COMSATS University Islamabad WAH Campus

Department of Electrical Engineering

Electric Circuits Analysis II
EEE 222
Laboratory Manual

Lab. Instructor: Engr. Kanwal Saeed

 LABORATORY SAFETY
Experiments in this laboratory will be conducted in strict accordance with following list of regulations,
procedures and comments in order to promote a professional and safe approach to the laboratory
experience. Additionally, laboratory safety rules apply during all experiments. If you are not sure of the
operation of equipment or laboratory procedure, particularly those which might compromise personal
safety and the safety of your laboratory partners, do not hesitate to ask your laboratory instructor for
assistance. The following rules must be strictly adhered to during the course of your laboratory
experiment:

1. Be calm and relaxed, while working in Lab.

2. No paper lying on table or nearby circuits.

3. No smoking, no food and no drinks permitted inside the laboratory.

4. Wear proper clothing and insulated footwear to the laboratory.

5. Do not use wet hands or stand on a wet floor while making electrical connections.

6. Do not place personal belongings (books, coat, etc.) on the laboratory equipment.

7. Keep your work area clean and organized.

8. Use only that equipment required for a particular experiment specified.

9. Do not use damaged or poorly insulated wires or equipment.

10. Properly ground all equipment.

11. Thoroughly check all connections before applying power.

12. Turn power off when making changes to your experiment.

13. Discharge capacitors by shorting with resistor.

14. Do not energize equipment until given permission.

15. Do not touch 120V electrical outlets or the terminals of any energized electrical connection.

16. Report any accident to your instructor immediately.

17. Work deliberately and carefully.

18. In the event of a power failure, turn off the power switched to all equipment immediately and wait
further instructions.

19. After you are done with your experiment, turn all main switches off.
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, CUI- WAH Campus ECA- II (EEE 222)

List of E xperiments

S.No. Experiment

1 Introduction to laboratory equipment & labvolt (LVDAM-EMS) software - (CLO1), (CLO4)

Phasor Analysis of RC circuit using O-Scope and verification on Lab-Volt Data Acquisition and
2
Management Electromechanical System (LVDAM-EMS) - (CLO1), (CLO4)

Phasor Analysis of RL circuit using O-Scope and verification on Lab-Volt Data Acquisition and
3
Management Electromechanical System (LVDAM-EMS) - (CLO1), (CLO4)

Phasor Analysis of RLC series circuits using O-Scope and verification on Lab-Volt Data
4
Acquisition and Management Electromechanical System (LVDAM-EMS) - (CLO1), (CLO4)

Phasor Analysis of RLC parallel circuits using O-Scope and verification on Lab-Volt Data
5
Acquisition and Management Electromechanical System (LVDAM-EMS) - (CLO1), (CLO4)

Sinusoidal steady state Power Measurements (Real, Reactive and Apparent Power) and
6
Power factor - (CLO2)

7 Maximum power transfer theorem and impedance matching. - (CLO2)

8 To implement Series resonant circuits - (CLO2)

9 To implement parallel resonant circuits - (CLO2)

10 To determine and verify Transfer function of an RC low pass filter circuit - (CLO3)

11 To implement Passive first order Low pass filters - (CLO3)

12 To implement Passive first order High pass filters - (CLO3)

13 Open-Ended Lab - (CLO2)

Updated by: Engr. Kanwal Saeed

 Experiment 01
Introduction to Lab Equipment & LVSIM_EMS (Lab-volt)
Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope is a graph displaying device. It is used to visualize time-varying electronic signals
on a screen. The signals are graphed using an analog circuitry or a digital apparatus.

Analog

It works on the functionality of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). A beam of electrons is made to fall on
a screen where it becomes visible as a bright blue dot. The beam is then moved along a
horizontal line using a saw-tooth voltage applied along the horizontal axis. The fast moving dot
gives the appearance of a blue line. Then the signal to be graphed on the screen is applied
vertically so that the beam of electrons moves in a vertical access accordingly. The result is a
plot of the time varying applied signal on the oscilloscope screen.

Digital

It works on the functionality of Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter. The applied input analog
signal is sampled at a high rate; the received samples are then plotted on the screen.

Digital Oscilloscopes have some obvious benefits over analog counterparts. The advent in
digital circuitry has made the oscilloscopes cheaper. Moreover the sampled signal in a digital
oscilloscope can be stored in memory, can be easily modified or transferred to a computer for
further analysis. In this lab we shall conduct all experiments using digital oscilloscopes.

However it is advised that engineering students should get hands-on experience on both types
of oscilloscopes.

Applications

Industrial Power Design, Troubleshooting, Installation, and Maintenance

Advanced Electronics Design, Troubleshooting, Installation, and Maintenance
Automotive Design and Test
Education
 Figure 1: Tektronix TDS 1012 (Two Channels)

Figure 2: Tektronix TPS 2024B (Four Channels)

Using the Oscilloscope

 Power on the oscilloscope. Wait until the display shows.

Figure 3: Power Button

Auto – Scale Feature: The oscilloscope has a very useful auto-scale feature that sets the
various display scales automatically according to the input waveform. Push the
AUTOSET button. Within a few seconds, you should see a square wave in the display
of about 5 V peak-to-peak at 1 kHz.

AUTOSET button. Within a few seconds, you should see a square wave in the display of about 5 V
peak-to-peak at 1 kHz.

Figure 4: Autoset Button

Manual Probe Compensation (Calibration): Set the Probe option attenuation in the channel
menu to 1X or 10X. If you use the probe hook-tip, ensure a proper connection by firmly
inserting the tip onto the probe. Attach the probe tip to the PROBE COMP ~5V connector
and the reference lead to the PROBE COMP Ground connector. Display the channel and
then push the AUTOSET button. When the Attenuation switch is set to 1X, the P2200 probe
limits the bandwidth of the oscilloscope to 7 MHz.
 Figure 5: Calibration

Triggering: The trigger determines when captured data should be stored and displayed.
When a trigger is set up properly, it can convert unstable displays or blank screens into
meaningful waveforms. When the oscilloscope starts to acquire a waveform, it collects
enough data so that it can draw the waveform to the left of the trigger point. The
oscilloscope continues to acquire data while waiting for the trigger condition to occur.

Figure 6: Triggering behavior

After it detects a trigger, the oscilloscope continues to acquire enough data so that it can
draw the waveform. The oscilloscope provides these trigger modes:
1. Edge — can be used with analog and digital circuits. An edge trigger occurs when the
trigger input passes through a specified voltage level with the specified slope.
 2. Pulse — is used to find pulses with certain widths.
3. To adjust the trigger level, turn the trigger Level knob. Two things happen: The trigger
level value is displayed at the lower left- hand corner of the screen and a line is
displayed showing the location of the trigger level with respect to the waveform.
4. Push 50% to set the level at 50% of the signal’s vertical amplitude.
5. To make an acquisition even if no valid trigger has been found: Press Force.
6. Forcing a trigger is useful, for example, when you want to display the DC
voltage of a level signal.

Figure 7: Trigger Scale

Acquiring Signals: There are three acquisition modes:

1. Sample: In this acquisition mode, the oscilloscope samples the signal in evenly
spaced intervals to construct the waveform.
2. Peak Detect: In this acquisition mode, the oscilloscope finds the highest and lowest
values of the input signal over each sample interval.
3. Average: In this acquisition mode, the oscilloscope acquires several waveforms,
averages them, and displays the resulting waveform.
Vertical Controls: The vertical controls consist of:
1. The vertical scale knobs — change the amplitude per division setting for a
waveform, using ground as a reference.
2. The vertical position knobs — change the vertical position of the waveform on the
screen (moving waveform up or down in the display).
 Figure 8: Vertical scale

Horizontal Scale: The horizontal controls consist of:

1. The horizontal scale knob — changes the oscilloscope’s time per division setting using
the center of the screen as a reference.
2. The horizontal position knob — changes the position of the trigger point relative to
the center of the screen.

Figure 9:Horizontal Setting

Control Buttons: There are many control buttons in oscilloscope:

1. For starting and stopping the oscilloscope’s acquisition system that is Run/Stop.
When the Run/Stop button is green, the oscilloscope is acquiring data. To stop acquiring
data, again press Run/Stop. When stopped, the last acquired waveform is displayed. When
the Run/Stop button is red, data acquisition is stopped.
2. To capture and display a single acquisition (whether the oscilloscope is running or stopped),
press Single. After capturing and displaying a single acquisition, the Run/Stop button is red.
3. Automatically sets the oscilloscope and display of the input signals using AUTOSET

button.
4. HELP button displays the Help Menu.
5. Recalls the factory setup by DEFAULT SETUP.
 6. SAVE/RECALL, MEASURE, ACQUIRE, UTILITY, CURSOR and DISPLAY are for setups,
automated measurements, Acquire, Utility, Cursor and Display menu’s.

Display Area:

Figure 10: Display Area

 1. Icon display shows acquisition mode.
2. Trigger status.
3. Marker shows horizontal trigger position.
4. Readout shows the time at the center graticule. The trigger time is zero.
5. Marker shows Edge or Pulse Width trigger level.
6. On-screen markers show the ground reference points of the displayed waveforms. If
there is no marker, the channel is not displayed.
7. An arrow icon indicates that the waveform is inverted.
8. Readouts show the vertical scale factors of the channels.
9. A BW icon indicates that the channel is bandwidth limited.
10. Readout shows main time base setting.
11. Readout shows window time base setting if it is in use.
12. Readout shows trigger source used for triggering.
13. Icon shows selected trigger type.
14. Readout shows Edge or Pulse Width trigger level.
15. Display area shows helpful messages.
16. Readout shows trigger frequency.

Function Generator
A function generator is a device to generate arbitrary time varying waveforms. It is used for testing
and designing circuits in a lab environment. The function generator used in this lab is Agilent 3320A.

Using the Function Generator: -

Figure 11: Snapshot of Agilent 3320A Function Generator

Generating a Signal:

Turn the power on and press the output key.

Press the sine key, if not already active.
Enter a value of 2 using numeric keypad and then choose units to be kHz. We can also
specify time period instead of frequency if we press the “Freq” soft key and then specify the
time period.
Similarly press the Amplitude soft key to enter amplitude and offset soft key to enter DC
offset.
The units can be changed by pressing first the +/- key and then entering new units.
Similarly by pressing the square, ramp, pulse etc keys we can generate arbitrary
waveforms of different characteristics.

Lab Task 01: Measuring AC Signals using Oscilloscope

Procedure:
1. Turn on the oscilloscope and function generator.
2. Set the function generator to 1 KHz frequency by pressing 1 KHz button and
multiplier to X1.
3. Generate different types of waveform from function generator.
4. Now observe the signal by attaching the probe of the function generator to any
probe of the oscilloscope channel.
5. Adjust volt/div and time/div to observe proper signal.
6. Measure the amplitude (Peak Voltage) and rms value of the signal.
7. Time per div = t =
8. No of divisions in which wave complete its 1 cycle = N =
9. Time period = T = Time per div (t) x No of divisions (N) =
10. Repeat the process.

Observations & Calculations:

For Sinusoidal Waveform:

Sr. No Frequency No. of Volt/Div Vp-p Vp Vrms Vrms/Vp

(Hz) Vertical
Divisions
For Square Waveform:

Sr. No Frequency No. of Volt/Div Vp-p Vp Vrms Vrms/Vp

(Hz) Vertical
Divisions

For Triangular Waveform:

Sr. No Frequency No. of Volt/Div Vp-p Vp Vrms Vrms/Vp

(Hz) Vertical
Divisions
 Experiment 02
Phasors analysis of series RC Circuits using Lab-Volt Data
Acquisition and Management Electromechanical System
(LVDAM-EMS)
Objective:
Study and use phasors to solve series RC & RL circuits and determine voltages of each component
and current in the AC circuit.

Apparatus:

Power Supply

EMS workstation.

Resistive load.

Capacitive load.

Connection leads and Accessories.

Data acquisition interface.

Introduction:
Phasor Analysis:
Phasor analysis is a useful tool to analyze the sinusoidal steady state behavior of circuits containing
capacitor and inductor. In phasor analysis, the information about the frequency of the applied
signal is suppressed and only magnitude and phase are analyzed. The circuits containing
resistors(R), capacitors(C) and inductors (L) can affect the magnitude and phase of the input
signal and the frequency of the sinusoid remains the same throughout the circuit. Using
phasor technique, we transform the time domain V-I relations into phasor domain relations
in the complex domain. In AC circuits, sine-wave currents flow through the circuit
components and sine-wave voltage appear across each component. Therefore, each of the voltage
and current sine-waves can be described by amplitude and a phase angle. It can be graphically
represented by vector diagram.
Series RC Circuit:

Consider a series RC circuit in which resistor and capacitor are connected in series across a AC
voltage supply as in figure below:

Figure 1: Series RC Circuit.

As this circuit:
Same amount of sine-wave current is flowing through each component (resistor and
capacitor).
Resistor voltage is in phase with current whereas; capacitor voltage lags current by phase
angle of 90 degree as,

Figure 2: Waveforms of Each Component

Phase angle is phase difference between total current and source voltage and it depends
upon relative values of resistance and reactance. It is denoted by θ and calculated as
θ= arctan (X/R)
The effective resistance of an electric circuit or component to alternating current, arising
from the combined effects of resistance R and reactance X is called impedance.
It is denoted by Z and mathematically expressed as,
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
It has different formula for different parameters as given below,

In the series RC circuits, the magnitude of total impedance is the phasor sum of R and jXc,

and phase angle is given as,

From KVL, the sum of the voltage drops must equal the applied voltage Vs. Since Vr and
Vc are 90°out of phase with each other, they must be added as phasor quantities.
 Lab Task 01: Phasor Analysis of Series RC Circuit

Procedure:

Install the power supply, data acquisition interface, resistive load, Inductive load and
capacitive load modules in the EMS Workstation.

Make sure that the main switch of the power supply is set to the O (OFF) position, and
voltage control knob is turned fully ccw.

Set the voltmeter select switch to the 4-N position.

Connect Data Acquisition interface with 24~ V & 3 A power supply

To acquire data from module, switch on LVDAM-EMS software.

Set up the RC circuit as shown in figure 1.

Connect voltmeters (E1, E2, E3) across each component in parallel combination and ammeter
(I1) in circuit from data acquisition system.

Observe phasor diagram by using phasor analysor and note down values by using metering
interface.
Table 1: Observations
R= Xc

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1
E2
E3
I1
P
Q
S
Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:
 Table 2: Observations

R=-----------------

Xc=---------------

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1

E2

E3

I1

Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:

Table 3: Observations

R=-----------------

Xc=---------------

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1

E2

E3

I1

S
 Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:
 Experiment 03
Phasors Analysis of series RL Circuits using Lab-Volt Data
Acquisition and Management Electromechanical System
(LVDAM-EMS)

Apparatus:

Lab-Volt (Power Supply)

EMS workstation

Resistive load

Inductive load

Connection leads and Accessories

Lab-Volt (Data acquisition interface)

Introduction:
AC Circuits:
In ac circuits, sine-wave currents flow through the circuit components and sine-wave voltage
appear across each component. Each of the sine-wave voltage and current has its own amplitude
but all of these have same frequency. As a result, there is a fixed relationship between various
voltages and currents sine waves. Therefore, we can define each sine wave with amplitude and
a phase angle. This allows each of the sine wave in an AC circuit to represent as phasor (polar
coordinates). Modulus and phase angle of the phasor
corresponding to the amplitude and phase angle, respectively.
Vector Diagram:

Phasors representing voltage and current sine waves in ac circuits can be represented graphically
by using vector analysis drawn in x-y plane. This graphical representation is referred to as a
vector diagram. This allows each of the sine wave in an ac circuit to be reduced to a single line in
the vector diagram.

Figure 1: Vector Diagram

Series RL Circuit:

Consider a following series RL circuit in which resistor and inductance are connected in
across AC voltage supply as in figure below:

Figure 2: Series RL Circuit.

As this circuit:
Same amount of sine-wave current is flowing through each component (resistor and
inductor).
Resistor voltage is in phase with current whereas; inductance cause phase shift in
which voltage leads current by phase angle of 90 degree depending on the relative
values of resistor and inductor reactance.
 Figure 3: RL Waveforms

Total opposition of all the components (resistance R and reactance X) to alternating current,
in AC circuit is called impedance. It is denoted by Z and mathematically expressed as,
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
In the series RL circuits, the total impedance is the phasor sum of R and jXL is calculated as,

Figure 4: Equivalent Impedance

where, magnitude is

and phase angle is given as,

 Figure 5: Impedance Triangle

From KVL, the sum of the voltage drops must equal the applied voltage Vs.
Since Vr and VL are 90°out of phase with each other, therefore we cannot take their
algebraic sum; they must be added as phasor quantities using voltage triangles,

Figure 6: Voltage Triangle

Where, magnitude of total voltage is

And phase angle is

 Lab Task 01: Phasor Analysis of Series RL Circuit

Procedure:

Install the power supply, data acquisition interface, resistive load and Inductive load modules
in the EMS Workstation.

Make sure that the main switch of the power supply is set to the O (OFF) position, and
voltage control knob is turned fully ccw.

Set the voltmeter select switch to the 4-N position.

Connect Data Acquisition interface with 24~ V & 3 A power supply

To acquire data from module, switch on LVDAM-EMS software.

Set up the RL circuit as shown in figure 2.

Connect voltmeters (E1, E2, E3) across each component in parallel combination and ammeter
(I1) in circuit from data acquisition system.

Observe phasor diagram by using phasor analysor and note down values by using metering
interface.
Table 1: Observations

R=-----------------

XL=---------------

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1

E2

E3

I1

S
Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:
 Table 2: Observations

R=-----------------

XL=---------------

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1

E2

E3

I1

Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:

Table 3: Observations

R=-----------------

XL=---------------

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1

E2

E3

I1

S
 Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:
 Experiment 04
Phasors Analysis of series RLC Circuits using Lab-Volt
Data Acquisition and Management Electromechanical
System (LVDAM-EMS)
Objective:
Study of series RLC (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor) components across AC power supple. Determine
its current and voltages of each component using vector and phasors analysis.

Apparatus:

• Lab-Volt (Power Supply)

• EMS workstation

• Resistive load

• Capacitive load

• Inductive load

• Connection leads and Accessories

• Lab-Volt (Data acquisition interface)

Introduction:
The three basic passive components: resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance (C) have very
different phase relationships to each other when connected to a sinusoidal AC supply. In a pure
ohmic resistor the voltage waveforms are “in-phase” with the current. In a pure inductance the
voltage waveform “leads” the current by 90 degree. In a pure capacitance the voltage waveform
“lags” the current by 90 degree. This Phase Difference, Φ depends upon the reactive value of the
components being used and if reactance, ( X ) is zero, then the circuit element is resistive, if
positive, then the circuit element is inductive and negative in the case of pure capacitive load.
Instead of analyzing each passive element separately, we can combine all three together into a
series RLC circuit. It is a second-order circuits because they contain two energy storage elements,
an inductance L and a capacitance C.

Series RLC Circuit:

Consider a following series RLC circuit in which resistor, inductance and capacitor are connected
across an AC voltage supply as in figure below:

Figure 1: Series RLC Circuit

As this circuit:
• Same amount of sine-wave current is flowing through each component (resistor, inductor
and capacitor) such that

Io=i(t)=Ir=IL=Ic
• Resistor voltage is in phase with current whereas; inductance cause phase shift in which
voltage leads current by phase angle of 90 degree depending on the relative values of
resistor and inductor reactance while capacitor cause phase shift in which voltage lags
current by phase angle of 90 degree.

Figure 2: Waveform
• By applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we obtain
V (t) = VR (t) + VL (t) +VC (t)
We can not apply arithmetic rule to add these voltages because by examining the
connected component we came to know that the phase shift between the voltage
source and the current is associated all the three circuit elements R , L and C, therefore we
add these voltage by using phasor and vector analysis.
• Using the phasor representation,

The three voltage phasors rotate counterclockwise as time increases, with their relative
positions fixed.

• The relationship between different voltage amplitudes is depicted by following equation

as,
 • Total opposition of all the components i-e resistance R and reactance X to alternating
current, is denoted as by Z and mathematically expressed as,
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋

• In the series RLC circuits, the magnitude of total impedance is calculated as,

The relationship between Z, R, XL, and XC can be represented by the diagram shown below

Figure 3: Vector representation

The impedance also has SI units of ohms and phase angle is given as,

Lab Task 01: Phasor Analysis of Series RL Circuit

Procedure:

• Install the power supply, data acquisition interface, resistive load, Inductive load and
capacitive load modules in the EMS Workstation.

• Make sure that the main switch of the power supply is set to the O (OFF) position, and
voltage control knob is turned fully ccw.

• Set the voltmeter select switch to the 4-N position.

• Connect Data Acquisition interface with 24~ V & 3 A power supply

• To acquire data from module, switch on LVDAM-EMS software.

• Set up the RL circuit as shown in figure 2.

• Connect voltmeters (E1, E2, E3) across each component in parallel combination and ammeter
(I1) in circuit from data acquisition system.

• Observe phasor diagram by using phasor analysor and note down values by using metering
interface.
Table 1: Observations

R= -----------------

XL= ---------------

Xc=------------

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1
E2
E3
I1
P
Q
S
Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:
 Table 2: Observations
R=----------------- Xc=----------------

XL=---------------

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1

E2

E3

I1

Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:

Table 3: Observations
R=----------------- Xc=------------------------

XL=---------------

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1

E2

E3

I1

S
 Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:
 Experiment 05
Phasors Analysis of Parallel RLC Circuits using Lab-Volt
Data Acquisition and Management Electromechanical
System (LVDAM-EMS)
Objective:
Study and use phasors to solve parallel RLC circuits and determine voltages and current of each
component in the AC circuit.

Apparatus:

Power Supply

EMS workstation.

Resistive load.

Inductive load.

Capacitive load.

Connection leads and Accessories.

Lab-Volt (Data acquisition interface and AC power supply).

Introduction:
Phasor Analysis in Parallel RLC circuits:
The Parallel RLC Circuit is the exact opposite to the series RLC circuit. Its analysis is little more
mathematically difficult than for series RLC circuits. This time instead of the current being
common to the circuit components, the applied voltage is now common to all components. The
total impedance, Z of a parallel RLC circuit is calculated using the current of the circuit similar to
that for a DC parallel circuit, the difference this time is that admittance is used instead of
impedance. When an AC source is applied to parallel RLC circuit, different sine-wave currents start
flowing through all branches with same frequency and different phase shifts.
Parallel RLC Circuit:

In the following parallel RLC circuit, we can easily see VS is common to all three components whilst
the supply current IS consists of three parts.

Figure 1: Parallel RC Circuit.

As this circuit:
The current flowing through the resistor, IR, the current flowing through the inductor, IL and
the current through the capacitor is IC.
As there currents are out-of-phase with each other therefore their arithmetic sum is greater
than the actual current supplied by the source. Thus, we use vector addition method to get
total current Is .
Like the series RLC circuit, we can solve this circuit using the phasor or vector method but
this time the vector diagram will have the voltage as its reference with the three current
vectors plotted with respect to the voltage. We can represent voltage as,

In resistive component, both voltage and current are in phase whereas; in inductive load
current lags voltage by 90 degrees; whereas, in capacitive load current leads voltage by 90
degrees.
Now in vector diagram, the vector that represents the phasors for inductive current is drawn in
the (–y) direction and phasor for capacitive current is drawn in the (+y) direction while current
and voltage are in phase in resistive load, so we draw it in +x- direction as,
 Figure 2: Phasor Representation

To get equivalent current in each branch, we apply KCL as,

For phasor analysis, we need to find out magnitude and phase angle of . Thus magnitude is
calculated as,

Phase angle is phase difference between total current and source voltage and it depends
upon relative values of resistance and reactance. It is denoted by θ and calculated as

According to Ohm’s law,

, ,

The effective resistance of an electric circuit or component to alternating current, arising

from the combined effects of resistance R and reactance X is called impedance. It is denoted
by Z and it is calculated as,
In the parallel circuits, it is more convenient to draw admittance triangle. Admittance is the
reciprocal of impedance, Z and is given the symbol Y. It is represented in the form of
conductance and susceptance. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, R and is given
the symbol G. Susceptance has the opposite sign to reactance so capacitive
susceptance BC is positive, +ve in value and inductive susceptance BL is negative, -ve in
value. All are measured in Siemens ( S ).

and phase is,

 Lab Task 01: Phasor Analysis of Parallel RLC Circuit

Procedure:

Install the power supply, data acquisition interface, resistive load, capacitive load and
inductive load modules in the EMS Workstation.

Make sure that the main switch of the power supply is set to the O (OFF) position, and
voltage control knob is turned fully ccw.

Set the voltmeter select switch to the 4-N position.

Connect Data Acquisition interface with 24~ V & 3 A power supply. To acquire data from
module, switch on LVDAM-EMS software. Set up the RC circuit as shown in figure 1.

Connect voltmeters (E1) across input power supply in parallel combination and ammeters (I1,
I2, I3) across each component from data acquisition system.

Observe phasor diagram by using phasor analyzer and note down values by using metering
interface.
Table 1: Observations

R=
XL=
XC=

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1
I1
I2
I3
P
Q
S
Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:
 Lab Task 02: Phasor Analysis of Parallel RLC Circuit

Procedure:

Install the power supply, data acquisition interface, resistive load, inductive load and
capacitive load modules in the EMS Workstation.

Make sure that the main switch of the power supply is set to the O (OFF) position, and
voltage control knob is turned fully ccw. Set the voltmeter select switch to the 4-N position.

Connect Data Acquisition interface with 24~ V & 3 A power supply. To acquire data from
module, switch on LVDAM-EMS software.

Set up the RC circuit as shown in figure 1.

Connect voltmeters (E1) across input power supply in parallel combination and ammeters (I1,
I2, I3) across each component from data acquisition system.

Observe phasor diagram by using phasor analyzer and note down values by using metering
interface.
Table 2: Observation

R=
XL=
Xc=

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1
I1
I2
I3
P
QL
S
Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:
 Lab Task 03: Phasor Analysis of Parallel RLC Circuit

Procedure:

Install the power supply, data acquisition interface, resistive load, inductive load and
capacitive load modules in the EMS Workstation.

Make sure that the main switch of the power supply is set to the O (OFF) position, and
voltage control knob is turned fully ccw.

Set the voltmeter select switch to the 4-N position.

Connect Data Acquisition interface with 24~ V & 3 A power supply.

To acquire data from module, switch on LVDAM-EMS software.

Set up the RC circuit as shown in figure 1.

Connect voltmeters (E1) across input power supply in parallel combination and ammeters (I1,
I2, I3) across each component from data acquisition system.

Observe phasor diagram by using phasor analyzer and note down values by using metering
interface.
Table 3: Observations
R=
XL=
Xc=

Components Magnitude Phase angle Frequency

E1
I1
I2
I3
P
QL
S
Phasor Analyzer Results:

Metering:
 Experiment 06
Sinusoidal Steady State Power measurements (Active, Reactive, Apparent Power and Power
Factor measurement)

Maximum power Transfer Theorem and Impedance matching

Objective:
To study the A.C power calculations.
To Calculate Active and Reactive Power and apparent power.
To study the power factor correction.
To implement and Verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

Introduction:

Power: Electrical Power is the rate of doing electrical work by transferring the electrical charge
from one point to the other within the circuit.
w = dq / dt

Real Power or Active Power: The power dissipated in the Resistor is the Active Power. It is also
called Real Power. This power is unidirectional (Source to Load). It does not flow back to the
Circuit. In AC the time averaging of instantaneous power is done over a complete cycle. It is
usually denoted by P.
It is calculated as P = VI cos 
It is measured In Watts.

Reactive Power: The Power dissipated in the Inductance or Capacitance is known as the Reactive
Power. This power is bidirectional (Source to Load to Source).It moves back and forth. It is
usually denoted by Q.
It is calculated as Q = VI sin 
It is measured in VARs.

Complex Power:
The Phasor sum of the Active and Reactive Power is the Complex Power. Its magnitude is known
as the apparent power. It is usually denoted by S.
It is a Phasor quantity so we need to evaluate its magnitude and phase .It is calculated as
[ S ] = {Re( S )}2 + {Im( S )}2  = tan −1 ([Im( S ) / Re( S )]
It is measured in VA.

The Phasor Diagram for the relation between the active and reactive power is shown below

Mathematical relationship between the active and reactive power is given by

S = P + jQ . As can seen by the Phasor Relationship the P and Q are at 90 or at quadrature in
reference to each other.
 Figure 1: Phasor Diagram Showing the relationship between P, Q and S.

Procedure for the Experiment:

Steps:

First of all we will construct the circuit on the PCB according to the circuit diagram.

Q
Z V I C P S
Sr. No (VAR P.f
() (v) (A) (F) (W) (VA)
)

We will measure the current (I) through an Ammeter.

We will measure the voltage (V) through a Voltmeter.
We will then calculate the apparent power S by multiplying the Voltage and Current already
measured in steps 2 and 3.
We will measure the real Power (P) by means of a Wattmeter.
We can determine the Power Factor by the Formula
cos  = P / S .If its value is not near to unity (1).We will then try to rectify it
We can correct this power factor by inserting a Capacitor C of appropriate value in Parallel by
doing the necessary calculations.)
We will draw the Power Triangle by using the P and S values and power factor angle from cos 
and by the knowledge we have for the angle between P and Q.
We will then calculate the value of Q by using the Pythagorean theorem. We can also determine
the value of Q by measuring the length of the Side of the Power Triangle.
 1
C=
We will then find the value of C by virtue of the formula 2fX
According to this value of C we will insert a closely valued Capacitance in the circuit

XWM1

V I

V1
R2
220Vrms 60Ω
50Hz
0°
L2
160mH

Fig 2: Circuit Diagram for Power Calculations.

Practical power factor correction

When the need arises to correct for poor power factor in an AC power system, you probably
won't have the luxury of knowing the load's exact inductance in henrys to use for your
calculations. You may be fortunate enough to have an instrument called a power factor meter
to tell you what the power factor is (a number between 0 and 1), and the apparent power
(which can be figured by taking a voltmeter reading in volts and multiplying by an ammeter
reading in amps). In less favorable circumstances you may have to use an oscilloscope to
compare voltage and current waveforms, measuring phase shift in degrees and calculating
power factor by the cosine of that phase shift.
Most likely, you will have access to a wattmeter for measuring true power, whose reading you can
compare against a calculation of apparent power (from multiplying total voltage and total
current measurements). From the values of true and apparent power, you can determine
reactive power and power factor. Let's do an example problem to see how this works:
Wattmeter reads true power; product of voltmeter and ammeter readings yields appearant
power.
First, we need to calculate the apparent power in kVA. We can do this by multiplying load voltage
by load current:

As we can see, 2.308 kVA is a much larger figure than 1.5 kW, which tells us that the power factor
in this circuit is rather poor (substantially less than 1). Now, we figure the power factor of this
load by dividing the true power by the apparent power:

Using this value for power factor, we can draw a power triangle, and from that determine the
reactive power of this load: (Figure below)
Reactive power may be calculated from true power and appearant power.
To determine the unknown (reactive power) triangle quantity, we use the Pythagorean Theorem
“backwards,” given the length of the hypotenuse (apparent power) and the length of the
adjacent side (true power):

If this load is an electric motor, or most any other industrial AC load, it will have a lagging
(inductive) power factor, which means that we'll have to correct for it with a capacitor of
appropriate size, wired in parallel. Now that we know the amount of reactive power (1.754
kVAR), we can calculate the size of capacitor needed to counteract its effects:
Rounding this answer off to 80 µF, we can place that size of capacitor in the circuit and calculate
the results: (Figure below)

Parallel capacitor corrects lagging (inductive) load.

An 80 µF capacitor will have a capacitive reactance of 33.157 Ω, giving a current of 7.238 amps,
and a corresponding reactive power of 1.737 kVAR (for the capacitor only). Since the
capacitor's current is 180o out of phase from the the load's inductive contribution to current
draw, the capacitor's reactive power will directly subtract from the load's reactive power,
resulting in:

+
This correction, of course, will not change the amount of true power consumed by the load, but it
will result in a substantial reduction of apparent power, and of the total current drawn from
the 240 Volt source: (Figure below)
Power triangle before and after capacitor correction.
The new apparent power can be found from the true and new reactive power values, using the
standard form of the Pythagorean Theorem:

This gives a corrected power factor of (1.5kW / 1.5009 kVA), or 0.99994, and a new total current
of (1.50009 kVA / 240 Volts), or 6.25 amps, a substantial improvement over the uncorrected
value of 9.615 amps! This lower total current will translate to less heat losses in the circuit
wiring, meaning greater system efficiency (less power wasted).
Experiment 07
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC circuits

This theorem gives the impedance conditions in AC circuit for maximum power transfer to a load.
It states that in an active AC network consisting of source with internal impedance ZS which is
connected to a load ZL, the maximum power transfer occurs from source to load when the
load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of source impedance ZS.

Circuit Diagram for Maximium Power Transfer Theorem

From the above figure, Let ZL = RL + jXL and ZTH = RTH + jXTH then the current through the circuit
is given as,
For power to be maximized, the above equation must be differentiated with respect to XL and
equates it to zero. Then we get

Again taking derivative of the above equation and equating it to zero, we get

RL+ RTH = 2 RL

RL = RTH

Therefore, in AC circuits, if XL = – XTH and RL = RTH, maximum power transfer takes place from
source to load. This implies that maximum power transfer occurs when the impedance of the
load is complex conjugate of the source impedance, i.e., ZL = Z*TH

Solved Example on Maximum Power Transfer Theorem in AC Circuits

Consider the below AC network to which we are going to determine the condition for maximum
power transfer and the value of maximum power.
For finding out the maximum power transfer, first we have to determine Thevenin’s voltage and
equivalent resistance. By disconnecting the load impedance and making the voltage source
short-circuit, the network becomes as shown below.

Then, ZAB = ((4 × 4j)/ (4 + 4j)) – 2j

= (4j – 2j (1+ j)) / (1+ j)

=2Ω
Therefore, the condition for maximum power transfer is ZL = ZTH = 2 Ω
The Thevenin’s voltage of the circuit can be determined by applying the voltage divider rule to the
below circuit.
VTH = VAB = (40 / 4 (1+j)) × 4

= 28.29∠-450

Then maximum power, Pmax = VTH2/ 4RTH

= 800/ 4 = 100 W
Task:
Select Zin that will be internal impedance of the source by keeping in view the availability of
resistors and inductors present in the laboratory and then the corresponding ZL after doing
calculations. Draw your own circuit Diagram below for your selected values and record your
results in below table. Observe that maximum power only flows from source to load only in
case when load impedance is the complex conjugate of internal impedance of the source or
thevenin impedance
Circuit Diagram (for your own selected values):

Results:

Zin ZL V I P
Sr. No
() () (v) (A) (W)

5
 Experiment 08
Resonance Response of Series Parallel
RLC Circuits
Objective:
Study the phenomena of resonance in Series and Parallel RLC circuits and determine the resonant
frequency for the given networks by using sinusoidal waveform.

Apparatus:

Digital Oscilloscope with Probes.

Digital Function Generator with Probes.

DMM.

Resistors (1 Kilo-Ohm).

Inductor (33 mili-Henry).

Capacitor (1 micro-Farad)

Breadboard.

Introduction:
A resonant circuit is also called as tuned circuit, which consists of a resistor, an inductor and a
capacitor together with a voltage or current source. For example, a resonant circuit, in one of its
many forms, allows us to select a desired radio or television signal of specific frequency from the
vast number of signals that are around us at any time.
Definition:
When the voltage and current at the network input terminals are in phase and the input
impedance is purely resistive because, reactance of inductor and capacitor are equal but
opposite in sign. It is the ability of a circuit to resonate at a specific frequency, known
as resonance frequency, measured in units of hertz and radians per second.
Variation in Inductive Reactance and Capacitive Reactance with Frequency:
As,
Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL means inductive reactance is directly proportional to
frequency.
Capacitive reactance is XC = 1 / 2πfC such that, frequency and capacitive reactance are
inversely proportional to each other.

Thus, if we plot a single graph of inductive reactance verses frequency and capacitive reactance
verses frequency, then

Figure 1: Reactance Vs Resonance

Resonance Condition and Formula:

As,

This point of intersection, at which these two reactance become equal such that XL=XC, this
frequency is called resonant frequency. Therefore,
Resonance in Series RLC Circuit:

Consider a RLC circuit in which resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in series across a
voltage supply as in figure below:

Figure 2: Series RLC Circuit.

As this circuit contains inductor and capacitor, the energy is stored in two different ways.
The inductor magnetic field is built by the current, provided by the discharging capacitor.
The capacitor is charged by the current produced by collapsing magnetic field of inductor.
This process continues, causing electrical energy to oscillate.
At certain frequency called resonant frequency, the inductive reactance of the circuit
becomes equal to capacitive reactance which causes the electrical energy to oscillate.

Variation of Impedance Vs Frequency:

Figure 3(a): Series Impedance Effect Figure 3(b): Current in Series RLC

From these two figure, we can realized that,

At resonance, the total impedance is equal to resistance i.e Z = R and this impedance at
 resonant frequency is called dynamic impedance and this dynamic impedance is always less
than impedance of series RLC circuit.
Before series resonance i.e before frequency, fr capacitive reactance dominates and after,
inductive reactance dominates.
In series RLC circuit current, I = V / Z but at resonance current I = V / R.

Therefore the current at resonant frequency is maximum at resonance as impedance of

circuit is resistance only and it is minimum.
Since net reactance is zero, circuit becomes purely resistive circuit and hence the voltage and
the current are in same phase, so the phase angle between them is zero.
Power factor is unity.

Resonance in Parallel RLC Circuit:

Like series RLC circuit, parallel RLC circuit also resonates at particular frequency called resonance
frequency i.e. there occurs a frequency at which inductive reactance becomes equal to capacitive
reactance.
Unlike series RLC circuit, in parallel RLC circuit the impedance becomes maximum and the circuit
behaves like purely resistive circuit leading to unity electrical power factor of the circuit.

Figure 4: Parallel RLC Circuit

 Lab Task 01: Implement Series RLC Circuit and Observe
its Resonance Response

Procedure:

1. Set up the series RLC circuit as shown in Figure 2, with the component values R = 1 KΩ, C = 1
uF and L = 33 mH.
2. Power on Oscilloscope and function generator.
3. Fixed the BNC cable (probe) at multiplier to X1 and calibrate the oscilloscope.
4. Set the function generator to 4VPeak to Peak sinusoidal waveform by the selecting the button
and apply it on implemented RLC series circuit.
5. To measure current and voltage in the circuit, connected DMM in series and parallel with
resistor, respectively.
6. Vary the frequency of the sine-wave from the function generator from 500Hz to 2 KHz in
small steps, and record your observations.
Table 1: Observation of Series RLC Circuit

Frequency(Hertz) Current (Amperes) Voltage (Volts)

500

550

1000

1050

1100

1150

1200

1250

1300

1350

1400

1450
 1500
1550
1600
1650
1700
1750
1800
1850
1900
1950
2000

Graph:
 Lab Task 02: Implement Parallel RLC Circuit and Observe
its Resonance Response

Procedure:

1. Set up the parallel RLC circuit as shown in Figure 2, with the component values R = 1 KΩ, C =
1 uF and L = 33 mH.
2. Power on Oscilloscope and function generator.
3. Fixed the BNC cable (probe) at multiplier to X1 and calibrate the oscilloscope.
4. Set the function generator to 4VPeak to Peak sinusoidal waveform by the selecting the button
and apply it on implemented RLC series circuit.
5. To measure current and voltage in the circuit, connected DMM in series and parallel with
resistor, respectively.
6. Vary the frequency of the sine-wave from the function generator from 500Hz to 2 KHz in
small steps, and record your observations.
Table 1: Observation of Parallel RLC Circuit

Frequency(Hertz) Current (Amperes) Voltage (Volts)

500

550

1000

1050

1100

1150

1200

1250

1300

1350

1400

1450

1500

1550
 1600

1650

1700

1750

1800

1850

1900

1950

2000

Graph:
 Experiment 09
To determine and verify Transfer function of an RC low pass filter circuit

Introduction:
This laboratory studies the use of passive components to create filters to separate portions of time-
dependent waveforms. Filters are an essential tool in our complex world of mixed signals — both electronic
and otherwise. Passive components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) have long served as filter
components for everything from selecting radio stations to filtering out electrical noise.

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:
(1) Learn to alter filter type by changing contacts for output voltage.
(2) Learn phase angle at cutoff for simple RC filter.
(3) To determine and verify the Transfer function of RC low pass filter by its derivations.

EXPERIMENTAL OBJECTIVES:
(1) Calculate and measure cutoff frequency for series RC and RL filters.
(2) Design simple RC low-pass & high pass filter.
(3) Bode plots for series filters.

PRE-LAB:

Reading:
(1) Study the Background section of this Laboratory.
(2) Study textbook Chapter 14 (14.1 -14.4).

Written:
Note: Before the starts of simulation make sure that the calculated values of R, L and C are available in
Lab. Otherwise Design your circuits according to the available values.

(1) Simulate the circuit shown in Fig (5), Fig (6), Fig (7) and Fig (8) in LTspice and Record the simulation
result in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.
(2) Sketch the Bode Plots of the simulation results recorded in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
❖ Digital Function Generator
❖ Digital Oscilloscope with Probes.
❖ Bread Board
❖ Capacitors
❖ Resistors
❖ Digital Multimeter

Background:

Frequency Response
The frequency response of a circuit is the variation in its behavior with change in signal frequency.
Transfer Function
The transfer function 𝐻(𝜔) of a circuit is the frequency dependent ratio of a phasor output y (𝜔) (an
element voltage or current) to a phasor input X (𝜔) (source voltage or current).
𝑌(𝜔)
𝐻(𝜔) = 𝑋(𝜔)
Bode Plots
Bode plots are semi-log plots of the magnitude (in decibels) and phase (in degrees) of a transfer function
versus frequency.

Cutoff Frequency
The frequency at which gain becomes 0.707 times of the maximum gain is called cutoff frequency. It is also
called the half power frequency because at this frequency the average power delivered by the circuit is one
half the maximum average power.

|𝐻(𝜔𝐶 )| = 0.707 |𝐻(𝜔)|𝑀𝐴𝑋

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃(𝜔𝑐 ) =
2
Filter
A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and reject or attenuate others.

Passive Filters
Elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors and inductors. The gain of passive filters is unity.

Low Pass Filter

A low pass filter passes low frequencies and rejects high frequencies.

Magnitude Bode Plot for

First-Order Low Pass Filter

Phase Bode Plot for First-Order Low Pass Filter

1.
2.
3.
4.
Design of RC Low Pass Filter 𝑅 = 3.5 𝐾Ω
The cutoff frequency for RC circuit is given below
1 1
𝜔𝑐 = , 𝑓𝑐 = − − − − − − − (1)
𝑅𝐶 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 𝐶 = 10 𝑛𝐹
1.

2. The derivation of equation (1) is given in Appendix A Fig (5) RC Low Pass
Filter Circuit

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒏𝑭 , 𝑪 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟖 𝒏𝑭 (𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓) 𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐶 = 9.08𝑛𝐹, 𝑓𝑐 =

5𝐾𝐻𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1)
 1
𝑅=
(2𝜋)(5 ∗ 103 )(9.08 ∗ 10−9 )
𝑹 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝑲Ω

𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒓 & 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑏; 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔.
The transfer function of circuit shown in fig (3) is
1
𝐻(𝜔) = 1+𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 //Derivation is given in Appendix A
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑅𝐶
1
𝐻(𝜔) =
𝑗𝜔
1+𝜔
𝑐
𝟏
|𝑯(𝝎)| = − − − − − − − −(𝟐)
𝝎 𝟐
√(𝟏)𝟐 + (𝝎 )
𝒄
𝝎
𝝓 = −𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟑)
𝝎𝒄

𝑰𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝟐) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟑) 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝝎 = 𝟎, |𝑯(𝝎)| = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓 = 𝟎

𝑰𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝟐)𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟑) 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝝎 = ∞, |𝑯(𝝎)| = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎
Calculated Results:
Task 1: Passive RC Low Pass Filter
Frequency
|𝑯(𝝎)| 𝑯(𝝎)
(KHz) 𝟏 𝑽𝒐 𝝓
𝝎 (𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔) = = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝒅𝑩) 𝝎
𝝎 𝟐 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 = −𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
√(𝟏)𝟐 + ( ) 𝝎𝒄
𝝎 𝒄

0.01fc=
0.1fC =
0.5fc =
fc =
2fc =
4fc =
6fc =
8fc =
10fc =
100fc =

Appendix A (RC Low Pass Filter)

 1⁄
𝑗𝜔𝐶
From the circuit diagram, 𝑉𝑜 is given by 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅+1 𝑉𝑖𝑛
⁄𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑉𝑜 1
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

𝑉𝑜
As we know that = 𝐻(𝜔)
𝑉𝑖𝑛

1
𝐻(𝜔) = − − − − − − − − − − − −(1)
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

1
|𝐻(𝜔)| =
√1 + (𝜔𝑅𝐶) 2
1
At 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑐 |𝐻(𝜔)| = 0.707 ↔ 0.707 =
√1+(𝜔 𝑅𝐶) 2
𝑐

1
0.7072 =
1 + (𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2
1
0.5 =
1 + (𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2
0.5 + 0.5(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 = 1

0.5(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 = 1 − 0.5

0.5
(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 =
0.5

(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 = 1

1
𝜔𝑐 2 =
(𝑅𝐶)2
1
𝜔𝑐 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − (2)
𝑅𝐶
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Conclusion: (Write a conclusion on experimental results you got from your results).
 Experiment 10
To determine and verify Transfer function of an RC high pass filter circuit

Design of RC High Pass Filter 𝐶 = 10 𝑛𝐹

The values of R and C are same as found in KΩ
RC low pass filter circuit.
𝑅 = 3.5 𝐾Ω
The transfer function of circuit shown in fig (6) is
1
𝐻(𝜔) = 1+1 − − − − − − − − − (4)
⁄𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
//Derivation is given in Appendix B Fig (6) RC High Pass Filter Circuit

1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑅𝐶
1
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝐶 = 𝜔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(4)
𝑐

1 1
𝐻(𝜔) = = 𝜔
1 + 1⁄𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 1 − 𝑗 𝜔𝑐
𝟏
|𝑯(𝝎)| = − − − − − − − −(𝟓)
𝜔 𝟐
√(𝟏)𝟐 + (− )𝑐
𝜔
𝜔𝑐 𝜔𝑐
𝝓 = −𝐭𝐚𝐧 (− ) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
−𝟏
− − − − − −(𝟔)
𝜔 𝜔

𝑰𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝟓) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟔) 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝝎 = 𝟎, |𝑯(𝝎)| = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎

𝑰𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝟓)𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟔) 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝝎 = ∞, |𝑯(𝝎)| = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓 = 𝟎𝟎

Task 1 RC Low Pass Filter:

1) Set up the circuit shown in Fig (5). Use the function generator FGEN for the supply voltage vin 10 VP-
P.

2) Connect channels 1 and 2 of the oscilloscope to measure Vs and Vout simultaneously.

3) Vary the frequency from 500 Hz to 10 kHz in steps indicated in Table 1, and record the indicated
value. With each frequency change, make sure that Vin is still 10Vpp.

a) Using the data of Table 1, sketch a Bode plots of the of the filter’s output voltage.

Post Lab:
1) Why are capacitors preferred over inductors in filter design?
2) Create Bode plots of the magnitude transfer functions of your low-pass and high-pass filters. The
theoretical plots (using measured values of resistors and capacitors) should be drawn as lines.
Include your data (taken at 1/10, ½, 1, 2, and 10 times the cutoff frequency) as points.
3) Compare the measured results and simulation results.
Are your results verified in comparison to bode plot results (equation representing Transfer function of
RC low pass filter)?

Experiment 11
➢ To design and implement RC low pass & high pass filter circuit with cutoff frequency of 5KHZ, also
draw a frequency response: (a) magnitude response (b) phase response.

Introduction:

This laboratory studies the use of passive components to create filters to separate portions of time-
dependent waveforms. Filters are an essential tool in our complex world of mixed signals — both electronic
and otherwise. Passive components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) have long served as filter
components for everything from selecting radio stations to filtering out electrical noise.

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:
(1) Learn the general filter types: High-pass, Low-pass.
(2) Learn to alter filter type by changing contacts for output voltage.
(3) Learn phase angle at cutoff for simple RC filter.
(4) Design simple filter.
(5) Frequency response (amplitude and phase).

EXPERIMENTAL OBJECTIVES:
(1) Calculate and measure cutoff frequency for series RC and RL filters.
(2) Design simple RC low-pass & high pass filter.
(3) Bode plots for series filters.

PRE-LAB:

Reading:
(1) Study the Background section of this Laboratory.
(2) Study textbook Chapter 14 (14.1 -14.4).
Written:
Note: Before the starts of simulation make sure that the calculated values of R, L and C are available in
Lab. Otherwise Design your circuits according to the available values.
(3) Simulate the circuit shown in Fig (5), Fig (6), Fig (7) and Fig (8) in LTspice and Record the simulation
result in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.
(4) Sketch the Bode Plots of the simulation results recorded in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
❖ Digital Function Generator
❖ Digital Oscilloscope with Probes.
❖ Bread Board
❖ Capacitors
❖ Resistors

Background:

Frequency Response
The frequency response of a circuit is the variation in its behavior with change in signal frequency.
Transfer Function
The transfer function 𝐻(𝜔) of a circuit is the frequency dependent ratio of a phasor output y (𝜔) (an
element voltage or current) to a phasor input X (𝜔) (source voltage or current).
𝑌(𝜔)
𝐻(𝜔) = 𝑋(𝜔)
Bode Plots
Bode plots are semi-log plots of the magnitude (in decibels) and phase (in degrees) of a transfer function
versus frequency.

Cutoff Frequency
The frequency at which gain becomes 0.707 times of the maximum gain is called cutoff frequency. It is also
called the half power frequency because at this frequency the average power delivered by the circuit is one
half the maximum average power.

|𝐻(𝜔𝐶 )| = 0.707 |𝐻(𝜔)|𝑀𝐴𝑋

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃(𝜔𝑐 ) =
2
Filter
A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and reject or attenuate others.

Passive Filters
Elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors and inductors. The gain of passive filters is unity.

Low Pass Filter

A low pass filter passes low frequencies and rejects high frequencies.

Magnitude Bode Plot for First-Order Low Pass Filter

Phase Bode Plot for First-Order Low Pass Filter

Design of RC Low Pass Filter 𝑅 = 3.5 𝐾Ω

The cutoff frequency for RC circuit is given below
1 1
𝜔𝑐 = , 𝑓𝑐 = − − − − − − − (1)
𝑅𝐶 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 𝐶 = 10 𝑛𝐹
 1.

2. The derivation of equation (1) is given in Appendix A Fig (5) RC Low Pass
Filter Circuit

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒏𝑭 , 𝑪 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟖 𝒏𝑭 (𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓) 𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐶 = 9.08𝑛𝐹, 𝑓𝑐 =

5𝐾𝐻𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1)
1
𝑅=
(2𝜋)(5 ∗ 103 )(9.08 ∗ 10−9 )
𝑹 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝑲Ω

𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒓 & 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑏; 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔.
The transfer function of circuit shown in fig (3) is
1
𝐻(𝜔) = 1+𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 //Derivation is given in Appendix A
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑅𝐶
1
𝐻(𝜔) =
𝑗𝜔
1+𝜔
𝑐
𝟏
|𝑯(𝝎)| = − − − − − − − −(𝟐)
𝝎 𝟐
√(𝟏)𝟐 + ( )
𝝎𝒄
𝝎
𝝓 = −𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟑)
𝝎𝒄

𝑰𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝟐) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟑) 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝝎 = 𝟎, |𝑯(𝝎)| = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓 = 𝟎

𝑰𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝟐)𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟑) 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝝎 = ∞, |𝑯(𝝎)| = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎

Calculated Results:
Task 1: Passive RC Low Pass Filter
|𝑯(𝝎)| 𝑯(𝝎) 𝝓
Frequency 𝝎
𝝎 (𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔) 𝟏 𝑽𝒐
(KHz) = = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝒅𝑩) = −𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝟐 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒄
√( 𝟏) 𝟐+(𝝎)
0.01fc= 𝝎 𝒄
0.1fC =
0.5fc =
fc =
2fc =
4fc =
6fc =
8fc =
10fc =
100fc =

Table 1 (RC Low Pass Filter)

Task 1: Passive RC Low Pass Filter

Vin (p-p) = 10 VP-P
Vout(P-P) 𝑯(𝝎) 𝑯(𝝎)
Frequency 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐
𝝎 (𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔) 𝝓 (𝐝𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐬)
(KHz) = = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝒅𝑩)
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒊𝒏
0.01fc=
0.1fC = Measured
0.5fc =
fc =
2fc =
4fc =
6fc =
8fc =
10fc =
100fc =

Table 1 (RC Low Pass Filter)

Name: __________________________ Reg. No _______________________

Bode Plot for RC Low Pass Filter:
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 Experiment 12
High Pass Filter

A high pass filter passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies.

Phase Bode Plot for First-Order High Pass Filter

Magnitude Bode Plot for First-

Order High Pass Filter

Design of RC High Pass Filter 𝐶 = 10 𝑛𝐹

The values of R and C are same as found in KΩ
RC low pass filter circuit.
𝑅 = 3.5 𝐾Ω
The transfer function of circuit shown in fig (6) is
1
𝐻(𝜔) = 1+1 − − − − − − − − − (4)
⁄𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
//Derivation is given in Appendix B Fig (6) RC High Pass Filter
Circuit

1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑅𝐶
1
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝐶 = 𝜔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(4)
𝑐

1 1
𝐻(𝜔) = = 𝜔
1 + 1⁄𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 1 − 𝑗 𝜔𝑐
 𝟏
|𝑯(𝝎)| = − − − − − − − −(𝟓)
𝜔 𝟐
√(𝟏)𝟐 + (− 𝑐 )
𝜔
𝜔 𝑐 𝜔𝑐
𝝓 = −𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (− ) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ) − − − − − −(𝟔)
𝜔 𝜔

𝑰𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝟓) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟔) 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝝎 = 𝟎, |𝑯(𝝎)| = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎

𝑰𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝟓)𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟔) 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝝎 = ∞, |𝑯(𝝎)| = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓 = 𝟎𝟎

Task 1 RC Low Pass Filter:

4) Set up the circuit shown in Fig (5). Use the function generator FGEN for the supply voltage vin 10
VP-P.

5) Connect channels 1 and 2 of the oscilloscope to measure Vs and Vout simultaneously.

6) Vary the frequency from 500 Hz to 10 kHz in steps indicated in Table 1, and record the indicated
value. With each frequency change, make sure that Vin is still 10Vpp.

b) Using the data of Table 1, sketch a Bode plots of the of the filter’s output voltage.
Post Lab:
4) Why are capacitors preferred over inductors in filter design?
5) Create Bode plots of the magnitude transfer functions of your low-pass and high-pass filters. The
theoretical plots (using measured values of resistors and capacitors) should be drawn as lines.
Include your data (taken at 1/10, ½, 1, 2, and 10 times the cutoff frequency) as points.
6) Compare the measured results and simulation results.

Task 2: Passive RC High Pass Filter

|𝑯(𝝎)| 𝑯(𝝎) 𝜔𝑐
Frequency
𝝎 (𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔) 𝟏 𝑽𝒐 𝝓 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
(KHz) = = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝒅𝑩) 𝜔
𝟐 𝑽𝒊𝒏
0.01fc= √(𝟏)𝟐 + (− 𝜔𝑐 )
𝜔
0.1fC =
0.5fc =
fc =
2fc =
4fc =
6fc =
8fc =
10fc =
100fc =
 Table 2 (RC High Pass Filter)
Section 4 – Measurement Tables
Name: __________________________ Reg. No _______________________
Task 2: Passive RC High Pass Filter
Vin (p-p) = 10 VP-P
Vout(P-P) 𝑯(𝝎) 𝑯(𝝎)
Frequency 𝑽 𝑽𝒐
𝝎 (𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔) =
𝒐
= 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝒅𝑩) 𝝓 (𝐝𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐬)
(KHz) 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒊𝒏
0.01fc=
Measured
0.1fC =
0.5fc =
fc =
2fc =
4fc =
6fc =
8fc =
10fc =
100fc =
Table 2 (RC High Pass Filter)
Frequency (rad/Sec)

Name:

__________________________ Reg. No _______________________

Bode Plot for RC High Pass Filter:
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Frequency (rad/Sec)
 Experiment 13
Open-Ended Lab
Appendix A (RC Low Pass Filter)
1⁄
𝑗𝜔𝐶
From the circuit diagram, 𝑉𝑜 is given by 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅+1 𝑉𝑖𝑛
⁄𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑉𝑜 1
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

𝑉𝑜
As we know that = 𝐻(𝜔)
𝑉𝑖𝑛

1
𝐻(𝜔) = − − − − − − − − − − − −(1)
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

1
|𝐻(𝜔)| =
√1 + (𝜔𝑅𝐶) 2
1
At 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑐 |𝐻(𝜔)| = 0.707 ↔ 0.707 =
√1+(𝜔 𝑅𝐶) 2
𝑐

1
0.7072 =
1 + (𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2
1
0.5 =
1 + (𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2
0.5 + 0.5(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 = 1

0.5(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 = 1 − 0.5

0.5
(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 =
0.5

(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 = 1

1
𝜔𝑐 2 =
(𝑅𝐶)2
 1
𝜔𝑐 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − (2)
𝑅𝐶
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Appendix B (RC High Pass Filter)

From the circuit diagram, 𝑉𝑜 is given by
𝑅
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅 + 1⁄𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑉𝑜 1
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 + 1⁄
𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑜
As we know that = 𝐻(𝜔)
𝑉𝑖𝑛
1
𝐻(𝜔) = − − − − − − − − − −(5)
1
1 + ⁄𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
1
|𝐻(𝜔)| =
√1 + 1⁄(𝜔𝑅𝐶) 2
At 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑐 |𝐻(𝜔)| = 0.707
1
0.707 =
√1 + 1⁄(𝜔 𝑅𝐶) 2
𝑐
1
Squaring both sides 0.7072 = 2
1+1⁄(𝜔 𝑅𝐶)
𝑐
1
0.5 =
1 + 1⁄(𝜔 𝑅𝐶) 2
𝑐
0.5 [1 + 1⁄(𝜔 𝑅𝐶) 2 ] = 1
𝑐

0.5 + 0.5⁄(𝜔 𝑅𝐶)2 = 1

𝑐

0.5⁄
(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 = 1 − 0.5
0.5
(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 =
0.5
(𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶)2 = 1
1
𝜔𝑐 2 =
(𝑅𝐶)2
1
𝜔𝑐 =
𝑅𝐶
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Appendix C (RL Low Pass Filter) 𝐿
From the circuit diagram, 𝑉𝑜 is given by

𝑅
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑅
 𝑉𝑜 𝑅
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅(1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿⁄ )
𝑅
As we know that
𝑉𝑜
= 𝐻(𝜔)
𝑉𝑖𝑛

1
𝐻(𝜔) =
𝑗𝜔𝐿⁄
1+ 𝑅
1
|𝐻(𝜔)| =
√1 + (𝜔𝐿⁄𝑅 ) 2
At 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑐 |𝐻(𝜔)| = 0.707

1
0.707 =
√1 + (𝜔𝑐 𝐿⁄𝑅 ) 2

1
0.7072 = 𝜔𝑐 𝐿⁄ 2
1+( 𝑅)
1
0.5 = 2
𝜔𝐿
1 + ( 𝑐 ⁄𝑅 )
𝜔𝑐 𝐿⁄ 2
0.5 + 0.5 ( 𝑅) = 1

𝜔𝑐 𝐿⁄ 2
0.5 ( 𝑅 ) = 1 − 0.5
𝜔𝐿 2 0.5
( 𝑐 ⁄𝑅 ) =
0.5
𝜔𝑐 𝐿⁄ 2
( 𝑅) = 1
𝑅2
𝜔𝑐 2 = 2
𝐿
𝑅
𝜔𝑐 =
𝐿
𝑅
𝑓c =
2𝜋𝐿

Appendix D (RL High Pass Filter)

𝑅
From the circuit diagram, 𝑉𝑜 is given by

𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝐿

𝑉𝑜 𝑗𝜔𝐿
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝜔𝐿 (𝑅⁄
𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 1)
As we know that
 𝑉𝑜
= 𝐻(𝜔)
𝑉𝑖𝑛
1
𝐻(𝜔) =
1 + 𝑅⁄𝑗𝜔𝐿
1
|𝐻(𝜔)| =
√1 + (𝑅⁄𝜔𝐿) 2
At 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑐 |𝐻(𝜔)| = 0.707
1
0.707 =
√1 + (𝑅⁄ 𝜔 𝐿) 2
𝑐

1
0.7072 = 2
1 + (𝑅⁄ 𝜔 𝐿)
𝑐

1
0.5 = 2
1+(𝑅⁄ 𝜔 𝐿 )
𝑐
2
0.5 + 0.5 (𝑅⁄ 𝜔 𝐿) = 1
𝑐
2
0.5 (𝑅⁄ 𝜔 𝐿) = 1 − 0.5
𝑐
2 0.5
𝑅
( ⁄ 𝜔 𝐿) = 0.5
𝑐
2
𝑅
( ⁄ 𝜔 𝐿) = 1
𝑐
𝑅2
𝜔𝑐 2 = 𝐿2
𝑅
𝜔𝑐 = 𝐿

𝑅
𝑓 c = 2𝜋𝐿