§ Five Special Senses

1. Olfaction

2. Gustation

3. Vision

4. Equilibrium

5. Hearing
What is the difference of these senses?
§ Somatic Senses
§ Special Senses

What are the Types of Receptors?

§ Chemoreceptors
§ Pain receptors
§ Thermoreceptors
§ Mechanoreceptors
§ Photoreceptors
§ Olfactory Organs

§ Provide sense of smell

§ Located in nasal cavity on either side of nasal septum

§ Made up of two layers

1. Olfactory epithelium

2. Lamina propria

§ Layers of Olfactory Organs

§ Olfactory epithelium contains:

§ Olfactory receptors

§ Supporting cells

§ Basal (stem) cells

THE OLFACTORY ORGANS
Olfactory Pathway to the Cerebrum
Olfactory Olfactory Olfactory Olfactory Central
epithelium nerve bulb tract nervous
fibers (N I) system

Cribriform
plate

Superior
nasal
concha

The olfactory organ on

the left side of the nasal
septum
THE OLFACTORY ORGANS
Basal cell:
divides to replace To
worn-out olfactory olfactory
receptor cells Olfactory bulb
gland

Cribriform Olfactory
plate nerve fibers
Lamina
propria
Developing
olfactory
receptor cell
Olfactory
receptor cell
Olfactory
epithelium
Supporting cell
Mucous layer
Knob
Olfactory cilia:
surfaces contain
receptor proteins
Subsance being smelled (see Spotlight
Fig. 173)
An olfactory receptor is a modified
neuron with multiple cilia extending
from its free surface.
§Olfactory Glands
§Secretions coat surfaces of olfactory organs

§Olfactory Receptors
§Highly modified neurons
§Olfactory reception
§Involves detecting dissolved chemicals as they interact with odorant-binding proteins

§Olfactory Pathways
§Axons leaving olfactory epithelium
§Collect into 20 or more bundles
§Penetrate cribriform plate of ethmoid
§Reach olfactory bulbs of cerebrum where first synapse occurs
§Travel along olfactory tract to reach olfactory cortex, hypothalamus, and portions of limbic
system
§ Arriving information reaches information centers without first synapsing in thalamus
OLFACTORY AND GUSTATORY RECEPTORS

Stimulus

Dendrites

Specialized
olfactory
Stimulus neuron
Action removed
potentials

Stimulus

Threshold

Generator potential

to CNS
§ Gustation

§ Provides information about the foods and liquids consumed

§ Taste Receptors (Gustatory Receptors)

§ Are distributed on tongue and portions of pharynx and larynx ; Clustered into taste buds

§ Taste Buds

§ Associated with epithelial projections (lingual papillae) on superior surface of tongue

§ Taste Buds Contain:

§ Basal cells

§ Gustatory cells

§ Extend taste hairs through taste pore

§ Survive only 10 days before replacement

§ Monitored by cranial nerves that synapse within solitary nucleus of medulla oblongata

§ Then on to thalamus and primary sensory cortex

GUSTATORY RECEPTORS
Water receptors
(pharynx) Umami

Sour

Bitter

Salty
Sweet

Landmarks and
receptors on the
tongue
GUSTATORY RECEPTORS

Taste
buds

Circumvallate papilla

Fungiform papilla

Filiform papillae
The structure and representative locations
of the three types of lingual papillae. Taste
receptors are located in taste buds, which
form pockets in the epithelium of
fungiform or circumvillate papillae.
OLFACTORY AND GUSTATORY RECEPTORS

Receptor cell Stimulus

Stimulus
removed
Stimulus
Threshold Receptor
cell
Receptor depolarization
Synapse

Axon of
sensory
neuron
Axon
Action
Stimulus potentials
Synaptic
delay

to CNS
Generator potential
OLFACTORY AND GUSTATORY RECEPTORS

Salt and Sour Receptors Sweet, Bitter, and Umami Receptors

Salt receptors and sour receptors are
chemically gated ion channels whose
stimulation produces depolarization
of the cell.
Receptors responding to stimuli that produce
sweet, bitter, and umami sensations are
linked to G proteins called gustducins
(GUST-doos- inz)protein complexes that
use second messengers to produce their
effects.

Sweet,
Sour, bitter, or
salt Gated ion Membrane
channel umami receptor
Resting plasma
membrane
Inactive Active
G protein G protein

Channel opens
Depolarized
membrane
Active
G protein

Active Inactive
2nd messenger 2nd messenger

Depolarization of membrane Activation of second messengers stimulates

stimulates release of chemical release of chemical neurotransmitters.
neurotransmitters.
§ Accessory Structures of the Eye

§ Provide protection, lubrication, and support

§ Include:

§ The palpebrae (eyelids)

§ The superficial epithelium of eye

§ The lacrimal apparatus

§ Eyelids (Palpebrae)

§ Continuation of skin

§ Blinking keeps surface of eye lubricated, free of dust and debris

§ Tarsal glands

§ Secrete lipid-rich product that helps keep eyelids from sticking together

§ Palpebral fissure

§ Gap that separates free margins of upper and lower eyelids

§ Eyelashes

§ Robust hairs that prevent foreign matter from reaching surface of eye
§ Superficial Epithelium of Eye
§ Lacrimal caruncle

§ Mass of soft tissue

§ Contains glands producing thick secretions

§ Contributes to gritty deposits that appear after good night’s sleep

§ Conjunctiva

§ Epithelium covering inner surfaces of eyelids (palpebral conjunctiva) and outer surface of eye (ocular conjunctiva)

§ Lacrimal Apparatus

§ Produces, distributes, and removes tears

§ Fornix

§ Pocket where palpebral conjunctiva joins ocular conjunctiva

§ Lacrimal gland (tear gland)

§ Secretions contain lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme

EXTERNAL FEATURES AND ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE EYE

Eyelashes
Pupil
Lateral canthus Palpebra

Sclera Palpebral fissure

Medial canthus
Lacrimal caruncle
Corneal limbus

Gross and superficial

anatomy of the accessory
structures
§ Tears

§ Collect in the lacrimal lake

§ Pass through:

§ Lacrimal puncta

§ Lacrimal canaliculi

§ Lacrimal sac

§ Nasolacrimal duct

§ To reach inferior meatus of nose

§ Three Layers of the Eye
1. Outer fibrous layer

2. Intermediate vascular layer

3. Deep inner layer

§ Eyeball
§ Is hollow
§ Is divided into two cavities
1. Large posterior cavity

2. Smaller anterior cavity

THE SECTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE EYE

Fibrous
layer Vascular layer
Cornea (uvea)
Anterior
cavity Iris
Sclera
Ciliary body
Choroid

Posterior
Neural layer cavity
(retina)
Neural part
Pigmented part

Horizontal section of right eye

 The Fibrous Layer
§Sclera (white of the eye)
§Cornea
§Corneal limbus (border between cornea and sclera)

The Vascular Layer (Uvea) Functions

1.Provides route for blood vessels and lymphatics that supply tissues of eye
2.Regulates amount of light entering eye
3.Secretes and reabsorbs aqueous humor that circulates within chambers of eye
4.Controls shape of lens, which is essential to focusing

§The Vascular Layer

§Iris
§Contains papillary muscles
§Change diameter of pupil

§ Ciliary Body

§ Extends posteriorly to level of ora serrata

§ Serrated anterior edge of thick, inner portion of neural tunic

§ Contains ciliary processes, and ciliary muscle that attaches to suspensory ligaments of lens
§ The Inner Layer
§ Outer layer called pigmented part
§ Inner called neural part (retina)
§ Contains visual receptors and
associated neurons Inner Neural Part
§ Rods and cones are types of Bipolar cells
photoreceptors Neurons of rods and cones synapse with
§ Rods
ganglion cells
§ Do not discriminate light colors
§ Highly sensitive to light
Horizontal cells
§ Cones Extend across outer portion of retina
§ Provide color vision Amacrine cells
§ Densely clustered in fovea, at Comparable to horizontal cell layer
center of macula
Where bipolar cells synapse with ganglion
cells
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE RETINA
Optic disc
Fovea (blind spot)

Macula Central retinal artery and vein

emerging from center of optic disc
A photograph of the retina as seen through the pupil.
A DEMONSTRATION OF THE PRESENCE OF A BLIND SPOT
§ Aqueous Humor

§ Fluid circulates within eye

§ Diffuses through walls of anterior chamber into

scleral venous sinus (canal of Schlemm)

§ Re-enters circulation

§ Intraocular Pressure

§ Fluid pressure in aqueous humor

§ Helps retain eye shape

§ The Lens

§ Lens fibers

§ Cells in interior of lens

§ No nuclei or organelles

§ Filled with crystallins, which

provide clarity and focusing
power to lens
§ Cataract

§ Condition in which lens has lost

its transparency
§ Light Refraction of Lens

§ Image reversal

§ Visual acuity

§ Clarity of vision

§ “Normal” rating is 20/20

§ Color Vision

§ Integration of information from red, green, and blue cones

§ Color blindness

§ Inability to detect certain colors

§ Photoreception

§ Photon strikes retinal portion of rhodopsin molecule

embedded in membrane of disc

§ Opsin is activated

§ Bound retinal molecule has two possible configurations

§ 11-cis form

§ 11-trans form
§ Light and Dark Adaptation

§ Dark

§ Most visual pigments are fully receptive to

stimulation

§ Light

§ Pupil constricts

§ Bleaching of visual pigments occurs

THE ANATOMY OF THE EAR

External Ear Middle Ear Internal Ear

Elastic cartilages Auditory ossicles

Oval Semicircular canals

window
Petrous part of
Auricle temporal bone

Facial nerve (N VII)

Vestibulocochlear
nerve (N VIII)

Bony labyrinth
of internal ear

Cochlea
Tympanic
cavity

Auditory tube
To
nasopharynx
External acoustic Tympanic Round Vestibule
meatus membrane window
§ The External Ear
§ Auricle
§ Surrounds entrance to external acoustic
meatus
§ Protects opening of canal
§ Provides directional sensitivity
§ Ceruminous glands
§ External acoustic meatus
§ Integumentary glands along external acoustic meatus
§ Ends at tympanic membrane (eardrum)
§ Tympanic membrane § Secrete waxy material (cerumen)

§ Is a thin, semitransparent sheet § Keeps foreign objects out of tympanic membrane

§ Separates external ear from middle ear
§ Slows growth of microorganisms in external acoustic

meatus
§ The Middle Ear
§ Also called tympanic cavity

§ Communicates with nasopharynx via

auditory tube
§ Permits equalization of
pressures on either side of § Vibration of Tympanic Membrane

tympanic membrane § Converts arriving sound waves into mechanical movements

§ Auditory ossicles conduct vibrations to inner ear

§ Encloses and protects three auditory
ossicles § Tensor tympani muscle

§ Stiffens tympanic membrane

1. Malleus (hammer)
§ Stapedius muscle
2. Incus (anvil)
§ Reduces movement of stapes at oval window
3. Stapes (stirrup)
§ The Internal Ear
§ Contains fluid called endolymph

§ Bony labyrinth surrounds and protects membranous

labyrinth

§ Subdivided into:

§ Vestibule

§ Semicircular canals

§ Cochlea
§ Stimuli and Location

§ Sense of gravity and acceleration

§ From hair cells in vestibule

§ Sense of rotation

§ From semicircular canals

§ Sense of sound

§ From cochlea
§ Equilibrium

§ Sensations provided by

receptors of vestibular complex

§ Hair cells

§ Basic receptors of inner ear The Semicircular Ducts

§ Provide information about

Are continuous with utricle
Each duct contains:
direction and strength of
Ampulla with gelatinous cupula
mechanical stimuli
Associated sensory receptors
Stereocilia – resemble long microvilli
Are on surface of hair cell
Kinocilium – single large cilium
§ The Utricle and Saccule

§ Provide equilibrium sensations

§ Are connected with the endolymphatic duct, which ends in

endolymphatic sac

§ The Utricle and Saccule

§ Maculae
§ Oval structures where hair cells cluster
§ Statoconia
§ Densely packed calcium carbonate crystals on surface of
gelatinous mass
§ Otolith (ear stone) = gelatinous matrix and statoconia
§ Pathways for Equilibrium

Sensations
§ Vestibular receptors

§ Activate sensory neurons of

vestibular ganglia

§ Axons form vestibular

branch of vestibulocochlear
nerve (VIII)

§ Synapse within vestibular

nuclei
§ Four Functions of Vestibular Nuclei

1. Integrate sensory information about balance and

equilibrium from both sides of head
2. Relay information from vestibular complex to
cerebellum
3. Relay information from vestibular complex to cerebral
cortex
§ Provide conscious sense of head position and movement

4. Send commands to motor nuclei in brain stem and spinal

cord
§ Eye, Head, and Neck Movements
§ Reflexive motor commands
§ From vestibular nuclei
§ Distributed to motor nuclei for
cranial nerves
§ Peripheral Muscle Tone, Head, and
Neck Movements
§ Instructions descend in
vestibulospinal tracts of spinal cord
§ Hearing
§ Auditory ossicles
§ Convert pressure fluctuation
in air into much greater
pressure fluctuations in
perilymph of cochlea § An Introduction to Sound
§ Frequency of sound
§ Pressure Waves
§ Determined by which part
§ Consist of regions where air molecules are crowded together
of cochlear duct is
stimulated § Adjacent zone where molecules are farther apart
§ Intensity (volume) § Sine waves
§ Determined by number of
§ S-shaped curves
hair cells stimulated
§ Pressure Wave

§ Wavelength

§ Distance between two adjacent wave troughs

§ Frequency

§ Number of waves that pass fixed reference point at

given time

§ Physicists use term cycles instead of waves

§ Hertz (Hz) number of cycles per second (cps)

§ Pitch

§ Our sensory response to frequency

§ Amplitude

§ Intensity of sound wave

§ Sound energy is reported in decibels

THE NATURE OF SOUND

Wavelength

Tympanic
membrane

Tuning
fork Air molecules

Sound waves (here, generated by a

tuning fork) travel through the air as
pressure waves.
THE NATURE OF SOUND

1 wavelength

Amplitude
PATHWAYS FOR AUDITORY SENSATIONS

Stimulation of hair cells at

a specific location along
the basilar membrane
KEY
activates sensory neurons. Primary pathway
Secondary pathway
Motor output

Cochlea

Low-frequency
sounds

High-frequency
sounds

Vestibular
branch

Sensory neurons carry the

sound information in the
cochlear branch of the
vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Vestibulocochlear
to the cochlear nucleus on nerve (VIII)
that side.
§ Effects of Aging on the Ear

§ With age, damage accumulates

§ Tympanic membrane gets less

flexible

§ Articulations between ossicles

stiffen

§ Round window may begin to

ossify