air, exercise and benefactors whims declined.
The Heritage Lottery fund drive to restore such parks in the UK has seen a
remarkable transformation in these assets but has also revealed a challenging picture.
The table above shows numbers of iron structures lost in the UK within public parks.
This picture is likely replicated in many other locations worldwide.
Identification and protection of important structures is therefore necessary to
ensure these cultural assets are preserved for future generations.
Note
1 Urban Parks Forum, Public Park Assessment: a Survey of Local Authority Owned Parks
Focusing on Parks of Historic Interest: Final Report. 2001. Print.

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Mitchell, David S. "Decay mechanisms and hazards." Conservation of Architectural Ironwork. Abingdon: Routledge, 2017.

41–52. Bloomsbury Architecture Library Platform. Web. 29 Oct. 2021. <https://www.bloomsburyarchitecturelibrary.com/

Accessed from: www.bloomsburyarchitecturelibrary.com

3 Decay mechanisms and hazards

42 Decay mechanisms and hazards

Figure 3.1 Extensive de-lamination of wrought iron railings in an aggressive marine

Oxidation and reduction

Decay mechanisms and hazards 43

Corrosion types relative to architectural ironwork

pre-painted castings can be particularly susceptible to this kind of damage, particularly

44 Decay mechanisms and hazards

• zinc (galvanising) corroding to protect underlying iron in corrugated iron until

Source: Photograph by the author

46 Decay mechanisms and hazards

Figure 3.3 Galvanic corrosion relationship between selective metals

Decay mechanisms and hazards 47

48 Decay mechanisms and hazards

I include this with no apology as a hazard. The introduction of poorly designed,

Decay mechanisms and hazards 49

Masonry and subsidence

Source: Photograph by the author

Decay mechanisms and hazards 51

Stone decay, whether natural or man-made inappropriate interventions can increase

a decreasing problem in more developed countries, developing countries in the process

52 Decay mechanisms and hazards

Feature Total no. of:

Features Lost Unused Abandoned Total lost % of

Glasshouses 410 236 7 41 284 69.3

Inherent design issues

Other forms of risk

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