AICDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACIDS
Classes of Acids
There are two classes of acids:
A. Organic Acids
Organic acids are obtained from nature (plants and animals origin). They are therefore referred
to as natural acids.
Examples;
Organic Acid Source
Ethanoic acid Vinegar
Methanoic acid Ants / bees stings
Lactic acid Sour milk
Tartaric acid Grape / sour soup
Citric acid Lime and lemon (citrus fruit)
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Orange, guava etc
Fatty acid Fat and oil
Amino acid Protein
B. Mineral Acids
These acids are synthesized from mineral elements or inorganic matter. They are also known
as inorganic acids.
Examples:
Inorganic acid Formula Constituent element
Hydrochloric acid HCl Hydrogen and chlorine
Tetraoxosulphate VI acid H2SO4 Hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur
Trioxonitrate V acid HNO3 Hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen

Definitions of acids
Three concepts are used in definition of acids:
A. Arrhenius Concept of an acid
According to Arrhenius, an acid is a substance which produces hydroxonium or (hydrogen)
ions in water.
For examples:
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2H3O+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
When an acid dissolve in water, it ionizes to produce hydrogen ion, H + (a proton). The proton
combines readily with water, to form hydroxonium ion (H3O+(aq)) i.e
HNO3 → H+ + NO3- (ionization /dissociation)
H +
+ H2O → H3O (aq) +

Hence, H+ exist in water as H3O+(aq)

Bronsted -Lowry Concept of an acid

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 According to Bronsted-Lowry, an acid is a proton donor
I H2O(l) + H20(l) → H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Here one out of the two water molecules donates a proton (acting as an acid)
II HCl + NH3 → NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
N.B: In the two examples given above, there two pairs of acids and bases: the original acid
and its conjugate base as well as the original base and its conjugate acid.
In example I; one water molecule acts as an acid while OH - is its conjugate base.
In example II; HCl is the original acid (donates its proton to NH 3) while Cl- is its conjugate base
(accept proton from NH4+)
B. Lewis concept of an acid
According to Lewis concept, an acid is an electron pair acceptor.
Examples of Lewis acid molecules are: AlCl3, BF3, FeCl3 etc
Classifications of Acids
Acids can be classified according to source and strength. We have earlier discussed
classification according to source i.e (natural and mineral acids).
Classification of acids according strength:
A. Strong and weak acids
I Strong acids ionized or dissociated completely in water, the concentration of
hydroxonium ion is very high in such acid solution. Strong acids are classified as strong
electrolytes.
Examples are:
Hydrochloric acid HCl + H 2O → H3O+ + Cl-
Trioxonitrate V acid HNO3 + H2O → H3O+ + NO3-
Tetraoxosulphate VI acid H2SO4 + 2H2O → 2H3O + SO42-

II Weak acids ionized or dissociated slightly in water, the concentration of hydroxonium

ion is very low in such acid solution. Weak acids are classified as weak electrolytes. The
dissociation of weak acid in water is denoted by a reversible sign.
Examples are:
Ethanoic acids CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO-
Methanoic acid HCOOH + H 2O ⇌ H3O+ + HCOO-
Tetraoxophosphate V acid H3PO4 + 3H2O ⇌ 3H3O+ + PO43 -
Trioxosulphate IV acid H2SO3 + 2H2O ⇌ 2H3O+ + SO32-

B. Concentrated and dilute acids

Concentrated acid contains large amount of acid in a small volume of water e.g 18.4 M or
18.4 moldm-3 H2SO4 is a concentrated strong acid.
Dilute acid contains a large volume of water in small quantity of acid e.g 0.05 M or 0.05
moldm-3 H2SO4 is a dilute strong acid.
Also, an unripe orange is an example of concentrated weak acid while a ripe orange is an
example of a dilute weak acid.

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 Basicity of an Acid
The Basicity of an acid is defined as the number of ionisable or replaceable hydrogen ions
(atoms) in one molecule of an acid.
All acids in solution of water produce hydrogen ion (hydroxonium ion) which can be replaced
by metallic ions or ammonium ion.
N.B : Not all hydrogen atoms in a molecule of an acid are ionisable
E.g, in all organic acids/ natural acid; the only ionisable hydrogen is the one directly attached
to the carboxylate ion (COO-).
Acid Name Ions Produced Basicity
- +
HCl Hydrochloric acid Cl + H 1
(monobasic)
HNO3 Trioxonitrate V acid NO3- + H+ 1
(monobasic)
H2SO4 Tetraoxosulphate VI SO42- + 2H+ 2 (dibasic)
acid
H3PO4 Tetraoxophosphate V PO43- + 3H+ 3 (tribasic)
acid
CH3COOH Ethanoic acid CH3 COO- + H+ 1
(monobasic)
HCOOH Methanoic acid HCOO- + H+ 1
(monobasic)
Ethanedioic acid COO-
(COOH)2 │ + 2H+ 2 (dibasic)
-
COO
H2CO3 Trioxocarbonate IV CO32- + 2H+ 2 (dibasic)
acid
-
HOOC-CH(OH)-CH2- 2-hydroxybutanedioic OOC-CH(OH)-CH2-COO- + 2 (dibasic)
COOH acid 2H+

Class Work
1. Classify the following acids according to source
I. Ethanedioic acid (Oxalic acid) (COOH) 2
II. Trioxocarbonate IV acid (H2CO3)
III. Alanine CH3C H(NH2)COOH
IV. Hydrobromic acid (HBr)
V. Malic acid (2-hydroxybutanedioc acid) HOOC-CH(OH)-CH 2-COOH
VI. Dioxonitrate III acid HNO2
2. In tabular form, categorise the following substances as dilute strong acid; concentrated strong
acid; dilute weak acid or concentrated weak acids
I. 12.0 M HCl
II. 0.5 M CH3COOH
III. Glacial Ethanoic (acetic) acid
IV. 0.05M HNO3
V. Ripe Mango
VI. Unripe Guava

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 General properties of Acids
Physical properties of Acids
1. Dilute acids have a sour taste
2. Acids turns litmus red
3. Concentrated form of strong acids such as HCl, HNO3 and H2SO4 are corrosive
N.B In diluting hot concentrated strong acids, do not attempt to add water to acid directly
because the hot acid solution may splatter onto the skin and face thereby cause acid burn,
instead add acid to water.

Chemical Properties of Aqueous Acids

1. An acid reacts with a base to produce a salt and water only. It is a neutralization reaction.
HCl ( aq ) + KOH (aq ) → KCl( aq) + H 2 O (l)
Acid Base Salt Water
2. An acid reacts with a metal more reactive then hydrogen in the activity series, to liberate
hydrogen gas and produce a salt: It is a displacement reaction. Reaction is fast with strong
acid but relatively slow with weak organic acids.
N.B. Both dilute and concentrated HNO3 are exceptional because the acid is a strong oxidizing
agent and oxidized the hydrogen produced to water.

2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2(g)

Zn(s )+ HCl (aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H 2 (g)
Metal Acid Salt Hydrogen gas
3. An acid reacts with a trioxocarbonate (IV) salt, to liberate carbon (IV) oxide (CO 2) and produce
salt and water e.g
2 HNO 3(aq) +CaCO3 (aq) → Ca ¿¿
Acid Trioxocarbonate IV salt Salt carbon IV oxide water
4. An acid reacts with a Trioxosulphate (IV) salt, to liberate sulphur (IV) oxide (SO 2) and produce
salt and water
2 HCl(aq) + K 2 SO3 (aq) → 2 KCl(aq) + S O 2 ( g) + H 2 O (l)
Acid Trioxosulphate IV salt Salt Sulphur IV oxide water

Methods of Preparation of Aqueous Acids

1. Action of an acid anhydride on water
An acid anhydride is an oxide of a non-metal (acidic oxide) that dissolves, as well as reacts
with water to produce an acid: E.g
a. Carbon (IV) oxide gas (CO2(g)) reacts with water to form a weak acid, trioxocarbonate (IV)
acid, H 2 CO 3.

C O2 ( g) + H 2 O (l) ⟶ H 2 CO 3.
Carbon (IV) oxide Water trioxocarbonate (IV) acid
b. Sulphur (IV) oxide gas (SO 2(g)) reacts with water to form a weak acid, Trioxosulphate (IV)
acid, H 2 SO 3

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 S O 2 ( g )+ H 2 O (l ) ⟶ H 2 SO 3.
Sulphur (IV) oxide Water Trioxosulphate (IV) acid
c. Sulphur (VI) oxide (SO3) gas reacts with water to form a strong acid, Tetraoxosulphate (IV)
acid, H 2 SO4
d. Nitrogen (IV) oxide (NO2) gas is a mixed acid anhydride (both oxidizing and reducing
agent); it reacts with water to form a mixture of two acids, Trioxonitrate (V) acid, (HNO 3)
and Dioxonitrate III acid (HNO2)

2 N O 2 ( g) + H 2 O(l)
⟶ HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
Nitrogen (IV) oxide Water Trioxonitrate (V) acid Dioxonitrate III acid
2. Displacement reaction
Generally, a strong acid will displace a weaker acid from its salt (salt of weaker acid). The
order of decreasing strength of acids:
H2SO4(aq) > HCl(aq) > HNO3(aq) > H2SO3(aq) > H2S(aq) > H2CO3(aq)
Decreasing strength / increasing volatility of acids

Concentrated H 2 SO 4 is a non-volatile acid; it will displace or liberate other acids from their
salts; e.g.
a. When a mixture of concentrated H 2 SO 4 and crystals of sodium chloride is heated, volatile
hydrogen chloride gas is produced:
H 2 SO 4 (aq) +2 NaCl(s ) → Na 2 SO 4 (aq) +2 HCl(g)
A solution of hydrogen chloride gas in water produced hydrochloric acids
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq)
b. Addition of concentrated H 2 SO 4 to crystals of potassium trioxonitrate (V) liberates fumes of
trioxonitrate (V) acid, which, on cooling, produce the acids.
H 2 SO 4 (aq) +2 KNO3(s ) → K 2 SO 4 (aq) +2 HNO 3(l)
Reactions a and b above show that H 2 SO4 (aq) is a less volatile and a stronger acid than HCl (aq)
and HNO3 (aq )
c. When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a trioxocarbonate (IV) salt, there is effervescence;
the colourless and odourless gas produced is carbon (IV) oxide.
2 HCl(aq) + Na 2 CO 3 (s) → 2 NaCl(aq) +C O 2( g )+ H 2 O(l)
A solution of carbon (IV) oxide in cold water is called carbonated water, it is weakly acidic.
C O2 ( g) + H 2 O (l) ⟶ H 2 CO 3 (aq )
d. When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to crystals of iron (II) sulphide, hydrogen sulphide is
gas is liberated.
2 HCl(aq) + FeS(s) → FeCl2 (aq)+ H 2 S( g )
Hydrogen sulphide gas (H2S(g)) dissolves slightly in water to produce an acidic solution
H 2 S (g ) + H2O(l) ⟶ H2S(aq)
Reactions c and d above show that HCl ( aq ) is a less volatile and a stronger acid than
H 2 CO 3 (aq ) and H 2 S (aq ) .
N. B: Ethanoic acid, CH 3 COOH , although, it is weak organic acid, is less volatile than HCl (aq)
or HNO 3 (aq ) , therefore, it cannot be prepared from neither HCl nor HNO 3.

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3. Direct combination of the elements
This method is suitable for the preparation of hydrochloric acid and other hydrogen halides.
For instance: Hydrogen gas burns in chlorine gas to produce hydrogen chloride gas:
H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⟶ 2HCl(g)
The gas dissolves readily in water to produce hydrochloric acid.
HCl(g) + H2O(l) ⟶ HCl(aq)

Solution of Hydrogen Chloride gas in Methylbenzene (Toluene)

Methylbenzene, C 6 H 5 CH 3 is called toluene. It is a non-polar organic solvent.
When dry hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in methylbenzene, it does not produce hydrogen
+¿¿
ions H ; it exists as HCI molecules. Hence, the resulting solution has no effect on dry blue or red
litmus paper; it does not conduct electric current and does not react with trioxocarbonate (IV) salts to
liberate CO 2.
+ ¿¿
Similarly, a solution of Ethanoic acid in an organic solvent does not contain H 3 O ions.
+ ¿¿
The characteristics property of an acid is due its ability to produce hydroxonium ions, H 3 O , in
an aqueous solution.

Specific Uses of Acids

Name` Uses
Hydrochloric acid Needed by industries to make chemicals.
Uses to remove rust.
Tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid Needed by industries to make chemical.
Uses as drying and dehydrating agent.
Uses as electrolyte in lead-acid accumulators.
Required in oil refineries
Trioxonitrate(V) acid Needed by industries for making fertilizers
explosives, etc.
Boric acid Used as a mild antiseptic or germicide.
Tartaric acid Used in baking soda, soft drink and health salt.
Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) Used in preserving food
Used in dyeing silk and other textiles.
Citric acid Used in making food.
Fatty acids (e.g. palmitic and stearic acids) Used in the manufacture of soap. The process is
known as saponification.
Fatty acid + caustic soda → soap + water.

General Uses of acids

The general uses of acids include:
1. In the production of salts.
2. In the dissolution of metals.
3. As electrolytes
4. As redox reagents.

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 Revision Exercises
1. What is basicity of an acid?
2 State the basicity of each of the following acids
(a) HCOOH; (b) H3PO4; (c) (COOH)2 (d) H2CO3 (e) HOOCCH(OH)CH2COOH
3 Write an equation to show the ionization / dissociation of each of the following acids:
(a) CH3COOH (b) H2SO3 (c) H3PO4

BASES / ALKALIS
General definition of bases
A base is an oxide of metal (basic oxide) or hydroxide of metal (basic hydroxide). The oxides and
hydroxides of metals are solids. Some oxides are insoluble in water while a few oxides such as
sodium oxide, potassium oxide are readily soluble in water to form aqueous metallic hydroxide known
as Alkalis /Alkali.
K2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq)
Basic oxide Alkalis
Arrhenius Definition of a base
A base is a substance which reacts with hydrogen ion H + or hydroxonium ion H3O+ to produce water
H3O+ (aq) + OH(aq) → 2H2O (l) Or H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O (l)
2-
O + 2H +
→ H2O(l)
According to Arrhenius:
An alkali is a base which that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions, OH -.
The characteristic property of a soluble base is due to the production of hydroxide ions, OH - in water.
Bronsted-Lowry Concept of Bases
A base is a proton- acceptor, e.g
I. NH3 + HCl → NH4+ + Cl-
II. H2O + HCl → H3O + + Cl-
III. H2O + H2O → H3O + + OH-
In the examples above, NH3 and H2O molecules are bases: they accept protons from the acids.
The reaction III shows that H2O can acts as a weak acid as well as a weak base. It is amphoteric.
Lewis Concept of Acids
A base is an electron-pair donor.
Lewis bases are species which possess lone pairs of electrons by which a specie with an empty
valence orbital can be attached:
I. NH3 + H3O+ → NH4 + + H2O
II. Cl- + AlCl3 → AlCl4-
III. NH3 + BF3 → BF3.NH3 (a complex )
In I, NH3 donates the lone –pair of electrons on nitrogen atom to the proton in H 3O+;
In II, Cl- donates a lone-pair of electron to the empty valence orbital on the aluminum atom in AlCl 3;

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While in III, NH3 donates the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen atom to the empty valence orbital
on the boron in BF3. The species form dative bonds.
Physical Properties of Alkalis
1. Alkalis have bitter taste, e.g. sodium hydroxide solution, lime water.
2. Their solutions in water are slippery and soapy to touch e.g KOH solution, NaOH solution
3. Alkalis turns red litmus paper to blue.
4. They are Electrolytes (NaOH(aq) and KOH(aq) are strong electrolyte while Ca(OH)2(aq) and
NH4OH(aq) are weak electrolyte.)
Chemical Properties of Bases
1. A base will react with an acid to produce a salt and water only; e.g
(a) NaOH(aq) neutralizes HCl(aq) to produce NaCl(aq) and H2O(l)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
(b) Zinc oxide (ZnO(s)), a yellow solid, dissolves in dilute tetraoxosulphate VI acid to give a
colourless solution of zinc tetraoxosulphate VI.
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
(yellow) (colourless)
2. When a mixture of an alkali and ammonium salt is heated, a colourless gas, with a pungent
smell is given off; the gas is ammonia(NH 3). This is the laboratory test for Alkalis or ammonium
salt, e.g
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) heat
→
NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)
3. An alkali reacts with an acid anhydride to form a salt and water only. It is also a neutralization
reaction. e.g
When Sulphur IV oxide is bubbled into sodium hydroxide solution, a solution of sodium
trioxosulphate IV and water are produced.
2 NaOH(aq) + SO2(g) → Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Strength of Alkalis
Alkalis are classified into strong and weak bases:
Strong Alkalis: are those that are completely ionized in water, they are strong electrolytes.
Examples are: KOH and NaOH
KOH(s) + H2O(l) → K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NaOH(s) + H2O(l) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Weak Alkalis: are those that are slightly ionized in water. They are weak electrolytes.
Examples are: Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2, NH4OH (ammonia solution).
Ca(OH)2(s) + H2O(l) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Mg(OH)2(s) + H2O(l) → Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Ammonia gas readily dissolves in water to give an alkaline solution. Ammonia solution is also
known as ammonium hydroxide.
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
NH4OH(aq) → NH4+ + OH-(aq)
Preparation of Bases
1. Combustion of a reactive metal in air.
A reactive metal burns in air to give the corresponding oxide, e.g
Potassium metal burns in oxygen to give potassium oxide:
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 4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)
2. Action of Soluble basic oxide on water
Soluble basic oxides such as K2O, Na2O, CaO; react with water to give corresponding
hydroxides.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
CaO(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
Quick lime Lime water

3. Action of a reactive metal on cold water

Alkalis (Soluble bases) are prepared by the action of the metal on cold water, e.g.
Sodium metal reacts violently with water, to produce a colourless and odourless gas, which is
hydrogen, and an alkaline solution.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
4. Precipitation Method
Insoluble hydroxides are precipitated by the action of sodium hydroxide solution on the
aqueous solutions of their salts. E.g
NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)
Blue Blue
5. Decomposition reactions
Insoluble basic oxides are obtained by the action of heat on the metallic hydroxides, the
trioxonitrate V and the trioxocarbonate IV salts (except those of sodium, potassium and
ammonium)
2Al(OH)3(s) heat Al2O3(s) + H2O(l)
→

ZnCO3(s) heat ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

→

2Cu(NO3)2(s) heat 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

→

Uses of Alkalis
1. Caustic soda (Conc. NaOH) and caustic potash (Conc. KOH)
Concentrated solutions of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide commonly called caustic
soda and caustic potash respectively, are used in the preparation of soaps, papers, etc.
2. Slaked lime (solid form of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2)
Slaked lime is used to neutralize the acidity of the soil (liming of the soil)
It is also used in removing hairs from skins of animals.
3. Milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)2 solution)
It is a suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water, which is used as laxative to neutralize
excess acid in the stomach.
4. Ammonia solution, NH3(aq)
Ammonia solution is used in laundry to neutralize the acids in body sweat on clothes.

Water as a neutral Solvent

Water is a polar covalent molecule. It exists as a liquid at room temperature, due to the
hydrogen bonds between the molecules.
A water molecule undergoes self-ionization, to produce H + and OH- ions i.e.
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 H2O(l) → H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ………………………………1
The H+ ion combines with another water molecule to produce H3O+, hydroxonium ion:
H+(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) …..……………………..2
Equation 1 plus equation 2 will produce:
H2O (l) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
It was observed that the extent of ionization was quite small, hence, pure water is regarded as
non-electrolyte.
Another observation from experimental result at 25 0C was that the concentration of H3O+,
denoted as [H3O+] and the concentration of hydroxide ion OH - denoted as [OH-] in water are
equal in magnitude. The value was observed to be 0.0000001 moldm -3 i.e. 1.0 x 10-7 moldm-3
[H3O+] = [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-7 moldm-3
From the value stated above, water is said to be neutral i.e neither acidic nor basic
Also, at 250C, the ionic product of water, i.e the product of hydrogen ion concentration and that
of hydroxide ion is always constant i.e
[H3O+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-7 moldm-3 x 1.0 x 10-7 moldm-3
[H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14 mol2dm-6 *
Note that: when an acid ionizes in water, it increases the concentration of H 3O+ ions in the solution.
Under this condition, [H3O+] > [OH-]; hence, the resulting solution becomes acidic.
Similarly, when a base dissociates in water, it increases the OH - ion concentration in the solution.
Under this condition, [OH-] > [H3O+]; hence, the resulting solution becomes alkaline.
Example:
If 0.001 mole of KOH was dissolved in water to make 1.0dm -3 solution. What is the
(a) Hydroxide ion concentration, [OH-]?
(b) Hydrogen ion concentration, [H+]?
Solution
(a) To find [OH-]
KOH dissociates in water as follows:
KOH(s) + aq → K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
1mol 1mol
From the equation:
1 mole of NaOH produces I mole of OH-
∴ 0.001 mol KOH will produce 0.001 mol OH-
Since the 0.001 mole is in 1 dm3 of solution,
[OH-] = 0.001moldm-3
(b) To find [H+]
In a dilute solution; [H+] [OH-] = 10-14
[OH-] = 0.001

[H+] = 10-14 = 10-12

10-2

[H+] = 1.00 x 10-12 moldm-3

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 P H of a solution

Definitions of PH
The PH of a solution can be defined as follows:
1. The PH of a solution is defined as a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the
solution.
2. It is mathematically defined as the negative logarithm to base ten of hydrogen /
hydroxonium ion concentration ([H+] / [H3O+]).
Or
The logarithm to base ten of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion / hydroxonium ion concentration
Mathematically:
+ 1 +
PH = - log10[H3O ] Or PH = log10 /[H3O ]

PH meter, PH scale and PH value

PH meter

It is a device or an instrument used to measure the degree of acidity or alkalinity of solution.

PH scale

PH scale ranges from 0 –14, it has both lower and upper limits

PH value

PH value is a measure of the hydroxonium concentration ion [H 3O ] in a dilute solution.

+

0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Increasing acidity increasing alkalinity

Neutral
NOTE:
1. The PH of water or a given liquid is independent of its volume. For example, the PH of 500cm3
of water is the same as that of 800 cm3 of the same water.
2. A PH value less than 7 (<7), indicates an acidic solution:
[H3O+] > [OH-]
3. A PH value of exactly 7(=7) indicates a neutral solution:
[H3O+] = [OH-]
4. A PH value greater than 7 (>7) indicates an alkaline solution:
[H3O+] < [OH-]
Also,
The acidity of a solution increases as the PH decreases.
Hence, a solution with a PH of 6.5 is weakly acidic, when compared with another solution with a
PH of 3.0, which will be strongly acidic.

Conversely, alkalinity increases as the PH increases.

Hence, a solution with a PH of 7.5 is weakly alkaline, when compared with another solution with
a PH of 13.0, which will be strongly alkaline.
Generally, the lower the PH value, the more acidic or the less alkaline the solution; while the
higher the PH value, the less acidic or the more alkaline the solution.
Worked Examples

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1. What is the PH of a solution containing:
I. 0.001 moldm-3 of HCl?
II. 0.005 moldm-3 H2SO4?
Solution
I. To find the PH of 0.001 moldm-3 HCl.
HCl is a strong acid; it ionizes completely in water as follows:
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
1 mole 1 mole
From the above equation:
1 mole of HCl gives 1 mole of H3O+ ions.
∴ 0.001 mole of HCl gives 0.001 mol H3O+ ions
Hence, [H3O+] = 0.001 moldm-3 = 1. 0 x 10-3 moldm-3
From mathematical expression:
PH = - log10[H3O ]
+

-3
PH = - log10 (1.0 x 10 )

PH = - [log10 + log1010-3]
1.0

PH = -[ 0 + (-3log1010)]

PH = -[ 0 + (-3 x1)]

PH = -[ 0 -3]

PH = 3

II. To find the PH of 0.005 moldm-3 HCl.

H2SO4 is a strong acid; it ionizes completely in water as follows:
H2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2H3O+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
1 mole 2 moles
From the above equation:
1 mole of H2SO4 gives 2 moles of H3O+ ions.
∴ 0.005 mole of H2SO4 gives (0.005 x 2) moles H3O+ ions = 0.01mole of H3O+
Hence, [H3O+] = 0.01 moldm-3 = 1. 0 x 10-2 moldm-3
From mathematical expression:
PH = - log10[H3O ]
+

-2
PH = - log10 (1.0 x 10 )

PH = - [log10 + log1010-2]
1.0

PH = -[ 0 + (-2log1010)]

PH = -[ 0 + (-2 x1)]

PH = 2

2. Calculate the PH of 0.005 mol dm-3 of Ca(OH)2, assuming Ca(OH)2 ionized completely in water
(strong electrolyte).
Solution
To find the PH of 0.005 moldm-3 Ca(OH)2,
It is assumed that Ca(OH)2 ionized completely in water,
Hence, Ca(OH)2 dissociates completely in water as follows:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2O(l) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
1 mole 2 mole

12
 From the above equation:
1 mole of Ca(OH)2 gives 2moles of OH- ions.
∴ 0.005 mole of Ca(OH)2 gives (0.005 x 2) moles of OH- ions = 0.01 moles of OH-
Hence, [OH-] = 0.01 moldm-3 = 1.0 x 10-2 moldm-3
But for a dilute solution
[H3O+] [OH-] = 10-14

10-14 10-14
[H3O+] = = = 10-14+2 = 10-12
[OH-] 1.0 x 10-2

[H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-12 mol dm-3

From mathematical expression:
PH = - log10[H3O ]
+

-12
PH = - log10 (1.0 x 10 )

PH = - [log10 + log1010-12]
1.0

PH = -[ 0 + (-12log1010)]

PH = -[ 0 + (-12 x1)]

PH = 12

3. A solution has a pH of 6. What is the hydroxonium ion concentration [H 3O+]?

Solution.
pH = - log10[H3O+]
6 = - log10[H3O+]
- log10[H3O+] = 6
log10[H3O+] = - 6
[H3O+] = antilog(-6)
[H3O+] = 10-6 = 1.0 x 10-6

13
 SALTS
Definition
A salt is the compound formed when all or part of the hydrogen atoms of an acid are replaced by a
metallic atom or the ammonium group (NH 4+).
e.g. H2SO4; Na replaces all (the 2) hydrogen (H) atoms to form Na 2SO4
H2SO4; Na replaces part of (one) H atom to form NaHSO4
On the other hand, a salt can also be formed if all or part of the OH - group of a metallic or ammonium
hydroxide is replaced by an anionic group (acidic radical).
e.g. Ca (OH)2; all OH- is completely replaced by Cl- to form CaCl2
Ca (OH)2; one OH- is partly replaced by Cl- to form Ca(OH)Cl
In NH4OH; OH- is replaced by NO3- (trioxonitrate V ion) to form NH4NO3

Types of Salts
1. Normal salt
A normal salt is formed when: (a) all the replaceable hydrogen atoms of an acid are completely
replaced by metallic atom or ammonium group
Or when all the OH groups of a basic hydroxide are completely replaced by an anionic group e.g.
H2SO4 ; Na replaces the 2 H atoms to form Na2SO4;
Ca(OH)2 the 2 OH is completely replaced by Cl to form CaCl 2
N.B
Solution of normal salt in water may be neutral, basic or acidic. (hydrolysis of salt)
E.g NaCl, Na2SO4 or KNO3 solution in water is neutral
Na2CO3, K2CO3, CH3COONa or HCOOK solution is basic
NH4Cl, (NH4)2SO4, NH4NO3, MgSO4, AlCl3 or Pb(NO3)2 is acidic

2. Acid Salts:
This is formed when all the replaceable hydrogen atoms of an acid are partly replaced by metallic
atom or ammonium group e.g.
An acid salt is formed when there is incomplete neutralization as a result of insufficient supply of
base.
H2SO4(aq) + NaOH → NaHSO4(aq) + H2O
insufficient
H3PO4(aq) + NaOH → NaH2PO4(aq) + H2O
H3PO4(aq) + 2NaOH → Na2HPO4(aq) + H2O
An acid salt has characteristic of acid. E.g, it turns blue litmus red
N.B
1. An acid with a basicity of 2 or more is capable of producing acid salt.
2. Acid salt reacts further with a base to form normal salt. (complete neutralization)
E.g NaHCO3 + NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
Examples of acid salts are: NaHSO4 ; KH2PO4; NaHSO3 etc

3. Basic Salt:
A basic salt is formed from di – or tri-hydroxides of metals when the OH groups are not completely
replaced.
A basic salt is formed when there is incomplete neutralization as a result of insufficient supply of acid.
e.g.
Zn(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) → Zn(OH)Cl + H2O
14
Mg(OH)2(aq) + HNO3 → Mg(OH)NO3 + H2O
N.B
1. A metal in metallic hydroxide with a valency of 2 or more is capable of producing basic salt.
2. basic salt reacts further with an acid to form normal salt. (complete neutralization)
i.e. Mg(OH)Cl + HCl → MgCl2 + H2O

4. Double salt
A double salt is formed when two simple salts combine in equal mole (stoichiometric ratio) to form a
single compound.
The general formula of a double salt is: XY(SO 4)2 .12H2O
Where X is monovalent cation e.g Na+, K+ or NH4+
and Y is trivalent cation e.g Al3+, Fe3+ or Cr3+
Example of double salt is KAl(SO4)2.12H2O known as alum which is commonly used as coagulant in
the treatment of water. Alum is commonly called potassium alum. Its IUPAC name is potassium
aluminum tetraoxosulphate VI dodecahydrate.
Other examples are:
NH4Fe(SO4)2.12H2O: ammonium iron III tetraoxosulphate VI dodecahydrate
NaCr(SO4)2. 12H2O: sodium chromium III tetraoxosulphate VI dodecahydrate

5. Complex salt.
A complex salt contains a complex ion.
A complex ion consists of a central positive ion usually transition metal which is surrounded by a
group of atoms known as ligand. A ligand usually has lone pair of electron to form a dative covalent
bond with transition metal.
Examples of complex ions are:
[Cu(NH3)4]2+ : tetraamine copper II ion
[Fe(CN)6]3- : hexacyano ferrate III ion
[Fe(CN)6]4- : hexacyano ferrate II ion
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ : hexaaquo ferrate II ion
Examples of complex salts are:
[Cu(NH3)4]Cl2 : tetraamine copper II chloride
K3[Fe(CN)6] : potassium hexacyano ferrate III salt
K4[Fe(CN)6] : potassium hexacyano ferrate II salt
[Fe(H2O)6](NO3)2 : hexaaquo ferrate II trioxonitrate V salt

Properties of Salts
a. solubility
Salts differ in their ability to dissolve in water. Some dissolve readily, some with difficulty while others
are insoluble. The solubility properties are very important in determining the method used in preparing
these salts from aqueous media.

Rules of Solubility:
(i) All acid salts are generally soluble
(ii) All Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium salts are soluble
(ii) All trioxonitrate (V) are soluble
(iii) All trioxocarbonate (IV) are insoluble except those of Na+, K+ and NH4+
(iv) All Chloride are soluble except those Ag+, Hg+ Pb2+, PbCl2 is however soluble in hot water.
(v) All tetraoxosulphate (VI) are soluble except those of Ba2+, Pb2+ and Ca2+. CaSO4 and BaSO4 are
slightly soluble.
15
b. Dissociation in H2O
All salts exist as ions, even in the solid state. All salts, when dissolved in water completely ionized.
Na+Cl-(s) + H2O → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Mg2+SO42-(s) + H2O → Mg2+(aq) + SO4-2(aq)

It is however important to note that some salts when dissolved in water undergo a double
decomposition type of reaction with the water. The salt is said to have been hydrolyzed.
(c) Hydrolysis of salts:
Hydrolysis is a term used to describe the dissociation of salt in water to produce a weak acid and
strong base or a strong acid and a weak base. However, a salt that dissociates in water to form a
strong acid and a strong base does not undergo hydrolysis.
N.B.
I. Solution of normal salt can Neutral, basic or acidic.
II. NaCl, Na2SO4 or KNO3 solution in water is neutral (Do not hydrolyze)
Na2CO3, K2CO3, CH3COONa or HCOOK solution is basic (Hydrolyze)
NH4Cl, (NH4)2SO4, NH4NO3, MgSO4, AlCl3 or Pb(NO3)2 is acidic (Hydrolyze)
Example
Hydrolysis of Na2CO3 and CH3COOH are as follows
I. Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H2CO3(aq) PH of the solution is greater than 7
(strong) (weak) i.e.
II. CH3COONa (s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH (aq) PH >7
(strong) (weak)

In like manners, we can have the hydrolysis of MgSO 4 and NH4Cl as:
I. NH4 Cl + H2O(l) → HCl + NH4OH(aq) PH of the solution is less than 7
(strong) (weak) i.e.
II. MgSO4(s) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) PH <7
(strong) (weak)

On the contrary, Na2SO4 and KNO3 which are both formed from strong acid and strong base do not
hydrolyze but only dissolve in water as follows:
I. Na2SO4(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) PH of the solution is equal to 7
(strong) (strong) i.e.
II. KNO3(s) + H2O(l) → KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) PH = 7
(strong) (strong)

(d) Hydration of Salts:

When a hot, fairly concentrated solution of a pure salt is cooled, crystals are usually formed. Some
salts are powdery while others are crystalline in nature (i.e. have a definite shape). A number of salts
incorporate a fixed proportion of molecules of water in the process of forming crystals. This water is
called water of crystallization and the salt is said to be hydrated.

Examples of hydrated salt:

Na2SO4.10H2O; CaCl2.H2O; CuSO4 .5H2O; FeSO4.7H2O; MgSO4.7H2O;
Na2CO3.10H2O; Na2S2O3.5H2O.

Estimation of the number of molecules of water of crystallization

16
Weigh accurately, a hard glass test tube. Put about 5.0g of hydrated CuSO 4 into test tube and weigh
again. Record the colour of the crystals. Stopper the test tube with a cork which carries a bent
delivery tube dipping into some cold water in a test tube. (The mass of the test tube plus content
having been taken). Surround the test tube containing the water with ice-cold water.

Heat the test-tube containing the crystals gently at first, then strongly. Cool the test-tube containing
CuSO4 and weigh. Continue the heating, cooling and weighing until the weight of the test tube plus
the residue is constant. Record the final mass of the test-tube plus residue. Also, weigh test-tube
containing water.

mass of water of crystallization molar mass of water of crystallization

mass of anydrous salt
= molar mass of anydrous salt

OR
mass of anydrous salt molar mass of anhydrous salt
mass of hydrated salt
= molar mass of hydrated salt

Example
On heating 13.15g of NiSO4.yH2O., 7.75g of the anhydrous salt was obtained. Determine the value of
y. [H = 1, O =16, S = 32, Ni = 59
Solution
Mass of hydrated salt = 13.15g
Mass of anhydrous salt = 7.75g
Mass of water of crystallization = mass of hydrated salt – mass of anhydrous salt
(13.15 – 7.75) g = 5.40g
Molar mass of anhydrous salt = MNiSO4 = [(59x1)+ (32x1)+ (16x4)]g = 155g
Molar mass of water of crystallization (yH2O ) = y[(1x2) +(16x1)] = 18y
Using the formula:

mass of water of crystallization molar mass of water of crystallization

mass of anydrous salt
= molar mass of anydrous salt
5.40 18 y
7.75
= 155

7.75 x 18y = 5.40 x 155; 139.5y = 837

837
y = 139.5
y = 6.

METHODS OF PREPARING SOLUBLESALTS:

1. By neutralization and crystallization
Salts that can be prepared by this method include: Na 2SO4, NaCl, (NH4)2SO4 etc. Note that we can
also prepare acid-salts such as NaHSO4 using this method.

e.g.: Required to prepare Na2SO4 or NaHSO4

17
materials: = 0.05 mole dm -3 (i.e. 0.5M) solution of H 2SO4. Approximately, 0.1 mol.dm-3 solution of
NaOH, methyl orange, charcoal.
Apparatus:
Burette, pipette, conical flask, water bath, Bunsen burner.
Method: Put the acid in the burette. Pipette 25cm 3 portions of NaOH solution into each of some
conical flasks. Add few drops of methyl orange indicator to the NaOH solution in the first conical flask.
Titrate with the given acid (i.e. add the given acid) from the burette until the colour changes to orange.
Record the initial and final burette readings and obtain the titre value from the difference.
Suppose you want to prepare Na2SO4:
You can use any of the following procedures:
(i) The necessary equation for the above titration is
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Boil the titration mixture with charcoal to remove the indicator which is a dye. Then, filter the solution
of the salt into an evaporating dish and boil off part of the water until cooling of the concentrated
solution brings about crystallization. Then crystallize the bulk of the solution, filter off the crystal and
dry in-between filter papers.
(ii) Discard the titrate mixture. Pipette 25cm 3 of the alkali into a conical flask. Add the above titre value
(a cm3 say) of the acid from the burette. Concentrate the salt solution until crystals appear upon
cooling to crystallize, filter to obtain crystals and dry the crystals in-between filter –papers.
To prepare NaHSO4:
H2SO4 + NaOH → NaHSO4 + H2O
From these two equations, it can be seen:
(i) that given a certain quantity of H 2SO4, the quantity of NaOH to convert this acid into NaHSO 4 will
be quantity to convert it into Na 2SO4. Hence to the titre value in the above titration is added 12.5cm 3
of the NaOH solution.
(ii) that given a certain quantity of NaOH, twice the quantity of acid needed to convert the alkali into
NaHSO4. Hence to 25cm3 of the alkali is added twice the titre value in the above titration.

The NaHSO4 solution obtained is now placed in a conical flask and part of the water boiled off until
crystals are obtained upon cooling. The hot solution is now crystallized, the crystals filtered off and
dried in-between filter papers.

2. By the reaction between a gaseous acid anhydride and an alkali. E.g.

(a) Preparation of NaHSO3
Generate SO2 by some suitable method and absorb the SO2 into NaOH solution. NAHSO3 is the
product according to the following equation: NaOH + SO 2 → NaHSO3
Then concentrate the solution, cool to crystallize, filter crystals and dry in-between filter paper.

(b) Preparation of Na2SO3

Two 25cm3 portion of 0.1M NaOH are pipetted and emptied into two separate beakers. One of them
is just saturated with SO2 to produce NaHSO3 i.e.
NaOH + SO2 → NaHSO3
The other quantity of NaOH is added to the NaHSO 3 solution to give Na2SO3
i.e. NaHSO3 + NaOH → Na2SO3 + H2O
The Na2SO3 solution is concentrated, allowed to cool to crystallize, filtered and crystals dried in-
between filter papers.

3. By the reaction of acids on metals.

Acid react with metals in two ways:
(a) Metals above H2O in the electrochemical series displace H2 from dilute solution HCI and SO2
18
e.g. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

(b) Oxidation of metals by oxidizing acids:

Copper reacts with trioxonitrate (V) acid in two ways:
(i) As concentrated HNO3: i.e. Cu(s) + 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + NO2
(ii) As Conc. HNO diluted with its own volume of water.
i.e. 3Cu + 8HNO → 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO
it must be noted that whichever method is employed, excess metal must be added to the acid so that
there will not be any residue acid left. After the reaction has stopped, the excess metal is filtered off.
The filtered, which contains the salt solution is concentrated and cooled to crystallize. The crystals
are filtered off, washed and dried in-between filter papers.

4. By the action of acids on insoluble bases.

In this method, an excess of the insoluble base is treated with the required acid. After the reaction
must have stopped, the excess base is filtered off. The salt solution is then concentrated and allowed
to cool in order to crystallize. The crystals are filtered off, washed and dried in-between filter papers.
e.g.
PbO + 2HNO3 → Pb(NO3)2 + H2O
CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H 2O

5. By the reaction of trioxocarbonate (IV) with dilute acids. e.g.

CuCO3 + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O + CO2

6. By direct combination of elements. e.g.

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(s);
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

METHOD OF PREPARING INSOLUBLE SALTS:

1. By double decomposition. e.g.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
CaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

2. By direct combination. e.g.

Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)

NATURE OF SUBSTANCES (SALTS)

EFFLORESCENCE, HYGROSCOPY AND DELIQUESCENCE
If a hydrated salt is expose to the atmosphere at room temperature and it losses some of its water of
crystallization, the salt is said to be efflorescent. The action is called efflorescence e.g.
Na2CO3.10H2O → Na2CO3.H2O + 9H2O

Definition:
Efflorescence is the loss of water of crystallization to the atmosphere by a salt, at room temperature.

19
Some other salts (or substances) when exposed to the atmosphere absorb moisture from the
atmosphere e.g. H2SO4, CaO, Na2SO4, CuO, CuSO4, etc. such substances are said to be
hygroscopic.

Definition:
A hygroscopic substance is one which absorbs moisture from the atmosphere without changing its
state. Hygroscopy is the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere without changing state.

However, if a substance(solid) absorbs moisture from the atmosphere to turn from solid into a
solution, then, the substance is said to be deliquescent e.g. CaCl2, NaOH, KOH and P2O5.
Definition:
A deliquescent substance is a solid which absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and subsequently
forms a solution. Deliquescence is the absorption of moisture, by a solid, from the atmosphere with
the ultimate formation of a solution.

Note: (a) Hygroscopic solids are used, in the laboratory for drying liquids that are contaminated by
water. The wet liquid is kept in flask, some quantity of the hygroscopic solid is added, corked, shaken
and allowed to stand for some time. A dry liquid filtered off,
(b) Both hygroscopic and deliquescent substances are used as desiccants (i.e. drying things kept
inside an air-tight desiccator. The atmosphere inside the desiccator will be devoid of moisture.

20