B.

TECH
3RD SEMESTER-2020
BRANCH-METALLURGICAL AND MINING
ENGINERING
SUBJECT- MATERIALS ENGINEERING

DR. S. HEMBROM
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGICAL
ENGINEERING
B.I.T. SINDRI, DHANBAD,JHARKHAND
 CHAPTER -1
Introduction of Materials Engineering
❖Materials Science – Investigating relationships that exist between the structure and
properties of materials.
❖Materials Engineering – On the basis of these structure-property correlations, designing or
engineering the structure of a material to produce a pre-determined set of properties.
❖Structure -Structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components.
❖Property- A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a
specific imposed stimulus. Properties are made independent of material shape and size.
❖Example:-
1. A specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation,
2. A polished metal surface will reflect light.
❖Properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories:
(1) Mechanical,(2) Electrical, (3) Thermal, (4) Magnetic, (5) Optical and (6) Deteriorative.
The four components of the discipline of materials science and engineering and their
interrelationship.
 Classification of Materials
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into four basic classifications:
(1) Metals (2) Ceramics (3) Polymers (4) Composites

Metals:-
1. Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as
iron, aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic
elements (for example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts.
2. Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner.
3. In comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense.
4. Mechanical Property- relatively stiff and strong , ductile (i.e., capable of large
amounts of deformation without fracture), and are resistant to fracture.
5. Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these
electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are directly
attributable to these electrons.
6. Example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity,and heat, and are
not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance.
7. Some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.
 CERAMICS
Ceramics

Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are
most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
Examples-aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica,
SiO),silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4).
Examples of traditional ceramics — clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), cement, and
glass.

Properties-
Relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of
the metals , very hard, extremely brittle (lack ductility),.highly susceptible to
fracture.
Thermal and electrical Properties- Insulative to the passage of heat and
electricity low electrical conductivities and are more resistant to high
temperatures
Optical characteristics-Ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque.
 COMPOSITES

Composites
❖ A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from
the categories discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers.
❖ Objective-to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any
single material
❖Examples
❖ Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)
❖ Plastic molding compounds containing fillers
❖Rubber mixed with carbon black .
❖Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized composite.
 POLYMERS
❖Polymers
Carbon-based compounds.
Chain of H-C molecules. Each repeat unit of H-C is a monomer e.g. ethylene (C2H4),
Polyethylene – (–CH2 –CH2)n.
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and
other nonmetallic elements (viz. O, N, and Si).
They have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that have a backbone
of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon,
poly (vinyl chloride)(PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.
❖ Properties
Low densities, not as stiff nor as strong as ceramics and metals.
Extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic).
Relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments.
❖Limitations
Tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances,
limits their use.
Low electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic.
 ADVANCE MATERIALS
❖Advance Materials:
Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed
advanced materials.
❖Examples
Include electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players, etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems,
spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and fiber optics.
These advanced materials may be typically traditional materials types (e.g., metals, ceramics,
polymers) whose properties have been enhanced, and, also newly developed, high-performance materials.
Advanced materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term“ materials of the
future.
❖ Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for replacement of diseased
or damaged body parts.
These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e.,
must not cause adverse biological reactions).
All of the above materials—metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors—may be
used as biomaterials.
❖Example-Titanium and its alloy, Co-Cr alloy, stainless steel, zirconia,etc.
 MATERIALS SELECTION PROCESS

The Materials Selection Process :

Pick Application and determine required Properties.
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, deteriorative.
Properties- Identify candidate Material(s)
Material: structure, composition.
Material- Identify required Processing
Processing: changes structure and overall shape.

Example: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping forming, joining,

annealing.
 CHEMICAL BONDING

Chemical Bond:
The force that holds different atoms in a molecule is called chemical bond.
Classification of chemical Bonds: 1. Primary Bonds 2. Secondary Bonds.
1. Primary Bonds : (i) Ionic Bond (ii) Covalent Bond (iii) Metallic Bond.
2. Secondary Bonds : (i)Dispersion bonds (ii) Dipole Bonds (iii) Hydrogen bonds
General Characteristics of ionic Compounds:
(i) Physical’State: They generally exist as crystalline solids, known as crystal
lattice. Ionic compounds do not exist as single molecules like other gaseous
molecules e.g., H2 , N2 , O2 , Cl2 etc.
(ii) Melting and boiling points: Since ionic compounds contain high interionic force
between them, they generally have high melting and boiling points.
(iii) Solubility: They are soluble in polar solvents such as water but do not dissolve
in organic solvents like benzene, CCl4etc.
(iv) Electrical conductivity: In solid state they are poor conductors of electricity but
in molten state or when dissolved in water, they conduct electricity.
(v) Ionic reactions: Ionic compounds produce ions in the solution which gives very
fast reaction with oppositely charged ions.
 IONIC BONDS

Ionic or Electrovalent bond is formed by the complete transfer of electrons from one
atom to another. Generally, it is formed between metals and non-metals. We can say
that it is the electrostatic force of attraction which holds the oppositely charged ions
together.
The compounds which is formed by ionic or electrovalent bond is known as
electrovalent compounds. For Example, ,
(i) NaCl is an electrovalent compound. Formation of NaCl,NaBr,LiF,NaF etc .

PROPERTIES OF IONIC SOLIDS:

Ionic solids have high melting points and boiling temperature.
Ionic solids are bad conductors of electricity in their solid state.
Ionic solids are slightly freshly in water but slightly soluble in organic solvents.
Ionic solid are rigid and crystalline in nature.
Can conduct electricity because ions separate and are charged in the solution.
Electrons are transferred from one atom to another creating ions.
Cations are attracted to anions (positives and negatives attract)
 COVALENT BOND
Covalent Bond:
When the bond is formed between two or more atoms by mutual contribution and
sharing of electrons, it is known as covalent bond.
If the combining atoms are same the covalent molecule is known as homoatomic. If
they are different, they are known as heteroatomic molecule.
1.Sharing of electrons between atoms of the same kind E.g. Formation of H2, Cl2, O2, etc.
2.Sharing of electrons between atoms of different kind E.g. Formation of CH4, H2O, NH3,
etc.
Formed by a shared pair of electrons between two atoms.
Make up molecules (which make up molecular substances)
Between non metals.
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BONDS
Covalent compounds have Low melting points and boiling ponts.
Covalent compounds are bad conductor of electricity.
Covalent compound are not soluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents such
as benzeene toluene etc.
Cannot conduct electricity even if they do dissolve (due to no charges being present)
 METALLIC BONDING

Metallic bond’ is a term used to describe the collective sharing of a sea of

valence electrons between several positively charged metal ions.
Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding and is responsible for several
characteristic properties of metals such as their shiny lustre, their malleability,
and their conductivities for heat and electricity.
Both metallic and covalent bonding can be observed in some metal samples.
For example, covalently bonded gallium atoms tend to form crystal structures
that are held together via metallic bonds.
Example – Metallic Bonding in Sodium ,Zn

Properties of Metallic Bonding:

❖Metallic solids have high Electrical and thermal conductivities.
❖Metallic solids have bright lustre.
❖Metallic solids are Malleability and Ductility.
❖Metallic solids have low melting and boiling temperatures.
Which Properties of Metals can be explained by Metallic Bonding?
The properties of metals that are a consequence of metallic bonding include:
1. Malleability
2. Ductility
3. High melting and boiling point
4. High electrical and thermal conductivity
5. Metallic lustre

Q. What is the Difference Between Metallic Bonding and Ionic Bonding?

Ans.- Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons between two chemical
species. They arise from a difference in the electronegativities of the
bonded atoms. On the other hand, metallic bonds are formed when a rigid,
definite lattice of metal cations share a sea of delocalized valence
electrons. However, both these types of bonding involve electrostatic
forces of attraction.
 Assignments
Q.1 What are the different types of bonding illustrate with suitable example?
Q.2 Why co-valent bonded material is generally less dense than ionically bonded
or metallically bonded ones?
Q.3 Explain covalent ,metallic and van der waal's bonding with suitable
examples.
Q.4 Differentiate between crystalline and non crystalline solids.
Q.5 Why co-valent bonded material is generally less dense than ionically bonded
or metallically bonded ones.
Q.6 Metallic solids have low melting and boiling temperatures. Explain why?
Q. 7 Differentiate between crystalline and Amorphous solids.
Q.8 Ionicaclly bonded solids show high melting points.Why?
Q.9 Covalent bonded solids are poor electrical conductors. Explain why?
 CHAPTER-02

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
 Fundamental Concepts
Crystal structure: the manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are
spatially arranged.
Crystallinity: Repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances. 3-D
pattern in which each atom is bonded to its nearest neighbors.
Crystalline : A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are situated in
repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances.
Lattice : Lattice means a three-dimensional array of point coinciding with atom
positions.
Unit Cells: Crystal structure is often convenient to subdivide the structure into a
small repeat entities called unit cells.

Crystal = Lattice + Motif

Lattice how to repeat Motif what to repeat
Motif or Basis: an entity (typically an atom or a group of atoms) associated with
each lattic point
 Allotropy, Polymorphism, Isomorphism & Amorphous

❑ The term “morphous” comes from: Late Latin -morphus –morphous or from
Greek –morphos which refers to form or shape.
❑ Allotropy → existence of an element in more than one crystal structure.
E.g. Fe in CCP (high temperature, γ) and BCC (low temperature, α) forms.
❑ Polymorphism → existence of a crystalline compound in more than one crystal
structure.
E.g. 3C-SiC (cubic) and 2H-SiC (Wurtzite, hexagonal)*.
❑ Isomorphism → existence of different materials in same crystal structure.
E.g. Ni and Cu in CCP (FCC).
❑ Amorphous → having no crystal structure (~glass).
E.g. Window pane silicate glass.

❑ Poly-amorphism → existence of a more than one type of amorphous structure.

E.g. in Y2O3 – Al2O3 amorphous solutions.
 Crystal Systems

• X,Y,Z: axes
• Lattice parameters: a, b, c:three edge lengths α,β,γ : three interaxial angles.

▪ Elements with Cubic structure → SC: F, O, Po

BCC: Cr, Fe, Nb, K, W, V
FCC: Al, Ar, Pb, Ni, Pd, Pt, Ge
There are seven different crystal systems
 14 Bravais Lattices divided into 7 Crystal Systems
Crystal System Shape of UC Bravais Lattices
P I F C

1 Cubic Cube ✓ ✓ ✓

2 Tetragonal Square Prism (general height) ✓ ✓

3 Orthorhombic Rectangular Prism (general height) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

4 Hexagonal 120° Rhombic Prism ✓

5 Trigonal Parallelepiped (Equilateral, Equiangular) ✓

6 Monoclinic Parallogramic Prism ✓ ✓

7 Triclinic Parallelepiped (general) ✓

P Primitive
Why are some of the entries missing?
Why is there no C-centred cubic lattice? I Body Centred
Why is the F-centred tetragonal lattice F Face Centred
missing? C A/B/C- Centred
….?
 Simple Cubic Crystal Example:
Po
F, O,

• Rare due to poor packing (only Po has this structure)

• Close-packed directions are cube edges.

Simple Cubic Crystal Unit cell of the SC lattice

▪ If these spheres were ‘spherical atoms’ then the atoms would be touching each other
▪ The kind of model shown is known as the ‘Ball and Stick Model’
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR OF SC

a= 2R

• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52

Coordination number – the number of
• Coordination # = 6
nearest neighbor atoms or ions surrounding
(# nearest neighbors)
an atom or ion.
 Body Centred Cubic Structure (BCC) Example: Cr, Fe, Nb, K,
• Close packed directions are cube diagonals. W, V
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded differently only for ease of viewing.

Unit cell of the BCC lattice

Ato1/2m
Atom at (½,
At (1/2,1/2,1/2)
½, ½)

Atom at (0,0,0,)
AAAAAAAAAAAAA

Note: BCC is a lattice and not a Body Centred Cubic Crystal

crystal
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR:
BCC

4R=√3 a
R=a√3 /4

• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68

• Coordination # = 8
 FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)
Examples: Al, Ar, Pb, Ni, Pd, Pt, Ge
Close packed directions are face diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR:
FCC

4R = a√2
R= a√2/4

APF for a FCC structure = 0.74

Coordination # = 12
 HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE (HCP)
Examples: Zn , Mg etc
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence
• 3D Projection
• 2D Projection
 HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE (HCP)

• Cell of an HCP lattice is visualized as a

top and bottom plane of 7 atoms, forming
a regular hexagon around a central atom.
In between these planes is a half- hexagon
of 3 atoms.
• There are two lattice parameters in HCP,
a and c, representing the basal and height
parameters respectively.

Unit cell contain= 3/2+3+3/2 =6 atoms per unit cell.

a= 2r
Volume of the unit cell =
Volume = 6x(3√3/2) x a2c /a3
• APF = 0.74
• Coordination # = 12 c/a=1.633
 THEORETICAL DENSITY, ρ

Example: Copper
Data from Table inside front cover of Callister (see next slide):
• crystal structure = FCC: 4 atoms/unit cell
• atomic weight = 63.55 g/mol (1 amu = 1 g/mol)
• atomic radius R = 0.128 nm (1 nm = 10 cm)
 MILLER NOTATIONS OF PLANES AND DIRECTIONS

Crystallographic Planes
The procedure determine the h, k, l Miller index numbers.
1.If the plane passes through the selected origin, either another parallel plane must be
constructed within the unit cell by an appropriate translation, or a new origin must be
established at the corner of another unit cell.

2.At this point the crystallographic plane either intersects or parallels each of the three
axes; the length of the planar intercept for each axis is determined in terms of the lattice
parameters a, b, and c.

3.The reciprocals of these numbers are taken. A plane that parallels an axis may be
considered to have an infinite intercept, and, therefore, a zero index.

4.If necessary, these three numbers are changed to the set of smallest integers by
multiplication or division by a common factor.

5.Finally, the integer indices, not separated by commas, are enclosed within parentheses,
thus: (hkl).
Derive an expression for Interplanar spacing or distance of cubic crystal OR
Perpendicular distance between a plane and origin of the cube:
Let the Miller indices of the plane be h,k,l. Now draw HL ppd. From origin(H) of
the cube to the plane PQR.
 IMPERFECTIONS OF CRYSTALS

DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS
❑ Point defects 0D
❑ Line defects 1D
❑ Surface Imperfections 2D
❑ Volume Defects 3D
 Classification Based on Dimensionality
❑ Truly speaking any defect exists in 3D. However, the ‘effective dimension’ may be lower.
Example- the strain field of a dislocation is in 3D, but it is a ‘line-like’ defect. Similarly, a
vacancy is point-like.
❑ In special circumstances the dimension of defect may be lowered (e.g. in a 2D crystal a
dislocation is point or a crack may be planar (2D)).

CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS BASED ON DIMENSIONALITY

0D 1D 2D 3D
(Point defects) (Line defects) (Surface / Interface) (Volume defects)

Vacancy Dislocation Surface Twins

Impurity* Disclination Interphase boundary Precipitate

Frenkel defect Grain boundary Faulted region

Dispiration
Schottky defect Twin boundary Voids/Cracks
Stacking faults Thermal vibration

* The term impurity usually refers to the fact that it is

unintentionally present. A better term in its place can be
Anti-phase boundaries
dopant (atoms) or alloying element (atoms).
1. Point defects:
(i ) Vacancy (ii) Schottky (iii) Self interstitial (iv) Frenkel

Point Defects:
Point defects are where an atom is missing or is in an irregular place in the lattice
structure.
Vacancies:
A perfect crystal with regular arrangement of atoms can not exist. There are always
defects, and the most common defects are point defects. This is especially true at
high temperatures when atoms are frequently and randomly change their positions
leaving behind empty lattice sites, called vacancies. Or Vacancies are empty spaces
where an atom should be, but is missing. In most cases diffusion (mass transport by
atomic motion) - can only occur because of vacancies.
How many vacancies are there?
The higher is the temperature, more often atoms are jumping from one equilibrium
position to another and larger number of vacancies can be found in a crystal.
Actually, the equilibrium number of vacancies, Nv, increases exponentially with
the absolute temperature, T, and can be estimated using the equation.
 (Boltzmann Distribution):
Nv =N exp(-Qv/kT)

Where N is the number of regular lattice sites, k is the Boltzmann constant

(1.38 x 10-23 J/atom.K), and Qv is the energy needed to form a vacancy
in a perfect crystal.
 Schottky defect
A Schottky defect is a type of vacancy in which an atom being free from
regular site, migrates through successive steps and eventually settles the
crystal surface. a pair of anion and cation vacancies.
 Impurities:
Impurities:
A pure metal consisting of only one type of atom just isn’t possible; impurity or
foreign atoms will always be present, and some will exist as crystalline point defects.
In fact, even with relatively sophisticated techniques, it is difficult to refine metals to
purity in excess of 99.9999%. At this level, on the order of 1022 to 1023 impurity
atoms will be present in one cubic meter of material.
Metals which have impurity called alloys.
Alloying is used in metals to improve mechanical strength and corrosion resistance
The addition of impurity atoms to a metal will result in the formation of a solid
solution and/or a new second phase, depending on the kinds of impurity, their
concentrations, and the temperature of the alloy.
Several terms relating to impurities and solid solutions deserve mention. (solute
and solvent )
“Solvent” represents the element or compound that is present in the greatest amount
host atoms.
“Solute” is used to denote an element or compound present in a minor concentration.
 SOLID SOLUTIONS

Solid Solutions:
A solid solution forms when, as the solute atoms are added to the host material, the
crystal structure is maintained, and no new structures are formed.
If two liquids, soluble in each other (such as water and alcohol) are combined, a
liquid solution is produced as the molecules intermix, and its composition is
homogeneous throughout.
A solid solution is also compositionally homogeneous; the impurity atoms are
randomly and uniformly dispersed within the solid.
Impurity point defects are found in solid solutions, of which
there are two types:
(1) Substitutional
(2) Interstitial.
Impurity point defects are found in solid solutions, of which there are two types:

Substitutional : solute or impurity atoms replace or substitute for the host atoms
Interstitial.There are several features of the solute and solvent atoms that determine
the degree to which the former dissolves in the latter, as follows:
1. Atomic size factor:
Appreciable quantities of a solute may be accommodated in this type of solid solution
only when the difference in atomic radii between the two atom types is less than
about. Otherwise the solute atoms will create substantial lattice distortions and a new
phase will form.
2. Crystal structure:
For appreciable solid solubility the crystal structures for metals of both atom types
must be the same.
3. Electronegativity:
The more electropositive one element and the more electronegative the other, the
greater is the likelihood that they will form an intermetallic compound instead of a
substitutional solid solution.
4. Valences: Other factors being equal, a metal will have more of a tendency to
dissolve another metal of higher valency than one of a lower valency.
 Interstitials – atoms that are squeezed in between regular lattice sites. If the
interstitial atom is of the same species as the lattice atoms, it is called
self-interstitial.
Foreign, usually smaller atoms (carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen) are called
interstitial impurities. Interstitial impurity atoms are much smaller than the
atoms in the bulk matrix.
Interstitial impurity atoms fit into the open space between the atoms of the lattice
structure. An example of interstitial impurity atoms is the carbon atoms that are
added to iron to make steel.

If the foreign atom replaces or substitutes for a matrix atom, it is called a

substitutional impurity.
A substitutional impurity atom is an atom of a different type than the matrix
atoms, which has replaced one of the bulk (matrix) atoms in the lattice.
Substitutional impurity atoms are usually close in size (within approximately 15%)
to the bulk atom.
An example of substitutional impurity atoms is the zinc atoms in brass. In brass, zinc atoms
with a radius of 0.133 nm have replaced some of the copper atoms, which have a radius of
0.128 nm.
❖FRENKELDEFECTS:
A Frenkel defect is a pair of cation (positive ion) vacancy and a cation interstitial. Or it
may also be an anion (negative ion) vacancy and anion interstitial. Or the combination of a
vacancy and interstitial is called a Frankel defect. However anions are much larger than
cations and it is not easy for an anion interstitial to form. In both Frenkel and Schottky
defects, the pair of point defects stays near each other because of strong coulombic attraction
of their opposite charges.
 Linear Defects (Dislocations):
Linear defects:
In linear defects groups of atoms are in irregular positions. Linear defects are
commonly called dislocations. Any deviation from perfectly periodic arrangement
of atoms along a line is called the line imperfection.
A line defect is a lattice distortion created about a line formed by the solidification
process, plastic deformation, vacancy condensation or atomic mismatch in solid
solutions.
The line imperfection acting as boundary between the slipped and un-slipped
region, lies in the slip plane and is called a dislocation.

Dislocations are generated and move when a stress is applied. The strength and
ductility of metals are controlled by dislocations.
 Two types of dislocations are :
1. Edge dislocations and
2. Screw dislocations.
Edge Dislocations:
The inter-atomic bonds are significantly distorted only in the immediate vicinity
of the dislocation line. As shown in the set of images below, the dislocation moves
similarly a small amount at a time. The dislocation in the top half of the crystal is
slipping one plane at a time as it moves to the right from its position in image (a)
to its position in image (b) and finally image (c). In the process of slipping one
plane at a time the dislocation propagates across the crystal.
Edge dislocation is considered positive when compressive stresses present above
the stresses exist below the dislocation line, it is considered as negative edge
dislocation, and\ represented by T .A schematic view of edge dislocations are
shown in figure below.

An edge dislocation with the extra plane of atoms above the slip plane, is called a
positive edge dislocation and if the extra plane of atoms lies below the slip plane,
the dislocation is a negative edge dislocation.
(a) Model of a simple cubic lattice; the atoms are represented by filled circles,
and the bonds between atoms by springs.
(b) positive edge dislocation DC formed by inserting an extra half-plane of
atoms in ABCD.
 Screw or Burgers dislocation
❖Screw or Burgers dislocation:
The screw dislocation is slightly more difficult to visualize. The motion of a screw
dislocation is also a result of shear stress, but the defect line movement is
perpendicular to direction of the stress and the atom displacement, rather than
parallel.
To visualize a screw dislocation, imagine a block of metal with a shear stress
applied across one end so that the metal begins to rip. Then the bonds are broken .
 If the shear force is increased, the atoms will continue to slip .

(a) left-handed screw dislocation DC formed by displacing the faces ABCD

relative to each other in direction AB; The dislocation line is parallel to its,
slip vector or (Burgers vector).
 Interfacial defects
Interfacial defects:
❖Interfacial defects can be defined as boundaries that have two dimensional
imperfections in crystalline solids, and have different crystal structures and/or
crystallographic orientations on either side of them. They refer to the regions of
distortions that lie about a surface having thickness of a few atomic diameters. For
example: external surfaces, grain boundaries, twin boundaries, stacking faults, and
phase boundaries. These imperfections are not thermodynamically stable, rather
they are meta-stable imperfections. They arise from the clustering of line defects
into a plane.
External surface:
❖The environment of an atom at a surface differs from that of an atom in the bulk;
especially the number of neighbors (coordination) at surface is less. Thus the
unsaturated bonds of surface atoms give rise to a surface energy. This result in
relaxation (the lattice spacing is decreased) or reconstruction (the crystal structure
changes). To reduce the energy, materials tend to minimize, if possible, the total
surface area.
 Grain Boundaries
Grain boundaries:
Crystalline solids are, usually, made of number of grains separated by grain
boundaries. Grain boundaries are several atoms distances wide, and there is
mismatch of orientation of grains on either side of the boundary as shown in figure
below.
When this misalignment is slight, on the order of few degrees (< 10°), it is called
low angle grain boundary. These boundaries can be described in terms of aligned
dislocation arrays. If the low grain boundary is formed by edge dislocations, it is
called tilt boundary, and twist boundary if formed of screw dislocations. Both tilt
and twist boundaries are planar surface imperfections in contrast to high angle
grain boundaries. For high angle grain boundaries, degree of disorientation is of
large range (> 15°). Grain boundaries are chemically more reactive because of
grain boundary energy.
At ambient temperatures, grain boundaries give strength to a material. So in
general, fine grained materials are stronger than coarse grained ones because they
have more grain boundaries per unit volume. However, at higher temperatures,
grain boundaries act to weaken a material due to corrosion and other factors.
 Twin Boundaries
Twin boundaries:
❖ It is a special type of grain boundary across which there is specific mirror lattice
symmetry. Twin boundaries occur in pairs such that the orientation change
introduced by one boundary is restored by the other (figure below). The region
between the pair of boundaries is called the twinned region. Twins which forms
during the process of recrystallization are called annealing twins, whereas
deformation twins form during plastic deformation.
❖Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in a specific direction,
both of which depend on the crystal structure. Annealing twins are typically found
in metals that have FCC crystal structure (and low stacking fault energy), while
mechanical/deformation twins are observed in BCC and HCP metals.
❖Annealing twins are usually broader and with straighter sides than mechanical
twins. Twins do not extend beyond a grain boundary.
 Assignment
1. Draw the following lattices : BCC, FCC and HCP. Determine for each lattice.
(i) Effective number of atoms
(ii) Packing factor or efficiency
(iii) Coordination number.
2. What are Miller indices ? How are they determined with examples?
3. Show that the atomic packing factor of FCC and HCP crystal is 0.74 .
4. Show that the atomic packing factor of BCC crystal is 0.68 .
5. Using neat sketches show (a) Vacancy defect (b) Edge dislocations (c) Screw
dislocations (d) Schottky defects (e) line defects (f) Surface defects.
6. Show the planes (221), (632), (010), (130), (1010) and also the directions
[111], [012], [301] & [201] in a cubic unit cell.
7. Copper has an FCC structure and atomic radius of 1.278A0 . Calculate its
density. Given atomic weight of copper as 63.5 g/mol. and Avogadro’s number
as 0.602X1024 atom/mol.
8. Draw the Iron carbon equilibrium diagram and level the various phases present
and writes the various invariant reactions that takes place at different
temperatures.
9. Calculate the % ferrite and % cementite in slowly cooled 0.5%C in steel.
10. Derive an expression for Interplanar spacing or distance of cubic crystal and
FCC crystal has an radius of 1.246A0. What are the d200, d220 and d111 spacings?
 The Iron-Iron Carbide
Diagram
A map of the temperature at which different phase changes occur on very slow
heating and cooling in relation to Carbon, is called Iron- Carbon Diagram.

Iron- Carbon diagram shows:-

the type of alloys formed under very slow cooling,
proper heat-treatment temperature and
how the properties of steels and cast irons can be radically changed by
heat-treatment.
 IRON CARBON DIAGRAM

Reactions Peritectic L + δ = Eutectic L = γ + Eutectoid γ = α

γ Fe3C + Fe3C
 Three Phase Reactions

Peritectic, at 1490°C, with low wt% C alloys (almost no engineering

importance).
Eutectic, at 1130°C, with 4.3wt% C, alloys called cast irons.
Eutectoid, at 723°C with eutectoid composition of 0.8wt% C, two-phase mixture
(ferrite & cementite). They are steels.

The diagram shows three horizontal lines which indicate isothermal

reactions (on cooling / heating):
❖ First horizontal line is at 1490°C, where peritectic reaction takes
place:
Liquid + δ ↔ austenite
❖ Second horizontal line is at 1130°C, where eutectic reaction takes
place:
liquid ↔ austenite + cementite
❖ Third horizontal line is at 723°C, where eutectoid reaction takes
place:
austenite ↔ pearlite (mixture of ferrite & cementite)