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Sales Performance Appraisal
Sales Performance Appraisal
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EJM
41,5/6 Impression management tactics
and affective context: influence
on sales performance appraisal
624
Belén Bande Vilela and José Antonio Varela González
University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
Received June 2005
Accepted April 2006 Pilar Fernández Ferrı́n
Universidad del Paı́s Vasco, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain, and
Mª̄ Luisa del Rı́o Araújo
University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
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Abstract
Purpose – Despite the recognition that the subordinate’s influence is a particularly noteworthy
feature of the social context with considerable potential to affect the performance evaluation process,
there are almost no studies that consider this influence in a selling context. Attempting to contribute to
address these needs, the model presented here depicts a number of social and situational factors
influencing supervisor’s rating of salesperson’s performance, primarily operating through affective
processes.
Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected from 122 salespeople and their immediate
managers from 35 firms pertaining to nine different industries.
Findings – SEM results indicated that supervisor-focused impression management was positively
related to the supervisor’s liking of the salesperson. Consistent as well with prior research is the
positive influence of supervisor’s affect towards salesperson on the supervisor’s ratings of sales
performance, both directly and indirectly, through the effect on salesperson’s perceived interpersonal
skills. Finally, a salesperson’s physical attractiveness demonstrated significant positive effects on
performance ratings, through the influence on supervisor’s liking and salesperson’s interpersonal
skills.
Practical implications – These results have important managerial implications: sales managers
should be aware that salespeople might be using impression management tactics and that the use of
these behaviours might influence the way that they evaluate their employee’s performance. Managers
should also remain vigilant to the potential bias based on physical appearance in hiring and
supervising salespeople.
Originality/value – This study contributes to the knowledge of the social and affective variables
that influence the sales performance appraisal process, an area of research that is almost unexplored.
Keywords Sales force, Performance appraisal, Interpersonal skills, Performance management
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
European Journal of Marketing Organisational research has highlighted the fact that human resource decisions are
Vol. 41 No. 5/6, 2007
pp. 624-639 embedded in a complex and dynamic social context. Ferris and Judge (1991) pointed
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0309-0566
out that in order to develop an informed understanding of decisions such as
DOI 10.1108/03090560710737651 performance evaluation, promotions, and salary increases; we must embrace the
dynamic aspects of the context, and realise that participants are active players in Impression
shaping reality and influencing. management
Despite the considerable existing literature about the social context of the
performance evaluation process in organisational settings, little is known about the
situational, social and affective elements that participate in the salesperson
performance appraisal. An issue of special concern is the role of the salesperson’s
influence behaviours. Despite the recognition that the subordinate’s influence is a 625
particularly noteworthy feature of the social context, with considerable potential to
affect the performance evaluation process, there are almost no studies that consider
this influence in a selling context. The purpose of the present study is to address these
needs by formulating and testing a model of the sales performance evaluation process
which incorporates social, situational, affective elements and highlights the potential
role of the salesperson’s influence. In addition to this, this research takes place in a
geographically and culturally different area to the one used by most of previous
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studies, what contributes to value the importance of the social and cultural context in
the performance appraisal.
Theoretical background
Impression management tactics
Impression management describes tactics that individuals use in order to influence the
impression that others have of them (Jones and Pittman, 1982; Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
Previous studies indicate that people often use impression management in order to
land jobs (e.g. Ellis et al., 2002) and to achieve greater career success (e.g. Judge and
Bretz, 1994). A great deal of this research has also focused on the ways in which such
tactics may influence performance evaluations (e.g. Bolino and Turnley, 2003; Ferris
et al., 1994; Wayne and Ferris, 1990; Wayne and Kacmar, 1991; Wayne and Liden,
1995). Such investigations reveal that the use of impression-management tactics is
often an important determinant of the performance ratings that an employee receives
(Ferris et al., 1994; Wayne and Liden, 1995). Researchers have conceptualised
impression management using different frameworks (e.g. Bozeman and Kacmar, 1997;
Jones and Pittman, 1982); though the most widely used conceptualisation is the one
introduced by Wayne and Ferris (1990). Wayne and Ferris (1990) proposed that
individuals in organisations have a tendency to use impression-management strategies
in ways that can be classified as either supervisor-focused, job-focused, or self-focused.
In this study we consider the first two strategies, supervisor-focused and
job-focused[1].
Supervisor-focused tactics involve ingratiation behaviours and are designed to
make employees seem more likeable. Such tactics include the use of flattery and
other-enhancement. Thus, individuals who employ such tactics may praise their
supervisors, compliment them, or agree with their ideas (Bolino et al., 2006).
Supervisor-focused tactics might also involve favour-rendering behaviour, for
example, employees using such tactics may offer to help out their supervisors and
do personal favours for them. In a meta-analysis of social-psychological and
organisational studies of ingratiation, Gordon (1996) found that ingratiation tactics
generally have a positive effect on performance evaluations and on judgments of
interpersonal attraction or likeability. A supervisor who feels liked and admired by a
subordinate will be more attracted to that subordinate (Wayne and Ferris, 1990; Wayne
EJM and Liden, 1995). It is expected therefore that a salesperson’s use of supervisor-focused
41,5/6 impression management behaviours will have a positive effect on his/her supervisor’s
liking of the salesperson. Thus, we state hypothesis one as follows:
H1. A salesperson’s use of supervisor-focused impression management
behaviours will have a positive effect on his or her supervisor’s liking of
the salesperson.
626
Job-focused tactics involve self-promotive behaviours and are designed to make
employees appear more competent at their job. In particular, employees who engage in
job-focused tactics tend to take responsibility for positive events (even when they are
not exclusively responsible), tend to make negative events for which they are
responsible seem less negative then they really are, and try to highlight their
accomplishments (Bolino et al., 2006). While such behaviours are designed to make
employees appear more competent, they often result in very negative outcomes. For
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example, Wayne and Ferris (1990) found that the use of job-focused tactics was
negatively related to supervisor ratings of performance. Similarly, Ferris et al. (1994)
found that employees who used job-focused strategies of impression management were
significantly less liked by their supervisors and received lower performance ratings
from them. Therefore, we expect a similar consequence in a selling setting.
H2. A salesperson’s use of work-focused impression management behaviours will
have a negative effect on his or her supervisor’s liking of the salesperson.
Supervisor’s liking
A literature review reveals that supervisors’ positive affective regard for subordinates
is associated frequently with higher performance appraisal ratings, and with other
findings such as greater halo, reduced accuracy, a better interpersonal relationship,
and a disinclination to punish poor performance (Lefkowitz, 2000). DeNisi and
Williams (1988) stated that affect influences the processing of performance
information, and Isen and Baron (1991) shed light on this suggestion in their
conceptualisation of positive affect and its role in organisational settings. They argued Impression
that positive affect facilitates the recall of information stored in memory that possesses management
a positive affective tone. Thus, positive affect toward a subordinate should result in a
supervisor’s recalling more positive performance-related behaviours and evaluative
impressions, which should lead to the supervisor’s rating the subordinate’s
performance highly. Moreover, it is not an isolated effect. French and Raven (1959)
described it as a form of reference power; while Tedeschi and Melburg (1984) pointed 627
out that “on a long term basis there are many potential gains for the liked person,
including better communication, trust and ability to influence”. These statements
suggest that liked can lead to biased performance ratings. Empirical support has been
found for Liden and Mitchel proposition that affect plays a critical role in the type of
exchange that develops between supervisor and subordinate (Ferris et al., 1994; Wayne
and Ferris, 1990; Wayne and Liden, 1995). In the selling context, it has been empirically
demonstrated that supervisors’ affect toward sales agents influences their performance
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ratings evaluation (DeCarlo and Leigh, 1996; Strauss et al., 2001). Thus, we state
hypothesis four as follows:
H4. A supervisor’s affect towards the salesperson will positively influence the
evaluation of the salesperson’s performance.
Based on a cognitive information processing model (Feldman, 1981), we expect that
manager’s liking of the salesperson will be positively associated with the manager’s
perceptions of the salesperson’s interpersonal skills. Specifically, an individual will
tend to categorise another person on the basis of a few interactions and then later recall
information and evaluate the other person based on that categorisation. Thus, if a
manager likes an employee or perceives the employee to be similar to him or herself,
then the manager is likely to categorise information about that employee in a
favourable manner and subsequently evaluate the employee’s interpersonal skills
favourable (Wayne et al., 1997). Longitudinal research has not provided evidence for
paths from interpersonal skills to liking, as results indicate that liking develop prior to
judgments about performance or skills (Liden et al., 1993).
H5. A supervisor’s liking of the salesperson will positively influence the
salesperson’s perceived interpersonal abilities.
Physical attractiveness
Abundant research exists demonstrating that physical attractiveness has a significant
effect on judgment and behaviour (Dion, 1972; Joseph, 1982; Solnick and Schweitzer,
1999). In marketing, most of the attractiveness research has focused on spokespersons
and models in advertisements. The results of much of this research are consistent with
the notion that “what is beautiful is good” (Koernig and Page, 2002). Attractiveness
research in interpersonal settings like personal selling is rare (McElroy and DeCarlo,
1999), but researchers have found that is an aspect that positively influences sales
performance (Ahearne et al., 1999; DeShields et al., 1996; Reingen and Kernan, 1993),
impacting as well in causal attributions that supervisors make during the evaluation
process (McElroy and DeCarlo, 1999). Attractive people are perceived as having better
selling skills (Reingen et al., 1980; Ronkainen and Reingen, 1979) and are normally
perceived in a more favourable manner than the others (Eagly et al., 1991; Reingen and
Kernan, 1993). In relation to the relationship between liking and attractiveness, the
EJM empirical evidence suggests that physical attractiveness is positively related to
41,5/6 friendliness and liking (Ahearne et al., 1999; Joseph, 1982; Koernig and Page, 2002;
Kulka and Kessler, 1978) (Figure 1).
H6. The salesperson’s physical attractiveness perceived by the supervisor will
positively influence the salesperson’s perceived interpersonal skills.
628 H7. The salesperson’s physical attractiveness perceived by the supervisor will
positively influence the supervisor’s liking of the salesperson.
Methodology
Sample
Data were collected from sales supervisors and industrial salespeople working for
companies in Spain between May and November 2003. Relevant information regarding
the project was sent to the attention of the human resources director or sales manager
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at each firm. Companies that agreed to participate were guaranteed confidentiality and
were informed that, upon request, they would receive a summary of the research
findings. A total of 52 firms initially expressed an interest in participating in the study;
after some follow-up, 35 enterprises confirmed their participation. The most frequent
reasons provided for not participating in the study were: that the firm was undergoing
significant organisational change; that the organisation would have difficulty
distributing questionnaires to both subordinates and their supervisors as dictated by
the research design. The 35 companies that participated in the study represented a
variety of industries, including pharmaceuticals (30 per cent), insurance (14 per cent),
banking (14 per cent), and wholesaling (12.3 per cent).
The survey instrument employed in this study was developed in English and then
underwent a back-translation process. The items were first translated into Spanish and
then back translated into English. This translation procedure is consistent with the
framework established by Brislin (1986) in regards to the equivalence of language
translations. Once the translation process was completed, pilot tests were conducted to
ensure the accuracy of the survey translation. Pre-test of all the measurement items
was conducted in two different steps: firstly, several experts were asked to examine the
questionnaire in order to identify those items that might be confused or difficult to
Figure 1.
Hypothesised model
answer; as well as any other problem concerning the survey; secondly, we conducted a Impression
test of content validity using supervisors and sales agents pertaining to three management
enterprises from different sectors (machinery, pharmaceutics and insurance).
Questionnaires were mailed directly to a contact person in each company (e.g. the
HR Director of Sales Director), who then distributed the questionnaires within the
organisation. For each dyad, two envelopes were sent, one for the employee and one for
the supervisor. Each of these envelopes contained: a cover letter with a brief 629
explanation of the research goals, a promise of confidentiality, and a description of the
procedures for returning the survey; a questionnaire; and a stamped, pre-address
envelope in which the surveys could be returned directly to the researchers. In order to
match supervisor and employee responses, a code number was placed on each
questionnaire.
A total of 240 pairs of questionnaires were distributed. The number of surveys sent
to each company was based on the input of the HR Director/Sales Director; therefore, a
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Measures
Supervisor’s liking
Supervisor’s liking of the subordinate was measured with a three-item measure
developed by Wayne and Liden (1995). Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was 0.91.
Performance ratings
Employee performance was measured with five items based on the measure developed
by Wayne and Liden (1995). Supervisors were asked to rate each employee’s overall
work performance using a seven-point scale. We combined ratings across the five
items to create the measure. Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was 0.95.
Physical attractiveness
The salesperson’s attractiveness perceived by the supervisor was measured with a
three-items scale based on the measured developed by Ahearne et al. (1999). Cronbach’s
alpha for the scale was 0.86.
EJM Impression-management tactics
41,5/6 Previous research on impression management has typically used some variation of the
impression-management scale developed by Wayne and Ferris (1990) (e.g. Dulebohn
and Ferris, 1999; Wayne and Liden, 1995; Ferris et al., 1994). Therefore, we used their
measure here to assess two types of impression-management tactics used by
employees: supervisor-focused tactics and work-focused tactics. Salespeople were
630 asked to indicate the extent to which they used these tactics using a seven-point scale
ranging from (1) never to (7) always. The supervisor-focused impression-management
scale consisted of five items. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.83. The job-focused
impression-management scale consisted of eight items. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale
was 0.87.
Results
Before testing the proposed model, we performed a CFA[2] using AMOS software.
Table I presents the standardised solution of this CFA, where all the indicators loaded
significantly ( p , 0.001) and substantially (factor loadings greater than 0.5) on their
respective constructs, what demonstrates the existence of convergent validity
(X2/d:f: ¼ 1:49; GFI ¼ 0:81; CFI ¼ 0:91; RMSEA ¼ 0:07; TLI ¼ 0:90). For the analysis
of the discriminant validity of the constructs we calculated the confidence intervals for
the correlations between pairs of constructs. As none of these intervals included the
value one, discriminant validity between constructs was assumed.
Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test the hypothesised
relationships among impression management tactics, physical attractiveness,
perceived interpersonal abilities, supervisor liking, and supervisor ratings of sales
agent’s performance. SEM is useful here because it allows for several hypothesised
relationships to be tested simultaneously, provides an indication of the fit between the
hypothesised model and the actual data and allows for the evaluation of alternative
models. Given the number of variables in our model and the relatively small sample
size here (n ¼ 122), however, we were unable to meet the minimum recommended
sample size necessary to conduct our tests at the latent-variable level. Therefore, the
analyses reported here were conducted at the manifest-variable level (i.e. using
observed variables). The maximum likelihood structural estimates of the hypothesised
model are presented in Figure 2. The model fits the data very well (x2 ¼ 3:12; d:f: ¼ 8;
x2 =df ¼ 0:93; RMSEA ¼ 0:00; GFI ¼ 0:99; AGFI ¼ 0:97; TLI ¼ 1:07; CFI ¼ 1:00).
The R 2 for the ratings of the subordinate’s performance was 0.42; for liking was 0.19;
and for perceived interpersonal skills was 0.36.
As depicted here, six of the seven predicted links were statistically significant
(Figure 2). Specifically, findings supported H1: the parameter estimate for the
relationship between supervisor-focused tactics and liking was significant. However,
H2 was not supported; work-focused tactics were not significantly related to
supervisor liking. The significant parameter estimate for the relationship between
liking and performance rating and between liking and perceived interpersonal skills
Impression
Stand. Critical
Latent variable Items estimates ratios (t) management
Liking 1. I like him/her very much as a person 0.873 19.065
2. I think he/she would make a good friend 0.911 30.333
3. We like each other very much 0.814 15.666
Physical 1. He/she has an attractive appearance 0.980 5.291 631
attractiveness 2. Generally speaking, he/she would be considered having an
attractive appearance 0.791 10.236
3. He/she is very handsome 0.760 10.444
Supervisor- 1. Do personal favours for my supervisor 0.794 15.88
focused tactics 2. Take an interest in my immediate supervisor’s personal
life 0.794 14.25
3. Praise my immediate supervisor on his/her
accomplishments 0.510 6.773
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632
Figure 2.
Structural estimates of
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causal model
indicated support for H4 and H5. For the relationship between perceived interpersonal
skills and performance evaluation, the parameter estimate was positive and
significant, providing support for H3. Finally, physical attractiveness exerted a
significant effect on liking and on perceived interpersonal skills, giving support to H6
and H7.
Considering that the influence of physical attractiveness on performance appraisal
might be as well a direct one (Ahearne et al., 1999; McElroy and DeCarlo, 1999), we
tested an alternative model adding this link to the original one. In the resulting model,
the link was not significant and the fit indexes had lower values than those for the
hypothesised model. Accordingly, these data suggest that the influence of physical
attractiveness on the sales person’s performance appraisal is mediated by supervisor’s
liking of the subordinate.
Concerning a possible direct effect of impression management tactics on sales
performance rating, modification indexes did not recommend the introduction of this
direct link. This result supports the idea that the effect of impression management
behaviours on sales performance appraisal is not a direct but an indirect one, through
the impact of these tactics on the supervisors’ liking of the salesperson.
tactics affect other types of human resources decisions besides the sales performance
evaluation process, as promotion or training decisions. In addition to this, there are
other social and contextual variables that have been addressed by the organisational
literature and that might be interesting to analyse by the sales literature, as for
instance the perceived similarity between the supervisor and the sales agent or the
supervisor’s opportunity to observe the sales agent’s job performance (Wayne and
Liden, 1995). It would be useful as well to examine these relationships using more
diverse samples of sales agents, what will yield findings that are more generalised to
different countries and cultures.
Notes
1. Previous similar research in organisational settings either did not consider self-tactics
(Wayne and Liden, 1995) or did not find a significant relationship between liking and this
impression management behaviour (Wayne and Ferris, 1990).
2. The CFA was estimated following the criterion of maximum likelihood. In order to avoid
problems due to possible non-fulfilment of the conditions of multivariate normality, the
bootstrapping technique was used.
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