SIM1003 (2021/ 22 Sem 1)

Chapter 8 Techniques of Integration

8.1 (i) Basic Integration Formulas
(Table 8.1 Page 466 and Table 7.11 Page 451, Example in Sec 7.6 & 7.7)
(ii) Basic substitutions (Example 1 page 458, Example 7 page 461 and Example in Sec 7.6 & 7.7)
(iii) Completing the square (Example 7 page 433 and Example 2 page 459)
(iv) Use Identities (Example 3 page 460)
(v) Multiply by a form 1 (Example 4 page 460)
(vi) Improper Fractions (Example 5 page 460)
(vii) Separate the integrand (Example 6 page 461)

8.2 Integration by parts 8.3 Trigonometric Integrals 8.4 Trigonometric Substitutions

8.5 Partial Fractions 8.7 Improper Integrals

Example: Evaluate
1/ 4 2 sec 2 (sec−1 x)dx dx
(1) ∫e
tan πθ 2
sec πθ dθ (2) ∫ 2
(3) ∫2 x + 2x
0 x x 2 −1
2 ln 4
2
(4) ∫ sinh 2 xdx (5)
∫e
x
cosh xdx
0 0

Solution:
(1) Let u = tan πθ . Then du = π sec 2 πθdθ . When θ = 0, u = 0; when θ = 1/4, u = 1.
1/4 1 1
u du eu ⎤
∫ e sec πθ dθ = ∫ e π = π ⎥ = π1 e1 − e 0 = π1 (e − 1).
tan πθ 2
( )
0 0 ⎦0
dx
(2) Let u = sec−1 x . Then du = .
x x 2 −1
When x = 2 , u = sec−1 2 = cos−1 (1 / 2 ) = π / 4 ; When x = 2 , u = sec−1 2 = cos−1 (1 / 2) = π / 3 .
π /3
2 sec 2 (sec−1 x)dx 2 π /3 π π
∫ 2
= ∫ sec u du = tan x ]π /4 = tan
3
− tan = 3 −1 .
4
x x 2 −1 π /4

dx dx du 1
(3) ∫2 =∫ =∫ where u = 1 + x and du = dx
x + 2x 2 x 1+ x ( ) u 2 x
= ln | u | +C = ln | 1 + x | +C = ln(1 + x ) + C (∵ 1 + x > 0 ∀x > 0)
2 2 2
2 cosh 4 x − 1 1 ⎡ sinh 4 x ⎤ 1 ⎡ sinh 8 ⎤
(4) ∫ sinh 2 xdx = ∫ 2
dx = ⎢
2 ⎣ 4
− x⎥ = ⎢
⎦ 0 2 ⎣ 4
− 2⎥ ≈ 185.3
⎦
0 0

ln 4 ln 4 ln 4
e x (e x + e − x ) 1
ln 4
⎡ 2x
dx = ∫ (e2 x + 1)dx = 1 ⎢ e + x⎥
x ⎤
(5) ∫e cosh xdx = ∫ 2 2 0 2⎣ 2 ⎦
0 0 0

1 ⎡ e2 ln 4
= ⎢
2⎣ 2
1 ⎤ 1 ⎡ eln16
+ ln 4 − ⎥ = ⎢
2⎦ 2 ⎣ 2
1 ⎤ 15
+ 2 ln 2 − ⎥ =
2⎦ 4
+ ln 2 .
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Section 8.2 Integration by parts (Page 470-475)

Integration by Parts Formula (Page 471) ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du

2
−1 −1
Example: Evaluate (1) ∫ tan xdx (2) ∫ x sec xdx
2/ 3
Solution:
dx
(1) Let u = tan 1x and dv = dx. Then du =
−
and v = x.
1 + x2
x 1 dw
∫ tan
−1
xdx = ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu = x tan −1 x − ∫ 2
dx = x tan −1 x − ∫ (Let w = 1 + x2)
1+ x 2 w
1 −1 1 2
= x tan −1 x − ln | w | +C = x tan x − ln(1 + x ) + C .
2 2
(2) Let u = sec 1x and dv = xdx. Then du =
− dx and v = x2/2.
x x2 − 1
2 3
2
x2 2π 2 ⎛ π ⎞ dw (Let w = x2−1.)
x sec xdx = udv = uv − vdu = x sec−1 x⎤⎥
−1 2
∫ ∫ 2
∫ ⎦2/
−∫
2/ 3
2x x2 −1
dx = − ⎜ ⎟− ∫
3 3 ⎝ 6 ⎠ 1/ 3 4 w
3

3
5π w⎤ 5π 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 5π − 3 3 .
= − ⎥ = − ⎜ 3− ⎟=−
9 2 ⎦1 / 3 9 2 ⎝ 3⎠ 9

Tabular Integration
4 −2 x
Example: Evaluate ∫ x e dx .

Solution: Let f(x) = x4 and g(x) = e 2x. −

f(x) and its derivatives g(x) and its integrals

x4 e 2x −

4x3 − 12 e −2 x
12x2
1
4
e −2 x

24x − 18 e −2 x
1 −2 x
24 16
e
1 −2 x
0 − 32 e

∴ 4 −2 x
∫x e (
dx = − 4e12 x 2x 4 + 4x 3 + 6x 2 + 6x + 3 + C . )
8.3 Trigonometric Integrals (Page 478)
1. Basic formulas 2. Basic substitutions 3. Integration by parts
4. Use Identities 5. Multiply by a form 1 6. Eliminate Square roots
7. Products of powers of sines and cosines 8. Integrals of powers of tan x, sec x, csc x and cot x
9. Products of sines and cosines (multiple angles)

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Example:
2 2 2
1. ∫ (sec x + tan x) dx = ∫ (sec x + 2 sec x tan x + tan x)dx
= ∫ (sec 2 x + 2 sec x tan x + sec 2 x − 1)dx = 2 tan x + 2 sec x − x + C

π π π
2
2. ∫ 1 − cos 4 x dx = ∫ 2 sin 2x dx = 2 ∫ sin 2 x dx
0 0 0

⎛π / 2 π ⎞ ⎛ cos 2 x ⎤π / 2 cos 2 x ⎤π ⎞
= 2 ⎜⎜ ∫ sin 2 xdx − ∫ sin 2 xdx ⎟⎟ = 2 ⎜⎜ − ⎥ + 2 ⎥ ⎟ =2 2
⎟
⎝ 0 π / 2 ⎠ 2 ⎦ 0 ⎦ π /2 ⎠
⎝

Example 3 & 4, Section 8.1, Page 467

Integrals of tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant functions (Page 402 Section 7.2)
1. ∫ tan xdx = ln | sec x | +C 2. ∫ sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x | +C
3. ∫ cot xdx = ln | sin x | +C 4. ∫ csc xdx = − ln | csc x + cot x | +C
Example:
sin x − du −1
1. ∫ tan xdx = ∫ cos x dx = ∫ = − ln | u | +C (let u = cosx) = ln | cos x | +C = ln | sec x | +C .
u

sec x + tan x sec 2 x + sec x tan x du

2. ∫ sec xdx = ∫ sec x sec x + tan x dx = ∫ sec x + tan x dx = ∫ u (let u = sec x + tan x)
= ln | u | +C = ln | sec x + tan x | +C

Products of Powers of Sines and Cosines (Page 479)

m n
Integrals of the form ∫ sin x cos xdx , where m and n are nonnegative integers.
Case 1: m is odd or n is odd
(1.1) When m is odd and n is even
m m−1 2 2
Write sin x = sin sin x and use the identity sin x = 1 − cos x .
Then solve the integral by substituting u = cos x. (See Example 1 page 472)
(1.2) When n is odd and m is even
n n −1 2 2
Write cos x = cos cos x and use the identity cos x = 1 − sin x .
Then solve the integral by substituting u = sin x. (See Example 2 page 473)
(1.3) When m and n are odd
Both methods in (1.1) and (1.2) can be applied.
Case 2: Both m and n are even
2 1 2 1
Use the identities sin x = 2 (1 − cos 2 x) and cos x = 2 (1 + cos 2 x) .
To reduce the integrand to one in lower powers of cos2x. (See Example 3 page 473)

Example:
π /2 π /2 π /2
4 3 4 2 4 2
(1) ∫ 35 sin x cos xdx = 35 ∫ sin x cos x cos xdx = 35 ∫ (sin x)(1 − sin x) cos xdx
0 0 0
1 1
= 35 ∫ u 4 (1 − u 2 )du
0
4

0
6 5
[
(where u = sin x) = 35 ∫ (u − u )du = 7u − 5u
7
] 1
0 =2.

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(2)
7 5 7 4 7 2
(
∫ sin x cos xdx = ∫ sin x cos x cos xdx = ∫ sin x cos x cos xdx )( )
2

= ∫ (sin 7 x)(1 − sin 2 x) 2 cos xdx = ∫ u 7 (1 − 2u 2 + u 4 )du where u = sin x

u8 u10 u12 1
= ∫ (u 7 − 2u 9 + u11 )du = −
8 5
+
12
+C =
120
(
15 sin 8 x − 24 sin10 x + 10 sin12 x + C )
Or
7 5 6 5 2 5
(
∫ sin x cos xdx = ∫ sin x sin x cos xdx = ∫ sin x cos x sin xdx )3

= ∫ (1 − cos 2 x) 3 cos 5 x sin xdx = − ∫ u 5 (1 − u 2 ) 3 du where u = cos x

= − ∫ u 5 (1 − 3u 2 + 3u 4 − u 6 )du = − ∫ (u 5 − 3u 7 + 3u 9 − u11 )du
u 6 3u8 3u10 u12 1
=− +
6 8
−
10
+
12
+C = −
120
(
20 cos6 x − 45 cos8 x + 36 cos10 x − 10 cos12 x + C )

Integrals of Powers of tan x, sec x, ccs x and cot x (Page 481)

Use the identities 1 + tan 2 x = sec 2 x and 1 + cot 2 x = csc 2 x .
Integrate by substitution or by parts when necessary to reduce the powers to lower powers.
Example 5 (page 481), Example 6 (page 481) and Example 7 page 482.

Products of Sines and Cosines

Integrals of the forms ∫ sin mx sin nx dx , ∫ sin mx cos nx dx and ∫ cos mx cos nx dx .
Use the identities sin mx sin nx = 2 [cos(m − n) x − cos(m + n) x ]
1

sin mx cos nx = 1
2
[sin(m − n) x + sin(m + n) x]
cos mx cos nx = 1
2
[cos(m − n) x + cos(m + n) x]
By combining some of the following identities, we obtain the above identities.
sin( mx + nx ) = sin mx cos nx + cos mx sin nx
sin( mx − nx ) = sin mx cos nx − cos mx sin nx
cos(mx + nx ) = cos mx cos nx − sin mx sin nx
cos(mx − nx ) = cos mx cos nx + sin mx sin nx
Example 8 page 483
Remarks:
cos mx sin mx
(1) ∫ sin mxdx = − m
+C (2) ∫ cos mxdx = m
+C

2 1 − cos 2 x 2 1 + cos 2 x
(3) ∫ sin xdx = ∫
2
dx (4) ∫ cos xdx = ∫
2
dx

2
(5) ∫ tan xdx =∫ (sec2 x − 1)dx (6) ∫ cot
2
xdx =∫ (csc2 x − 1)dx

2 2
(7) ∫ csc xdx = − cot x + C (8) ∫ sec xdx = tan x + C

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8.4 Trigonometric Substitution (Page 484)

v For integrals involving a2 − x2 , a2 + x2 and x2 − a2 .

v 3 basic trigonometric substitutions are x = a sin θ , x = a tan θ and x = a secθ .

Form Substitution

x = a sin θ , π π
− ≤θ ≤
2 2 2 2
a −x
(Use 1 − sin 2 θ = cos2 θ to eliminate the square root.)
π π
a2 + x2 x = a tan θ , − <θ < (Use 1 + tan 2 θ = sec2 θ )
2 2

x = a secθ , π (Use sec2 θ − 1 = tan 2 θ )

x2 − a2 0 ≤θ ≤
2

Remark:
2 a
(1) For a 2 − (bx ) , substitute x = sin θ .
b
(2) For a 2 + (bx )
2
, substitute x = a tan θ .
b
a
(3) For (bx )2 − a 2 , substitute x = secθ .
b

Procedure for a trigonometric substitution (Page 485)

Example: Use a suitable substitution to evaluate

dx
(1) ∫ 16 + 25 x 2 (2) ∫ 9 − 4 x 2 dx

3
12dx 2 x 2 dx
(3) ∫ x2 (4) ∫
x 2 − 36 0 (4 − x 2 ) 3 / 2

Solution:
4 tan θ π π 4
(1) Let x = , − < θ < . Then dx = sec 2 θ dθ and
5 2 2 5
2
⎛ 4 tan θ ⎞
16 + 25 x 2 = 16 + 25⎜ 2 2
⎟ = 4 1 + tan θ = 4 sec θ = 4 | sec θ |= 4 sec θ (∵ − π / 2 < θ < π / 2) .
⎝ 5 ⎠
1 1 ⎛4 2 ⎞ 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ ⎜ sec θ dθ ⎟ = ∫ secθ dθ = ln | secθ + tan θ | +C
16 + 25 x 2 4 secθ ⎝5 ⎠ 5 5

1 16 + 25 x 2 5 x
= ln + +C
5 4 4

1
=
20
ln ( )
16 + 25x 2 + 5x + C1 .

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3 sin θ π π 3
(2) Let x = , − < θ < . Then dx = cosθdθ and
2 2 2 2
2
2 ⎛ 3 sin θ ⎞ 2
9 − 4 x = 9 − 4⎜ ⎟ = 3 cos θ = 3 | cosθ |= 3 cosθ (∵ − π / 2 < θ < π / 2) .
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛3 ⎞ 9
∫ 9 − 4 x 2 dx = ∫ (3 cos θ )⎜ cos θ dθ ⎟ = ∫ cos 2 θ dθ
⎝2 ⎠ 2
9 cos 2θ + 1 9 ⎛ sin 2θ ⎞
= ∫ dθ = ⎜ +θ ⎟ + C
2 2 4⎝ 2 ⎠
9
= (sin θ cosθ + θ ) + C
4
2
9 ⎡ 2 x ⎛⎜ 9 − 4 x 2 ⎞ ⎤
⎟ + sin −1 ⎛⎜ 2 x ⎞⎟⎥ + C = x 9 − 4 x + 9 sin −1 ⎛⎜ 2 x ⎞⎟ + C .
= ⎢
4⎢ 3 ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎥⎦ 2 4 ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎣ ⎝ ⎠

π
(3) Let x = 6 secθ , 0 < θ < . Then dx = 6 secθ tan θdθ and
2
x 2 − 36 = 36 sec 2 θ − 36 = 6 tan 2 θ = 6 | tan θ |= 6 tan θ (∵ − π / 2 < θ < π / 2) .

12dx 12
∫ x2 =∫ (6 secθ tan θ dθ )
x 2 − 36 (6 secθ ) 2 (6 tan θ )
1 1 1
= ∫ dθ = ∫ cosθ dθ
3 secθ 3
1 x 2 − 36
= sin θ + C = + C.
3 3x

(4) Let x = 2 sin θ . Then dx = 2 cosθdθ .

π
When x = 0, θ = 0 ; x = 3 , θ = .
3

4 − x 2 = 4 − (2 sin θ )2 = 2 cos 2 θ = 2 | cosθ |= 2 cosθ (∵ 0 < θ < π / 3) .

3
2 x 2 dx π /3
2(4sin 2 θ )
∫ (4 − x 2 ) 3 / 2
= ∫ (2cosθ )3 2cosθ dθ
0 0

π /3 π /3
= 2 ∫ tan 2 θ dθ = 2 ∫ (sec 2 θ −1) dθ
0 0

π /3 ⎡ π⎤
= 2⎡⎣ tan θ − θ ⎤⎦ = 2⎢ 3 − ⎥ .
0
⎣ 3⎦

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8.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions (Page 489 – 495)

8.8 Improper Integrals

Type I Improper Integrals: Definition (Page 513)
Type II Improper Integrals: Definition (Page 516)
Remark: If y = f(x) is nonnegative and integrable over [a, b], then the area under the curve y = f(x) over
b
[a, b] is given by
∫ f ( x)dx .
a
* An improper integral (Type I or Typye II) also can be interpreted as an area if f ≥ 0 on the interval of
integration (see Example 1 and Example 2 in page 479). The area is infinite if the improper integral
diverges.

⎧ 1
∞ ⎪⎪ converges to if p >1
∞
1 1 p −1
The integral ∫ dx : ∫ dx = ⎨ . Proof: In Example 3 Page 480.
1
xp 1 xp ⎪
⎪⎩ diverges if p ≤1

Tests for Convergence and Divergence

When an improper integral can’t be evaluated by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus because an
antiderivative can’t be found, we may still able to determine whether the integral converges (or diverges)
by comparing it with one integral whose convergence (divergence) properties are known.
Theorem 2: Direct Comparison Test (Page 518)
Let f and g be continuous on [a, ∞). Then
∞ ∞
(1) 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g (x) for all x ≥ a and ∫ g ( x)dx converges ⇒ ∫ f ( x)dx converges.
a a
∞ ∞
(2) 0 ≤ g (x) ≤ f (x) for all x ≥ a and ∫ g ( x)dx diverges ⇒ ∫ f ( x)dx diverges.
a a

∞
CAUTION: DO NOT USE the Direct Comparison Test to test ∫ f ( x)dx when
a
∞ ∞
(i) f (x) ≤ g (x) and ∫ g ( x)dx diverges; or (ii) g (x) ≤ f (x) and ∫ g ( x)dx converges.
a a

Example 7 (Page 513):

sin 2 x 1
∞
2 1
(a) For x ≥ 1, 0 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 ⇒ 0≤
x2
≤ 2 . Furthermore,
x
∫ x 2 dx converges.
1
∞ 2
sin x
∴ By the direct comparison test, ∫ 2
dx converges.
1 x
∞
1 1 1 1 1
(b) For x ≥ 1, 0≤ ≤ ⇒ 0≤ ≤ . Furthermore, ∫ x dx diverges.
x2 x 2 − 0.1 x x 2 − 0.1 1
∞
∴ By the direct comparison test, dx diverges.
∫ 2
x − 0.1
1

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Theorem 3: Limit Comparison Test (Page 519)

f ( x)
If the positive functions f and g are continuous on [a, ∞) and if lim = L is a positive finite limit,
x →∞ g ( x)
∞ ∞
then ∫ f ( x)dx and ∫ g ( x)dx both converge or both diverge.
a a

Example 8 (Page 520)

1 − e−x
∞
Example 9 (Page 520): Test ∫1 x dx for convergence.
Solution:
1 − e−x 1
The integrand suggests a comparison of f ( x) = with g ( x) = . However, we cannot use the Direct
x x
∞
1
Comparison Test because f (x) ≤ g (x) and ∫ x dx diverges.
1
On the other hand, using the Limit Comparison Test, we find that
f ( x) (1 − e − x ) / x ⎛ 1⎞
lim = lim = lim⎜1 − x ⎟ = 1 is a positive finite limit.
x →∞ g ( x) x → ∞ 1/ x x → ∞
⎝ e ⎠
∞
∞ −x
1
∴ ∫ 1 − e dx diverges because ∫ x dx diverges.
1
x 1

Example:
Test the following integrals for convergence.
ln 2
1 ∞
dx
∞
2 + cos x
(1) ∫0 x 2 e1/ x dx (2) (3) dx
∫ x6 −1 ∫ x
1 π

(Remark: To test an improper integral for convergence, we may (i) integrate directly, (ii) use the Direct
Comparison Test, or (iii) use the Limit Comparison Test.)
Solution:
1 1 1 du
(1) Let u = . Then du = − 2 dx . ∫ x 2 e1/ x dx = −∫ e u = −(−e −u ) + C = e −1 / x + C .
x x
ln 2
ln 2
1
ln 2
1 ⎡ −1 ⎤ ⎡ −1 1
− ⎤ −
1 ln 2
1
∫ 2 1/ x
dx = lim+ ∫ 2 1/ x
dx = lim+ ⎢e x ⎥ = lim+ ⎢e ln 2 − e ⎥ = e 2 . ∴ ∫ 2 1 / x dx converges.
a ln
x e x e 0 x e
a→0 a→0 ⎢ a→0 ⎢
0 a ⎣ ⎥⎦ a ⎣ ⎥⎦

1 1
(2) Let f ( x) = and with g ( x) = .
x6 −1 x3
f ( x) 1/ x6 − 1 x3 x3
lim = lim = lim = lim = 1 is a positive finite limit.
x →∞ g ( x) x→∞ 1 / x 3 x →∞ 6
x −1 x →∞ 3 6
x 1 + (1 / x )
∞
dx ∞
1
By the limit comparison test, converges because
∫ 6
x −1
∫ x3 dx converges.
1 1
∞
1 2 + cos x 1
(3) For x ≥ 1, 1 ≤ 2 + cos x ≤ 3 ⇒ 0< ≤ . Furthermore, ∫ x dx diverges.
x x 1
∞
∴ By the direct comparison test, 2 + cos x
∫ dx diverges.
1
x
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