POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY

Now let’s talk about Porosity and Permeability. This is the measure of how water infiltrates
and percolates through the ground depends on what it is flowing through.

Porosity is a measure of the void spaces in a material. It is the percent of rock or sediment that
consists of open space. Groundwater moves through the spaces between soil particles. These
spaces are called pores. The total amount of water a material will hold depends on the number
and size of pores in soils.

 Sandy soils drain well but do not retain water

 Clay soils hold water but do not drain easily

While Permeability is the ease with which water passes through a porous material. It is a
measure of the ability of a material (such as rocks) to transmit fluids. Factors affecting
permeability include:

 How large the pores in the substances are

 How well the particles fit together.
 The size and sorting of the particles.

How does these two relate? Porosity and Permeability are related properties of any rock or
loose sediment. Both are related to the number, size, and connections of openings in the rock.
More specifically, porosity of a rock is a measure of its ability to hold a fluid. Mathematically, it is
the open space in a rock divided by the total rock volume (solid and space). Permeability is a
measure of the ease of flow of a fluid through a porous solid. A rock may be extremely porous,
but if the pores are not connected, it will have no permeability. Likewise, a rock may have a few
continuous cracks which allow ease of fluid flow, but when porosity is calculated, the rock
doesn't seem very porous.

Louisiana subsurface sediments consist mostly of gravel, sand and clay. Clay is the most
porous sediment but is the least permeable. Clay usually acts as an aquitard, impeding the flow
of water. Gravel and sand are both porous and permeable, making them good aquifer materials.
Gravel has the highest permeability.
HEAVY METALS

The term heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has a relatively high density
and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. These are also elements or compounds found
in water supplies and may be natural in the geology or caused by activities of man through
mining, industry or agriculture. They can neither be degraded nor destroyed. To a small extent
they enter our bodies via food, drinking water and air. As trace elements, some heavy metals
(e.g. copper, selenium, zinc) are essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body.
However, at higher concentrations they can lead to poisoning. Heavy metal poisoning could
result, for instance, from drinking-water contamination (e.g., lead pipes), high ambient air
concentrations near emission sources, or intake via the food chain.

Heavy metals are dangerous because they tend to bioaccumulate. Bioaccumulation means an
increase in the concentration of a chemical in a biological organism over time, compared to the
chemical's concentration in the environment. Compounds accumulate in living things any time
they are taken up and stored faster than they are broken down (metabolized) or excreted.

One example of this is Nitrate & Nitrite. These are compounds that are present in chemical
fertilizers, human sewage, and animal waste and fertilizers. They can contaminate a private well
or surface water source through groundwater movement and surface water seepage and water
run-off.  Nitrates are essential plant nutrients, but in excess amounts they can cause significant
water quality problems. Together with phosphorus, nitrates in excess amounts can accelerate
eutrophication, causing dramatic increases in aquatic plant growth and changes in the types of
plants and animals that live in the stream.

Another example is Organic chemical. Organic Chemicals are carbon-containing compounds

that evaporate easily from water into air at normal air temperatures. Organic Contaminants are
used as pesticides, defoliants, fuel additives and as ingredients for other organic compounds.

VOCs & SOCs are generally man-made products including fuel oils, gasoline, solvents, cleaners
and degreasers, paints, inks, dyes, refrigerants and pesticides

Last example is Radionuclides. Radionuclides are radioactive isotopes that can occur naturally
or result from manmade sources. Natural radiation comes from cosmic rays, naturally occurring
radioactive elements in the earth’s crust, and radioactive decay products.
Typical radionuclides found in drinking water sources are isotopes of radium, uranium, and
radon that are naturally occurring on our bedrock
MICROORGANISMS

Various types of bacteria/viruses are categorized as pathogens, disease-causing organisms that

can be found in pretreated and/or inadequately treated water. An example of this is Pathogenic
microorganisms.

Pathogenic microorganisms - are important pollutants that directly affect human health.
Water-borne pathogen contamination in ambient water bodies and related diseases are a major
water quality concern throughout the world. Water-borne diseases (i.e., diarrhea,
gastrointestinal illness) are caused by various bacteria, viruses, protozoa, algae, and fungi.

A major pathogen is fecal coliform bacteria (i.e., Escherichia coli) that is the bacteria that
normally live in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and indicate contamination by
animal wastes. Other bacterial pathogens include Vibrio cholera which cause cholera,
and Shigella and Salmonella that cause dysentery. Other types of microorganisms that could
contribute to biological water pollution are: protozoa (such as Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia
lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica that cause diseases such as Cryptosporidiosis, Giardiasis, and
Amoebiasis); viruses such as Coronavirus, Hepatitis A virus (HAV) that cause Hepatitis A, and
Poliovirus which cause Poliomyelitis; algae such as Desmodesmus armatus that cause
desmodesmus infection; and several fungi such as Aspergillus which most frequently affects the
lungs. Some higher organisms such as nematodes could be present in water and lead to water-
borne disease 

Such species can be introduced into water bodies as the result of municipal and industrial
wastewater discharges, or as a result of aquaculture activities. In addition to causing diseases,
the presence of these organisms in water could alter the original microbial floral community in
those water bodies.

Transmission of pathogens microorganism may also occur from exposure to infected persons
who are asymptomatic. This is the case for tuberculosis which infects approximately one in
three people of whom only a small number go on to develop disease and for Staphylococcus
aureus, which is an opportunistic pathogen that colonizes human skin. 

Once an infectious pathogen microorganism has transmitted to a new host, it may cause
disease directly or after a prolonged period. Acute infections like influenza, rhinovirus and
Bacillus anthracis lead to the rapid progression of symptoms usually within a few days. 
CORROSION

Corrosion is a complex series of reactions between the water and metal surfaces and materials in which
the water is stored or transported. It is an oxidation/reduction reaction that returns refined or
processed metal to their more stable ore state. Corrosion is accelerated by:

 Low pH or high pH
 High velocity
 High temperature
 Dissolved solids, salts, sulfates, etc.
 Suspended solids, sand, sediment, etc.
 Bacteria and electrochemical reactions.

The Langelier Saturation Index (LI), a measure of a solution’s ability to dissolve or deposit calcium
carbonate, is often used as an indicator of the corrosivity of water. The index is not related directly to
corrosion but is related to the deposition of a calcium carbonate film or scale; this covering can insulate
pipes, boilers, and other components of a system from contact with water.

The Langelier Index is defined as the difference between actual pH (measured) and calculated pHs or LSI
= pH(actual) – pH(saturation). The magnitude and sign of the LI value show water’s tendency to form or
dissolve scale, and thus to inhibit or encourage corrosion.

Now, before we discuss on how to calculate the pH (pHs = A B C – D), let us first define the following
terms:

 pH - pH is an indicator of hydrogen ions concentration in the water, which is an index of

water corrosivity. The lower the pH, the more aggressive the water in corrosion. Low pH may
increase corrosion rate and the strength of oxidizing agents; high pH may protect pipes by
favoring effective passivation films and decrease corrosion rates; high pH leads to pitting and
SCC and faster degradation of biocide in use. 
 Alkalinity - alkalinity is the quantity of dissolved earth minerals expressed as CaCO 3, Ca
(HCO3)2 or Ca (OH)2 . It is an indicator of scale tendency. 
 Total dissolved solids (tds) - TDS is a surrogate for ionic strength, which increases
conductivity and corrosion rate unless offset by the formation of passivating films.
 Hardness (Ca and Mg) - Hardness is the total Ca, Mg, Fe and other metals, it is calculated
as CaCO3. therefore, it easily mis-concepted with alkalinity.

With this said, the formula for calculating the pH is:

pH(s) = Temperature factor + TDS factor – Hardness factor – Alkalinity

LOGARITHMIC SCALE

A logarithmic scale is a nonlinear scale often used when analyzing a large range of quantities.
Instead of increasing in equal increments, each interval is increased by a factor of the base of
the logarithm. Typically, a base ten and base e scale are used. What this means is that for
every one value of y, the value of x will increase by a factor of ten, and vice versa. Using a
logarithmic scale can be useful when creating graphs to compress the scale and make the data
easier to comprehend. Examples of this is:

 The pH scale - A commonly used logarithmic scale is the pH scale, used when
analyzing acids and bases. What the pH scale is doing is measuring the concentration
of hydrogen ions (H+) in a substance, and is given by the equation. By this, for
every one decrease (due to the negative sign) in the pH, the acidity increases by a factor
of ten (A pH of 3 is 10 times more acidic than a pH of 4 and is 100 times more acidic
than a pH of 5).

 Sound - The way sound is picked up by one's ears is of logarithmic nature.

The decibel (dB) system of sound intensity is a measure of how loud a sound is to one's
ears. It is represented by the equation
where is the threshold of hearing and is the intensity of the sound.[3] A conversation is
roughly 1 million times more intense than the threshold value. The corresponding decibel
value is then. Now, if two people are talking at once, that only raises the dB to 63 db. So,
a doubling of sound intensity just leads to +3dB. The threshold of pain is about 120 dB
and that causes hearing loss.

 The Richter Scale - Earthquakes are measured on the Richter Scale, which is a base
10 logarithmic scale. This scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake, which is the
amount of energy released by it. For every single increase on this scale, the magnitude
is increased by a factor of 10.

The reason to use logarithmic scales is to resolve an issue with visualizations that skew towards
large values in a dataset. For example, if a few points of data are much larger than most of the
data, the use of a logarithmic scale will provide better data visualization and will make it easier
to spot patterns and identify relationships.
THE PH SCALE

Most people are familiar with the words acid and acidic—whether it’s because of acid rain or
acidic foods like lemon juice. However, fewer people are aware of acid’s opposite: base (also
called alkaline). Basic substances include things like baking soda, soap, and bleach. Distilled
water is a neutral substance. The pH scale, which measures from 0 to 14, provides an indication
of just how acidic or basic a substance is.

Most parts of our body (excluding things like stomach acid) measure around 7.2 and 7.6 on the
pH scale (a 7 is neutral on the scale). If foreign strong substances dramatically change this pH,
our bodies can no longer function properly.

This pH test measures the amount of hydrogen ions that exists in a given solution. High
concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH (acidic substances), whereas low levels of
hydrogen ions result in a high pH (basic substances). The overall concentration of hydrogen
ions is inversely related to its pH and can be measured on
the pH scale.

Pure water is neutral. It is neither acidic nor basic and has a

pH of 7.0. Anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0 to 6.9) is
acidic, and anything above 7.0 (from 7.1 to 14.0) is alkaline.
The blood in your veins is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.4). The
environment in your stomach is highly acidic (pH = 1 to 2).
Orange juice is mildly acidic (pH = approximately 3.5),
whereas baking soda is basic (pH = 9.0).

Signs of low pH

 Blue/green staining with copper plumbing

 Leaks in plumbing
 Red or rust-colored staining with galvanized steel
or cast-iron plumbing
 Corrosion and leaching
 Metal toxicity
 Sour taste
 Feels slippery

Signs of high pH

 Scale builds up on fixture and shower doors

 Reduced water flow
 Scale accumulation at the bottom of tank water heaters
 Bitter taste
WATER HARDNESS

The simple definition of water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in
the water. Hard water is high in dissolved minerals, largely calcium and magnesium. You may
have felt the effects of hard water, literally, the last time you washed your hands. Depending on
the hardness of your water, after using soap to wash you may have felt like there was a film of
residue left on your hands. In hard water, soap reacts with the calcium (which is relatively high
in hard water) to form "soap scum". When using hard water, more soap or detergent is needed
to get things clean, be it your hands, hair, or your laundry.
Measures of water hardness.

Hardness is caused by compounds of

calcium and magnesium, and by a variety
of other metals. General guidelines for
classification of waters are: 0 to 60 mg/L
(milligrams per liter) as calcium carbonate
is classified as soft; 61 to 120 mg/L as
moderately hard; 121 to 180 mg/L as hard;
and more than 180 mg/L as very hard.

Difference between hard water and soft

water.

You may have heard water referred to as being either hard or soft, but what does that really
mean? The mineral content of water affects how it is classified on a scale ranging from hard to
soft.
The hardness or softness of water is determined by the mineral content of both calcium
and magnesium: 

 Soft water has less than 17 parts per million

 Slightly hard water has 17 to 60 parts per million
 Moderately hard water has 60 to 120 parts per million
 Hard water has 120 to 180 parts per million‌
 Very hard water has greater than 180 parts per million 

Soft water- Corrosion occurs because of the lack of dissolved cations, such as
calcium and magnesium.

Hard water- Creates a coating of calcium or magnesium carbonate on the inside of

the pipes protecting it from corrosion
TOTAL ALKALINITY
Total alkalinity (TA) is the measure of water’s ability to neutralize acids. Alkaline compounds that are
present in water, like hydroxides and carbonates, eliminate H+ ions from the water, which lowers the
acidity of the water and results in a higher pH.

Total alkalinity is gauged by measuring the levels of acid required to bring a certain sample’s pH level to
4.2. At this level, all alkaline compounds are completely used up. Measuring alkalinity is vital in
identifying the capacity of water to neutralize the acidic and corrosive effects from wastewater and other
sources, such as rainfall

Total alkalinity is the measure of the alkalinity of substances present in water. When the TA level is
within appropriate levels, fast pH changes are prevented, which in turn balances the pH levels.

If the total alkalinity is too high, it can be hard to regulate the pH. With this, the water turns cloudy, and
the water may continuously need acid, depending on the results of testing. When this happens, the
chlorine in the water becomes less efficient in disinfecting.

The levels of TA can be raised, when necessary, with the use of compounds like sodium carbonate. When
lowering the TA, acid in dry or liquid form can be added, such as dry acid and hydrochloric acid. Both
can be time-consuming processes but are guaranteed to provide appropriate solutions.

Buffers are weak acids and bases that are designed to resist rapid changes to pH; they contribute H+
ions (or absorb OH- ions) when a base is added and absorb H+ ions when an acid is added

Major contributors to total alkalinity can stand on their own to protect pH, while minor contributors
cannot. (They will still contribute to the overall total alkalinity reading.

Major contributors are:

 Carbonates,
 Bicarbonates,
 Hydroxides

While minor contributors are:

 Cyanuric acid
 Borates
 Silicates
 phosphates
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

TDS in water supplies originate from natural sources,

sewage, urban and agricultural run-off, and industrial
wastewater. Salts used for road de-icing can also
contribute to the TDS loading of water supplies.

TDS is the total of all dissolved solid matter such as

minerals, metals, salts and contaminants in the water.

TDS levels are often determined with a conductivity

meter, which measure the water's ability to conduct
an electric current. The greater the concentration of
charged particles (to include both positive and
negative ions), the more freely electric current can flow through the water.

HOW DO THESE SOLIDS END UP DISSOLVED IN WATER?

These minerals can originate from several sources, both natural and as a result of human activities.
Mineral springs contain water with high levels of dissolved solids, because the water has flowed through
a region where the rocks have a high salt content. The water in the Prairie provinces tends to have high
levels of dissolved solids, because of high amounts of calcium and magnesium in the ground.

WHAT HAPPENS TO THE WATER WHEN THE TDS LEVEL IS HIGH?

Alone, a high concentration of dissolved solids is usually not a health hazard. In fact, many people buy
mineral water, which has naturally elevated levels of dissolved solids. The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), which is responsible for drinking water regulations in the United States,
includes TDS as a secondary standard, meaning that it is a voluntary guideline in the United States.
While the United States set legal standards for many harmful substances, TDS, along with other
contaminants that cause aesthetic, cosmetic and technical effects, has only a guideline.

HOW CAN WATER TREATMENT FACILITIES REMOVE TDS?

Water treatment facilities can use reverse osmosis to remove the dissolved solids in the water that are
responsible for elevated TDS levels. Reverse osmosis removes virtually all dissolved substances,
including many harmful minerals, such as salt and lead. It also removes healthy minerals, such as
calcium and magnesium, and ideally such water should be filtered through a magnesium and calcium
mineral bed to add the minerals to the water.
TEMPERATURE

Usually, a temperature increase directly leads to a higher corrosion rate because electrochemical or
biological reactions generally occur faster at higher temperatures.

Temperature increases add energy to the reactions, which increases the corrosion rate. Most corrosion
models are accurate only within prescribed temperature ranges

Water temperature is one of the most important characteristics of an aquatic system, affecting:

 Dissolved oxygen levels. The solubility of oxygen decreases as water temperature

increases.
 Chemical processes. Temperature affects the solubility and reaction rates of
chemicals. In general, the rate of chemical reactions increases with increasing water
temperature.
 Biological processes. Temperature affects metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
 Species composition of the aquatic ecosystem. Many aquatic species can survive
only within a limited temperature range.
 Water density and stratification. Water is most dense at 4ºC. Differences in water
temperature and density between layers of water in a lake leads to stratification and
seasonal turnover.
 Environmental cues for life-history stages. Changes in water temperature may act as
a signal for aquatic insects to emerge or for fish to spawn.

The most important source of heat for fresh water is generally the sun, although temperature
can also be affected by the temperature of water inputs (such as precipitation, surface runoff,
groundwater, and water from upstream tributaries), heat exchanges with the air, and heat lost or
gained by evaporation or condensation.

Dissolved Oxygen

The amount of oxygen that dissolves in water can vary in daily and seasonal patterns, and
decreases with higher temperature, salinity, and elevation. The maximum solubility of oxygen in
water at 1 atm pressure (standard air pressure at sea level) ranges from about 15 mg/L at 0ºC
to 8 mg/L at 30ºC—that is, ice-cold water can hold twice as much dissolved oxygen as warm
water. Dissolved oxygen comes from the atmosphere and from photosynthesis by aquatic plants
and is depleted through chemical oxidation and respiration by aquatic animals and
microorganisms, especially during the decomposition of plant biomass and other organic
material.