Transmission Line Theory

Introduction

 Transmission line: a bridge between circuit theory and electromagnetic theory.

 By modeling transmission lines in the form of equivalent circuits, we can use
Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws to develop wave equations whose solutions
provide an understanding of wave propagation, standing waves, and power
transfer.
 Fundamentally, a transmission line is a two-port network, with each port
consisting of two terminals. One of the ports, the line’s sending end, is
connected to a source (also called the generator). The other port, the line’s
receiving end, is connected to a load.

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 Role of wavelength

 Is the pair of wires between terminals AA’ and and terminals BB’ a transmission
line? If so, under what set of circumstances should we explicitly treat the pair of
wires as a transmission line, as opposed to ignoring their presence?
 The factors that determine whether or not we should treat the wires as a
transmission line are governed by the length of the line 𝑙𝑙 and the frequency
𝑓𝑓 of the signal provided by the generator.
 When 𝑙𝑙/𝜆𝜆 is very small, transmission-line effects may be ignored, but when
𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝜆𝜆 ≳ 0.01, it may be necessary to account not only for the phase shift due
to the time delay, but also for the presence of reflected signals that may
have been bounced back by the load toward the generator.

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 Example

 Assume that 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 with 𝑓𝑓 = 1 kHz when A is closed. The
corresponding wavelength is 300 km and is comparable to the distance between
A and B. This voltage signal will not appear instantaneously at point B, as a
certain time is required for the signal to travel from points A to B.  transmission
line

60 km 0.6 m

 How about B-C? Because the distance between B and C is small, the voltage at
point B will appear almost instantaneously at point C.  electric circuit

 What if the frequency is increased to 100 MHz?

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 Transmission line vs. electric circuit

 Generally, when the wavelength of the applied

voltage is comparable to or shorter than the
length of the conductors, the conductors must be
treated as a transmission line.
 A single pulse is composed of an infinite number
of Fourier components with the amplitudes of the
spectrum decreasing for higher frequencies.

 Empirical formula to estimate the upper-frequency 𝑓𝑓 of the pulse:

𝐾𝐾 where, 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 is the rise time of the pulse and 𝐾𝐾 is a constant

𝑓𝑓 =
𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 between 0.35 and 0.45 depending on the shape of the pulse.

 In pulsed power, the conductors must be treated as transmission line, because

the equivalent wavelength of the pulse in most cases is comparable to the length
of the conductors.

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 Dispersive effects

 A dispersive transmission line is one on which the wave velocity is not constant
as a function of the frequency 𝑓𝑓.

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 Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) and higher-order
transmission lines

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 Lumped-element model

 A transmission line can be represented by a parallel wire configuration,

regardless of its specific shape or constitutive parameters.
 To obtain equations relating voltages and currents, the line is subdivided into
small differential sections.

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 Transmission parameters

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 Coaxial transmission line

𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 1 1 𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅′ = + where 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 =
2𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐
Surface resistance

 For all TEM lines,

′ 𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝐺𝐺 ′ 𝜎𝜎
𝐿𝐿 = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 =
𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝜖𝜖
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 Transmission line equation

 Equivalent circuit of a two-conductor transmission line of differential length ∆𝑧𝑧.

 Kirchhoff’s voltage law

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑅𝑅 ′ ∆𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝐿𝐿′ ∆𝑧𝑧 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑧𝑧 + ∆𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
 Kirchhoff’s current law
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑧𝑧 + ∆𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝐺𝐺 ′ ∆𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣 𝑧𝑧 + ∆𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝐶𝐶 ′ ∆𝑧𝑧 − 𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧 + ∆𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
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 Transmission line equation

 By rearranging KVL and KCL equations, we obtain two first-order differential

equations known as telegrapher’s equations.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 ′ ′
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡
− = 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐿𝐿
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 ′ ′
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡
− = 𝐺𝐺 𝑣𝑣 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

 Phasor notation for sinusoidal signals

𝑣𝑣 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 ] 𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 ]

 Telegrapher’s equation in phasor form

𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧
− = 𝑅𝑅′ + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿′ 𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧
− = 𝐺𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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 Wave propagation on a transmission line

 The two first-order coupled equations can be combined to give two second-order
�
uncoupled wave equations, one for 𝑉𝑉(𝑧𝑧) ̃
and another for 𝐼𝐼(𝑧𝑧).
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧
2
− 𝛾𝛾 2 𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 where 𝛾𝛾 = (𝑅𝑅′ + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿′ )(𝐺𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 ′ )
𝑑𝑑 2 𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧
2
− 𝛾𝛾 2 𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧 = 0 Propagation constant
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Complex propagation constant 𝛾𝛾 consists of a real part 𝛼𝛼, called the attenuation
constant of the line with units of Np/m, and an imaginary part 𝛽𝛽, called the phase
constant of the line with units of rad/m.
Neper unit: LNp = ln(x1/x2)
𝛾𝛾 = 𝛼𝛼 + 𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽 1 Np = 20log e dB ~ 8.686 dB
10

 The wave equations have traveling wave solutions of the following form:

𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑉𝑉0+ 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧 + 𝑉𝑉0− 𝑒𝑒 +𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧

𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝐼0+ 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧 + 𝐼𝐼0− 𝑒𝑒 +𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧

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 Wave propagation on a transmission line

 The voltage-current relationship

1 𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧 𝛾𝛾
𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝐼0+ 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧 + 𝐼𝐼0− 𝑒𝑒 +𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧 =− ′ ′ = ′ ′ [𝑉𝑉0+ 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧 − 𝑉𝑉0− 𝑒𝑒 +𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧 ]
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉0+ −𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧 𝑉𝑉0− +𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧
= 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒
𝑍𝑍0 𝑍𝑍0
𝑉𝑉0+ 𝑉𝑉0−
where = 𝑍𝑍0 = − − Characteristic impedance
𝐼𝐼0+ 𝐼𝐼0

 Characteristic impedance of the line

𝑅𝑅′ + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿′ 𝑅𝑅′ + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿′

𝑍𝑍0 = = Unit: Ohm
𝛾𝛾 𝐺𝐺 ′ + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 ′

 It should be noted that 𝑍𝑍0 is equal to the ratio of the voltage amplitude to the
current amplitude for each of the traveling waves individually (with an additional
minus sign in the case of the −𝑧𝑧 propagating wave), but it is not equal to the
ratio of the total voltage 𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧 to the total current 𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧 , unless one of the two
waves is absent.
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 Lossless transmission line

 In many practical situations, the transmission line can be designed to exhibit low
ohmic losses by selecting conductors with very high conductivities (𝑅𝑅′ ≈ 0) and
dielectric materials with negligible conductivities (𝐺𝐺 ′ ≈ 0).
 Propagation constant for lossless line

𝛾𝛾 = 𝛼𝛼 + 𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽 ≈ 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿′ 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 ′ = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 𝐿𝐿′ 𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝛼𝛼 = 0, 𝛽𝛽 = 𝜔𝜔 𝐿𝐿′ 𝐶𝐶 ′

 Characteristic impedance of lossless line

𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿′ 𝐿𝐿′
𝑍𝑍0 ≈ =
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝐶𝐶 ′

 Phase velocity
𝜔𝜔 1 1 1 1 1 𝑐𝑐
𝑢𝑢𝑝𝑝 = = = ≈ = = Not depend on frequency
𝛽𝛽 𝐿𝐿′ 𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝜇𝜇0 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇0 𝜖𝜖0 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 (nondispersive)
 Guide wavelength
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 1 𝑐𝑐 1 𝜆𝜆0
𝜆𝜆 = = = ≈ = =
𝛽𝛽 𝜔𝜔 𝐿𝐿′ 𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝜔𝜔 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑓𝑓 𝜇𝜇0 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0 𝑓𝑓 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟
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 Characteristic parameters of transmission lines

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 Voltage reflection coefficient

 With 𝛾𝛾 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 for the lossless line, the total voltage and current become
𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑉𝑉0+ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑧𝑧 + 𝑉𝑉0− 𝑒𝑒 +𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑧𝑧
𝑉𝑉0+ −𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑧𝑧 𝑉𝑉0− +𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑧𝑧
𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒
𝑍𝑍0 𝑍𝑍0
 At the load (𝑧𝑧 = 0)
𝑉𝑉�𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉0+ + 𝑉𝑉0−
𝑉𝑉0+ 𝑉𝑉0−
𝐼𝐼̃𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧 = 0 = −
𝑍𝑍0 𝑍𝑍0
 The load impedance
𝑉𝑉�𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉0+ + 𝑉𝑉0− 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 − 𝑍𝑍0 +
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = = 𝑍𝑍 𝑉𝑉0− = 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼̃𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉0+ − 𝑉𝑉0− 0 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍0 0
 Voltage reflection coefficient
𝑉𝑉0− 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 − 𝑍𝑍0 𝑧𝑧𝐿𝐿 − 1 𝐼𝐼0− 𝑧𝑧𝐿𝐿 = 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 ⁄𝑍𝑍0
Γ= += = Γ=− +
𝑉𝑉0 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍0 𝑧𝑧𝐿𝐿 + 1 𝐼𝐼0 Normalized load impedance
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 Voltage reflection coefficient

 𝑍𝑍0 of a lossless line is a real number, but 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 is in general a complex quantity.
Hence, in general Γ also is complex and given by
−𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃
𝑉𝑉0− 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 − 𝑍𝑍0 𝑧𝑧𝐿𝐿 − 1
Γ = Γ 𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟 Γ= += =
𝑉𝑉0 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍0 𝑧𝑧𝐿𝐿 + 1
 Matched load (𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑍𝑍0)  Γ = 0 and 𝑉𝑉0− = 0
 Open load (𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = ∞)  Γ = 1 and 𝑉𝑉0− = 𝑉𝑉0+
 Short load (𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 0)  Γ = −1 and 𝑉𝑉0− = −𝑉𝑉0+

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 Standing waves

 Using 𝑉𝑉0− = Γ𝑉𝑉0+ , the total voltage and current become

𝑉𝑉� 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑉𝑉0+ (𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑧𝑧 + Γ𝑒𝑒 +𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑧𝑧 )
Only one unknown
𝑉𝑉0+ −𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑧𝑧 𝑉𝑉0+
𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑧𝑧 = (𝑒𝑒 − Γ𝑒𝑒 +𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑧𝑧 )
𝑍𝑍0
 Replacing 𝑧𝑧 with – 𝑑𝑑, Magnitude of 𝑉𝑉� 𝑑𝑑 and 𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉� 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉0+ 1 + Γ 2
+ 2 Γ cos(2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 − 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 ) 1/2

𝑉𝑉0+
𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑑𝑑 = 1+ Γ 2
− 2 Γ cos(2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 − 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 ) 1/2
𝑍𝑍0
 The sinusoidal patterns are called standing
waves and are caused by the interference of the
two traveling waves.
 Maximum values when 2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 − 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 = 2𝑛𝑛𝜋𝜋
 Minimum values when 2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 − 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1)𝜋𝜋
 With no reflected wave present, there are no
interference and no standing waves.
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 Standing waves

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 Voltage standing-wave patterns

 Matched load (𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑍𝑍0)  Γ=0

 Open load (𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = ∞)  Γ=1
 Short load (𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 0)  Γ = −1

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 Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)

 Maximum and minimum values of 𝑉𝑉�

 𝑉𝑉� 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
� 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) = 𝑉𝑉0+ [1 + Γ ]
= 𝑉𝑉(𝑑𝑑 at 2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 = 2𝑛𝑛𝜋𝜋

 𝑉𝑉� 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
� 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝑉𝑉0+ [1 − Γ ]
= 𝑉𝑉(𝑑𝑑 at 2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1)𝜋𝜋

 Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)

𝑉𝑉� 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 + Γ
𝑆𝑆 = =
𝑉𝑉� 1− Γ
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

 A measure of the mismatch between the load and the transmission line
 For a matched load with Γ = 0, 𝑆𝑆 = 1, and for a line with Γ = 1, 𝑆𝑆 = ∞.

 Measuring 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 using slotted-line probe

1+ Γ 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 − 𝑍𝑍0
𝑆𝑆 = Γ=
1− Γ 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍0

Measure Known
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 Wave impedance of lossless lines

 Since the voltage and current magnitudes are oscillatory with position along the
line and in phase opposition with each other, the wave impedance 𝑍𝑍(𝑑𝑑) must
vary with position also.

𝑉𝑉� 𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉0+ (𝑒𝑒 +𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 + Γ𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 ) 1 + Γ𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 1 + Γ𝑑𝑑

𝑍𝑍 𝑑𝑑 = = + +𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍
𝐼𝐼̃ 𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉0 (𝑒𝑒 − Γ𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 ) 0 0
1 − Γ𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 0
1 − Γ𝑑𝑑

 Phase-shifted voltage reflection coefficient

Γ𝑑𝑑 = Γ𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 = Γ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 = Γ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗(𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 −2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑)

 Γ𝑑𝑑 has the same magnitude as Γ, but its phase is shifted by 2𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
relative to that of Γ.

 𝑍𝑍(𝑑𝑑) is the ratio of the total voltage (incident and reflected-wave voltages) to the
total current at any point d on the line, in contrast with the characteristic
impedance of the line 𝑍𝑍0 , which relates the voltage and current of each of the
two waves individually (𝑍𝑍0 = 𝑉𝑉0+ /𝐼𝐼0+ = −𝑉𝑉0− /𝐼𝐼0− ).

23/43
 Input impedance

 In the actual circuit (a), at terminals 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵′ at an arbitrary location 𝑑𝑑 on the line,
𝑍𝑍(𝑑𝑑) is the wave impedance of the line when “looking” to the right (i.e., towards
the load). Application of the equivalence principle allows us to replace the
segment to the right of terminals 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵′ with a lumped impedance of value 𝑍𝑍(𝑑𝑑).

24/43
 Input impedance

 Of particular interest in many transmission-line problems is the input impedance

at the source end of the line, at 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑙𝑙, which is given by
1 + Γ𝑙𝑙
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑍𝑍 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑍𝑍0
1 − Γ𝑙𝑙
Where, Γ𝑙𝑙 = Γ𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙 = Γ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗(𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 −2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑)
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 − 𝑍𝑍0
 Using Γ=
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍0
 We obtain the input impedance
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑍𝑍0
𝑍𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙

 Final solution is
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉�𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼̃𝑖𝑖 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉�𝑔𝑔 �
= 𝑉𝑉(−𝑙𝑙)
𝑍𝑍𝑔𝑔 + 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1
𝑉𝑉0+ = 𝑉𝑉�𝑔𝑔
𝑍𝑍𝑔𝑔 + 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙 + Γ𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
25/43
 Short-circuited line

 Since 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 0, the input impedance is

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙

𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑍𝑍0 = 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
𝑍𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
Purely reactive
 If tan 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 ≥ 0, the line appears inductive to the
source, acting like an equivalent inductor 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑍𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝜔𝜔
 If tan 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 ≤ 0, the input impedance is capacitive, in
which case the line acts like an equivalent
capacitor with capacitance 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
1
𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = −
𝜔𝜔𝑍𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
 Through proper choice of the length of a short-
circuited line, we can make them into equivalent
capacitors and inductors of any desired reactance.
26/43
 Open-circuited line

 Since 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = ∞, the input impedance of an open-

circuited line is

𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙

𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑍𝑍0 = −𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍0 cot 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙
𝑍𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙

 A network analyzer is a radio-frequency (RF)

instrument capable of measuring the impedance
of any load connected to its input terminal.
𝑠𝑠𝑐𝑐
 The combination of the two measurements (𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
and 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) can be used to determine the
characteristic impedance of the line 𝑍𝑍0 and its
phase constant 𝛽𝛽.

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑐𝑐
𝑍𝑍0 = 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙 = − 𝑜𝑜𝑐𝑐
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

27/43
 Quarter-wavelength (𝟒𝟒/𝝀𝝀) transformer

 If 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛/2, where 𝑛𝑛 is an integer, tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙 = 0. Then,

𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙  A half-wavelength line does not modify
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑍𝑍0 = 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙 the load impedance.

 If 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛⁄2 + 𝜆𝜆⁄4, where 𝑛𝑛 is 0 or a positive integer, tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙 = ∞. Then,

𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙 𝑍𝑍02
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑍𝑍0 =
𝑍𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 tan 𝛽𝛽𝑙𝑙 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿

 𝜆𝜆⁄4 transformer (example)

2
𝑍𝑍02
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = = 𝑍𝑍01
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿

𝑍𝑍02 = 𝑍𝑍01 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 70.7 Ω

28/43
 Properties of standing waves on a lossless transmission
line

29/43
 Smith chart

 The Smith chart, developed by P. H. Smith in 1939, is a widely used graphical

tool for analyzing and designing transmission line circuits.
 Reflection coefficient and normalized load impedance
Γ = Γ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 = Γ𝑟𝑟 + 𝑗𝑗Γ𝑖𝑖

𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 ⁄𝑍𝑍0 − 1 𝑧𝑧𝐿𝐿 − 1

Γ= =
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 ⁄𝑍𝑍0 + 1 𝑧𝑧𝐿𝐿 + 1
1+Γ (1 + Γ𝑟𝑟 ) + 𝑗𝑗Γ𝑖𝑖
𝑧𝑧𝐿𝐿 = = 𝑟𝑟𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥𝐿𝐿 =
1−Γ (1 − Γ𝑟𝑟 ) − 𝑗𝑗Γ𝑖𝑖
Normalized load resistance
Normalized load reactance

1 − Γ𝑟𝑟2 − Γ𝑖𝑖2
𝑟𝑟𝐿𝐿 =
1 − Γ𝑟𝑟 2 + Γ𝑖𝑖2 There are many combinations of (Γ𝑟𝑟 , Γ𝑖𝑖 ) that yield
2Γ𝑖𝑖 the same value for the normalized load resistance.
𝑥𝑥𝐿𝐿 =
1 − Γ𝑟𝑟 2 + Γ𝑖𝑖2 Smith chart: graphical evaluation of (𝑟𝑟𝐿𝐿 , 𝑥𝑥𝐿𝐿 ) in the
Γ𝑟𝑟 − Γ𝑖𝑖 plane
30/43
 Smith chart

 Parametric equation for the circle in the Γ𝑟𝑟 − Γ𝑖𝑖 plane corresponding to given
values of 𝑟𝑟𝐿𝐿 and 𝑥𝑥𝐿𝐿 .
2 2 2 2
𝑟𝑟𝐿𝐿 2 1 2
1 1
Γ𝑟𝑟 − + Γ𝑖𝑖 = Γ𝑟𝑟 − 1 + Γ𝑖𝑖 − =
1 + 𝑟𝑟𝐿𝐿 1 + 𝑟𝑟𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥𝐿𝐿

31/43
 Wave impedance

 The normalized wave impedance looking toward the load at a distance 𝑑𝑑 from
the load is
𝑍𝑍(𝑑𝑑) 1 + Γ𝑑𝑑 Γ𝑑𝑑 = Γ𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 = Γ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 = Γ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗(𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 −2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑)
𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑 = =
𝑍𝑍0 1 − Γ𝑑𝑑 (Phase-shifted voltage reflection coefficient)
 The transformation from Γ to Γ𝑑𝑑 is achieved by maintaining Γ constant and
decreasing its phase 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 by 2𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽, which corresponds to a clockwise rotation (on
the Smith chart) over an angle of 2𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 radians.

WTG scale

 A complete rotation around the Smith chart

𝜆𝜆
2𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 = 2𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑 =
2

WTL scale

32/43
 Wave impedance

 Constant- Γ circle or constant-SWR circle

𝑉𝑉� 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 + Γ
𝑆𝑆 = =
𝑉𝑉� 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1 − Γ

 If a line is of length 𝑙𝑙, its input impedance is 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑍𝑍0 𝑧𝑧(𝑙𝑙), with 𝑧𝑧(𝑙𝑙) determined by
rotating a distance 𝑙𝑙 from the load along the WTG scale.

33/43
 Impedance to admittance transformation

 In solving certain types of transmission-line problems, it is often more convenient

to work with admittances than with impedances.
 Impedance
Resistance

𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Reactance

 Admittance Conductance

1 1 𝑅𝑅 −𝑋𝑋
𝑌𝑌 = = = 2 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝐺𝐺 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑍𝑍 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑋𝑋 2 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑋 2
Susceptance

 Normalized admittance
𝑌𝑌 𝐺𝐺 𝐵𝐵
𝑦𝑦 = = + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑔𝑔 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑌𝑌0 𝑌𝑌0 𝑌𝑌0

34/43
 Impedance matching

 Impedance-matching network: It eliminates reflections at terminals 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 for

waves incident from the source. Even though multiple reflections may occur
between 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀, only a forward traveling wave exists on the feedline.

 Lumped-element matching
𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑌𝑌𝑑𝑑 + 𝑌𝑌𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 + 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵𝑑𝑑 + 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 + 𝑗𝑗 𝐵𝐵𝑑𝑑 + 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌𝑌0 𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 = 𝑌𝑌0 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 = −𝐵𝐵𝑑𝑑

35/43
 Matching network in RF inductive discharges

 The admittance looking to the right at the terminals 𝐴𝐴– 𝐴𝐴′ is

1 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌𝐴𝐴 = 𝐺𝐺𝐴𝐴 + 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵𝐴𝐴 = 𝐺𝐺𝐴𝐴 = conductance
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 ) 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 2

𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝐵𝐴𝐴 = − 2 2
susceptance
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

 Determine the values of 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2

1
𝐺𝐺𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵2 = 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶2 = −𝐵𝐵𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇

36/43
 Transients on transmission lines

 The transient response of a voltage pulse on a transmission line is a time record

of its back and forth travel between the sending and receiving ends of the line,
taking into account all the multiple reflections (echoes) at both ends.
 A single rectangular pulse can be described mathematically as the sum of two
unit step functions:
𝑉𝑉 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉2 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉0 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑉𝑉0 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡 − 𝜏𝜏)

 Hence, if we can develop basic tools for describing the transient behavior of a
single step function, we can apply the same tools for each of the two
components of the pulse and then add the results to obtain the response to 𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡).
37/43
 Transient response to a step function

 The switch between the generator circuit and the transmission line is closed at
𝑡𝑡 = 0. The instant the switch is closed, the transmission line appears to the
generator circuit as a load with impedance 𝑍𝑍0 . This is because, in the absence of
a signal on the line, the input impedance of the line is unaffected by the load
impedance 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 .
 The initial condition:

𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔
𝐼𝐼1+ =
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑍𝑍0

𝑍𝑍0 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔
𝑉𝑉1+ = 𝐼𝐼1+ 𝑍𝑍0 =
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑍𝑍0

 The combination of 𝑉𝑉1+ and 𝐼𝐼1+

constitutes a wave that travels along the
line with velocity 𝑢𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 1/ 𝜖𝜖𝜖𝜖 ,
immediately after the switch is closed.

38/43
 Reflections at both ends

 At 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑇𝑇, the wave reaches the load at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙, and because 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 ≠ 𝑍𝑍0 , the
mismatch generates a reflected wave with amplitude
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 − 𝑍𝑍0
𝑉𝑉1− = Γ𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉1+ where Γ𝐿𝐿 =
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍0
 After this first reflection, the voltage on the line consists of the sum of two waves:
the initial wave 𝑉𝑉1+ and the reflected wave 𝑉𝑉1−.
 At 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑇𝑇, the reflected wave 𝑉𝑉1− arrives at the sending end of the line. If 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 ≠ 𝑍𝑍0 ,
the mismatch at the sending end generates a reflection at 𝑧𝑧 = 0 in the form of a
wave with voltage amplitude 𝑉𝑉2+ given by
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 − 𝑍𝑍0
𝑉𝑉2+ = Γ𝑔𝑔 𝑉𝑉1− = Γ𝑔𝑔 Γ𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉1+ where Γ𝑔𝑔 =
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑍𝑍0
 The multiple-reflection process continues indefinitely, and the ultimate value that
𝑉𝑉(𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡) reaches as 𝑡𝑡 approaches +∞ is the same at all locations on the
transmission line (steady-state voltage).
𝑉𝑉∞ = 𝑉𝑉1+ + 𝑉𝑉1− + 𝑉𝑉2+ + 𝑉𝑉2− + 𝑉𝑉3+ + 𝑉𝑉3− + ⋯ = 𝑉𝑉1+ 1 + Γ𝐿𝐿 + Γ𝐿𝐿 Γ𝑔𝑔 + Γ𝐿𝐿2 Γ𝑔𝑔 + Γ𝐿𝐿2 Γ𝑔𝑔2 + Γ𝐿𝐿3 Γ𝑔𝑔2 + ⋯
1 + Γ𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉∞ = 𝑉𝑉1+ 1 + Γ𝐿𝐿 1 + Γ𝐿𝐿 Γ𝑔𝑔 + Γ𝐿𝐿2 Γ𝑔𝑔2 +⋯ = 𝑉𝑉1+ = 𝑉𝑉
1 − Γ𝐿𝐿 Γ𝑔𝑔 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑔𝑔
39/43
 Reflections at both ends: example

 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 = 4𝑍𝑍0 and 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 2𝑍𝑍0

𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 − 𝑍𝑍0 1 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 − 𝑍𝑍0 3
Γ𝐿𝐿 = = Γ𝑔𝑔 = =
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍0 3 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑍𝑍0 5

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 Bounce diagram

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 Pulse propagation

 Q. The transmission-line circuit of Fig. (a) is

excited by a rectangular pulse of duration 𝜏𝜏 =
1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 that starts at 𝑡𝑡 = 0. Establish the
waveform of the voltage response at the load,
given that the pulse amplitude is 5 V, the phase
velocity is 𝑐𝑐, and the length of the line is 0.6 m.

 Solution 𝑙𝑙
𝑇𝑇 = = 2 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑐𝑐
150 − 50 12.5 − 50
Γ𝐿𝐿 = = 0.5 Γ𝑔𝑔 = = −0.6
150 + 50 12.5 + 50
𝑍𝑍0 𝑉𝑉01 50 × 5
𝑉𝑉1+ = = =4
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑍𝑍0 12.5 + 50
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 Time-domain reflectometer (TDR)

 Q. If the voltage waveform shown in Fig. (a) is seen on an oscilloscope

connected to the input of a 75 Ωmatched transmission line, determine (a) the
generator voltage, (b) the location of the fault, and (c) the fault shunt resistance.
The line’s insulating material is Teflon with 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 = 2.1.
 Solution (a)
𝑍𝑍0 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔
𝑉𝑉1+ = = 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 = 2𝑉𝑉1+ = 12 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑍𝑍0 2
 Solution (b)
2𝑑𝑑 2𝑑𝑑
∆𝑡𝑡 = = = 12 𝜇𝜇𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑 = 1,242 𝑚𝑚
𝑢𝑢𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐 ⁄ 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟
 Solution (c)
𝑉𝑉1− = Γ𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑉1+ = −3 𝑉𝑉 Γ𝑓𝑓 = −0.5
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 − 𝑍𝑍0
Γ𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 25 Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 + 𝑍𝑍0
1 1 1
= + 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 = 37.5 Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝑍𝑍0
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