BEE E

UNIT-4

TRANSDUCERS
-
Transducers -

CLASSIFICATION -

① On basis
of transduction form
used R ,
I
,
C

②
Primary & secondary transducers

③ Passive f Active transducers

[ No external
[Req external ) ) supply
②
Analog & Digital transducers

⑤ As transducers & inverse transducers

Electrical → Non electrical
Reverse

A- device that converts

energy
to another
from one
form
•
A device that converts an input
output to
signal of form
one

signal Microphones
of another
form
loudspeakers
,
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSDUCERS -

①
linearity
②
Repeatability
Gines same result again f again

③ Ruggedness
⑨ to Noise Ratio
High signal
reliable
⑤ Highly
should
give
minimum euros in temp
or measurement variations

⑥ Good (dynamic
constant )
response
⑦ No
Hysteresis
⑧ Residual
deformation
No
change after removal of pressure
Active Transducers (self
- generating type
trans>
Doesn't need external power supply
•

to
give output signal
inductance
Rely magnetic
•

upon
to produce
or piezoelectric effects
output signals quartz Rochelle salts)
used
•
Ex -
Piezoelectric
crystal
acceleration measurement
for vibration ) t
Thermocouple
Piezoelectric
crystal
-

small scale resource

energy
•

crystals automatically deformed

to produce a
tiny voltage
• Accumulates in solid materials in

to mechanical stress
response
 Passive Transducers
-

Need external to
supply give
•

output signal
•

Ex - Potentiometer

Electrical )
Direct [Non Electrical →

[sound electrical)
→ Microphone →

Inverse [ Electrical → Non electrical)

[electrical → sound)
loudspeaker
→

Transducers
Displacement
-

>

electromechanical device to
•
An
convert mechanical motions into a
variable electrical current , voltage
or electric signals
② Inductive
① Capacitive T
.

③ Variable Inductance ⑧ LVDT

 Transducers
>
capacitance
Variable capacitance pressure gouge
-

Principle -
Distance b/w two plates
11
varied ext force
bydish an

App -
measuring f pressure

capacitor Microphone
-

sound varies
Principle -

pressure
capacitance btw a
fixed plate
& movable
diaphragm
App speech
-
, Music Niobe
,

Dielectric
gauge
-
•

Principle Variation
-
in
capacitance
dielectric
by changes
in
level thickness
App
-

liquid ,
 > Inductance Transducers
circuit transducer
Magnetic
"

Inductance or Mutual
Principle
-

self
inductance of ac excited coil
in
is worried by changes
circuit
magnetic
•
Reluctance pickup -

circuit
Principle -
Reluctance
of magnetic
by changing posh of
is worried
coil
iron core
of
•

Differential transformer
worried
Principle -

Differential voltage by
positioning magnetic
core

ltouengh externally applied force

current
Eddy gauge
•

coil varied
inductance
principle
-

of
by proximity of eddy an

current
plate
Magnetostriction gauge
-
•

Principle Magnetic properties varied

-

f stress
by pressure
 Types 4 Applications -

Motors
Thermistor 1 Thermocouple
-

•
LD Rs / LEDs flannel smoke
data transfer
•
Opto -

couples
•

speaker 1 Microphone
acoustic pound
•

Magnetic pickup stylus Initiation

strain
*

Gauge tension

Hall Effect Magnetism

•

a Petties effect device temperature

• Piezo stress f pressure
 Transducers
> capacitive
use a
capacitive
changingtransducer
reactance within a

to produce a proportional output .

device
* used as a proximity
with one electrode charged &

the other affected as it

approaches
in close
proximity
used as
surrounding
air a
*

dielectric to produce a reactance

that is
proportional to the

distance b/w two electrodes

of
capacitor
> Inductive transducers

inductance
•
Work on
principle of
change
due to any appreciable
to be measured
change
in
quantity
.

LUDI
Eg
-
•

inductive transducer
A kind of ,

measures displacement
in terms
of
two
btw its
voltage difference
secondary voltages
.

are result
of
•

secondaryduevoltages in
induction to flux change
secondary
coil with displacement
bar
of iron
Principles of Energy Transfusion
Transducer
capacitive
dy Off EADE
C =
=
=

Linear Variable dmkansformem.sn

Differentia
mm
[Lv DT] Passive CACinput)
•
can change
core
by applying
it
force on

• It has variable output

• When
externally applied force
wore
moves core to
left position ,

ME .

Wilks left coil than right

•

E ME in Es z > Esz
.

nigritude of output voltage ,

Es Es E -
=
out
, z
 at center then
If core is
•
.

will be zero
voltage
Principle
-

connected to an
As
primary
is

current
AC source so alternating
the
& voltages are produced in

W DT
secondary of .

differential output
is
So ,
e
out
= e
,
-

ez

÷:n
'

core Isptenement
>
Imp .
Points about magnitude &
induced in
sign of voltage
LV DT :

•
Amount of change in
voltage
either -
os t is × to amount

movement of core f indicates

of motion
linear
amount
of
t as a
output voltage
By
• ,
be
motion can
direction of
determined

output voltage of
LVDT is
•

linear
function of core

displacement
 LV DT
Advantages of
-

High I. range
•

25 mm
-
250 um

•
No
frictional losses
No loss of displacement
•

High input f High

amplification
No
sensitivity
foul mud
High sensitivity
•

Low Hysteresis
•

low ponies consumption

1W
Ponies is about

LVDT
Disadvantages of
-

MF so
sensitive to stray
•

they
to
always require
a
setup
protect them
from it

Affected by vibrational
 UDT
Applications of
-

•
Used where displacements ranging
to
few cm

from tofraction of mm

be measured
are
.

• Can also act as

secondary
transducers .

Bourbon tube acts as

Eg
-

transducer
primary
Electromechanical transducers -

-
i

Galvanometer -

Detecting f measuring
electric current
electromechanical
•

Analogthat
transducer produces a

limited
rotary deflection ,
through a

to electric
arc ,
in
response coil
its
current
flowing through
.

Accelerometer -

Device
for measuring induced
acceleration & gravity
reaction
forces
Principles of Energy Transformation
-

mechanical
*t Some type of
contact

at convert
physical change to

electrical
signal
* Mouse
Eg Movement
-

track ball
of
causes electric signal
 STRAIN GAUGE PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
•
When tension is applied to electrical
conductor A cross
,
its
length f
section area N .

i. Resistance
changes
measurement of
Used for
•

stress f strain
force ,

* A strain gauge
is
passive
a

type
resistance pressure
whose electrical
transducer
resistance changes
when stretched
compressed
* Pressure transducer has a
diaphragm
f
deformed by topressure
can
that is
cause strain
stretchI
gauge causes variation
compress Deformation
.
Wbls -

④ used
for narrow pressure span
& for differential pressure
measurements

② Available for pressure ranges

3
as low as inches
of water
to as
high as 200,000 psig
③ ranges from
iwmaaaouacy to 0251 full
o.li of spam of
scale
 Thermoelectrical transducers
-

⑦ RTD ( Resistance Temp Detector)

-

electrical
To
predict change in

resistance some materials

of
temperature
with
changing PASSIVE
② THERMOCOUPLE
To convert thermal difference
into electrical potential difference
ACTIVE

③THERMISTOR -

Thermal * Resistor
PASSIVE

*
Temp voltage
 THERMOCOUPLES
-

•
As
junction temp increases
,
a

created
voltage
in
small is

the loop .
The
voltage produced
dissimilar metals
at
junction of
due phenomenon
-

is to a

SEEBECK EFFECT
•

junction greater
Higher temp at ,

that
voltage produced by gin
is
•
Relation b/w voltage f temp
so graph
is a
constant f
linear line

* A
thermocouple formed at by
two
different metals joined
one
point
 Thermistors .

Made semiconductor
from
•

materials
•
Have a tie
temp .

coefficient
CNT C)
As resistance &
temp A
,

• Beards ,
disks ,
nods & probes are

some
of the
styles
Enclosed suitable
housing
• in a

contact
for either as non

contract applications
RESISTANCE TEMP .
DETECTOR
-

Conductors used
•

for temp sensing .

•
com be used in
bridge method

& ohmmeter method to take

output
resistance material
•

change
in
of
temp should
per unit change in .

be as
large as possible
• Material should have
high value

of resistivity
to
get required value
less
in
space
•
Rf T relation to be continuous f

stable
used
. Pt ,
Ni f Cn -

commonly
Ni also
Tungstenf Alloy
Applicatory
* Used in
avg & differential
measurement
temp
to
*
Differential temp .

sensing
an

have been
accuracy of
0.05
.

nuclear reactor
accomplished in a

coolant heat rise application

WHEMEBNDqE
-

dividers
Two matched voltage
galvanometer
across
with a

network to sense
any difference
in potential .

* Transducers [Thermistors or RT DD
↳Replace
 Photoelectric Transducers
-

convert
•

tasered -

into
electrical
power forms of
light
•
Photodiode
-
Photoresistor
,
,

tube
P¥plier
levels
converts
changing light
-

into electrical
form
Voltage
*
light
⇐

that produce an
Devices
electric variation responseto
•

in

change light intensity

in ,
as

vice vetted
① LIGHT EMITTING DIODE -

•
A semi conductive P N -

junction
coloured to
enclosed in a case

enhance the colour of the

light
output .

Silicon not used since it produces

heat rather than light
mainly ,

• Semi conductive materials used in

LED 's determine

manufacture of
colour of emitted light .

material f
By using different such as
colours ,
spectrums
infra
-

red can be
produced
cathode . shorter Anode longer
Photoelectric Transducers

↳ Photoconduction

↳ photovoltaic

↳ Photoemission
Photoconduction
semiconductor cell that produces
its resistance
a
change in

change
to a in
in
response
light intensity
common photoconductive transducers -

① Resistor ftDRI
light Dependant
② Phototransistor

③ Photodiode
 lqrtDepeudautResistors[
)L DR s

•
A semiconductor device

•
Resistance dependant
is on the

light intensity that

falls on

the device
M resistance
As
light intensity
•
,

of LDR w WL light density

•
LDR is a non linear device

with resistance
hanging from
about 10 Mr in darkness to

10052 in
sunlight
 Phototransistor
-

three semiconductor
A
layer
•

device sensitive
with a
light
collector base
p
-

n
junction
•
Current
flowing through be the

collector emitter circuit will

amount
controlled
bythe
the
of light
collector base
falling on
jn
P base collector jn
. As
light ,

de
resistance of phototransistor .

I in resistance A base current

which A
flow of collector current .

• Relation b/w light intensity &

constant
current
so
flow is
generally
linear line
graph
-
 Satan
imbalance
intensity
A
As
lightholes
• an
,

created which
of are
-

e
q ,

circuit
gives
an A to
open voltage
current
difference f therefore a

within circuit
flow
a .

• Relation b/w
light intensity
not
&
voltage
is
circuit
open will not
constant
f so graph
be a linear line
 Photodiode
•

A semiconductor device that

into an electrical
converts
light
current .

Current
generated when
photons
are absorbed in the
photodiode
•
Photodiodes contain optical filters ,

have
built lenses f
in
may areas
hanger or small surface
slower
Usually
have a
•
response
on
time as their
surface area
Operation :

•
A
photodiode is a
p
-
n
j 1 PIN

structure .
When a
photon of
strikes the diode ,
sufficient energy
it creates an e
-

hole pain
Mechanism -

Photoelectric Effect
•

Sf absorption
occurs in jus depletion
region ,
on one
diffusion length
it these carriers are
away from
,

swept from jn by
EF
of deep region
•
Holes towards anode f
-

e towards
cathode , produces photocurrent
current
• Total current is sun of dark
dark current must
& photocurrent ,
so

be minimized to maximise sensitivity

of device
 Photovoltaic -

•
When used / photovoltaic
in zero bias

mode , photocurrent flows out of

short circuit
through
a
the anode
to cathode .

as
Sf circuit is
opened as was loadings
restricting photocurrent
out
of the
builds dish
voltagebiases
in
device
,
a up
diode
that forward [Anode we w rt
.
.
,

cathode
circuit shorted
→
•

Sf is or
impedance
all
too,

current will consume Isome

a
forward
of the photocurrent .

Mode
exploits photovoltaic effect ,
basis
solar cells
for
•
For optimum power output , photovoltaic
cell will be operated voltage
at a that
current
causes
only a
comp
small
.
to
forward
photocurrent .
Photoconductivity
Diode reverse biased
)
[cathode the w.tt anode.

Reduces time because

•

response
additional reverse bias A width of
depletion layer ,
which I
jus capacitance
with Et that will
& A
region
ou

collected
cause e- to be
quickly
•
Reverse bias also reduces dark
current without much change in

photocurrent .

•
Faster
• can exhibit more electronic noise
due to dark current avalanche/ effects
•

leakage
current
of a
good PIN

diode is tow ⇐I n A)
 Locle -

[Injection laser diode 1

Diode laser)

A semiconductor device similar

to LED in which a diode is
with electric
pumped directly diodes
current & creates
's
diode
loosing
at the
ji .

convert electrical
com
directly energy
•

into
light .

•
Driven
by voltagerecombination ,
the
doped p
n

allows
for
"
trans

hole
of an e- with a .

to tow
Due to
drop of from High
e- ,

form of emitted photon

'
radiation in
'

emission
*
spontaneous when
-

stimulated emission produced

process continued further generate light
Ion
-

diode
region of laser
-

.
Active is in

are
the intrinsic
region f carriers

f p
pumped region from
into the n

Use double hetero structure implement ,

where carriers f photons confined

recombination
to maximise chances of
&
light generation
all carriers in the
Recombine
Good
-
•

I
region 4 produce light
: . laser diodes fabricated using
direct brand semiconductors
gap
• The laser diode epitaxial structure's

grown using oystae-Y.pe .

has wells
Active layer quantum
.

current
that
provide lower threshold

& higher efficiency

 Electroacoustic Transducers
-

⑦ Cgeophone
-

convert displacement →
voltage
Microphone
loudspeaker ,

② Hydrophone
.

converts
changes
in watts
pressure
electrical
to an
form
③ Loudspeaker earphones ,
-

converts changes in
electrical
acoustic
into form
signals
⑨ Microphone -

converts
changes
in air
pressure
to electrical signal
 Electromagnetics
⑦ Antenna -

converts EMW into electric

current nice versa
f
-

② Tube CCRTJ
Cathode
Ray
-

to
converts electrical
signals
visual
form
tramp light
③ Fluorescent Bulb -

converts electrical into

ponies
visible
light
⑨ Tape Head
converts
changing magnetic field
into electrical
form
 Transducers
Hall Effect
-

current
• Describes a condition if
flow in a conductor is
being
Mt
affected by presence of .

If an
electric current flowsMF
conductor in a
,

through
a

ME exerts a transverse force on

cabinets which
the moving charge
them to side
push
one
tends to
conductor
of
Evident thin
in a flat conductors

'

A build up of change
at sides
of
conductor balances this
magnetic
measurable
influence ,
producing a

conductor
voltage b/wthe two sides of .

measurable transverse
.
Presence of
Voltage is called Hall Effect
 devices
Hall
Effect
-

* To measure
velocity of charged
MF
particles in a

* Measure proximity of magnetic

materials [ linear displacement)

* Detect
pulses of magnetism
Tachometer
Eg
:

Electrochemical
transducess
Substance →
Voltage
cells
Eg -

pH pride , fuel
Electrostatic transducers -

* Electrometer - An electrical
instrument for measuring
electrical
electric charge /
potent
Radiates
-

Muller tube used for

*
Gieger
-

measuring radioactivity