Module 1 : Sets
GED0103 Mathematics in the Modern
World
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
• understand the notion of sets and relations
between them;
• apply operations on sets; and
• analyze and evaluate real - world
problems involving sets.
Lesson Outline
We shall discuss the following:
• Set and Elements
• Relations on Sets
• Operations on Sets
• Cardinality Formulas
Sets
Sets
We have the following definition for a set.
A set is a well - defined collections of
objects, that is, a collection having a
property that we can tell whether any given
object is in the set or not. We
call the objects in the set as its elements.
Notation: Let X be a set.
• If 𝑥 is an element of set 𝑋, then we write 𝑥
∈ 𝑋.
• If 𝑥 is NOT an element of set 𝑋, we write 𝑥
∉ 𝑋.
Methods of Describing Sets
We have the following methods to describe
the sets (and its elements).
• Roster method - lists the names of all
elements of the set
• Rule method - describing a set using
properties satisfied by its elements.
Examples
Roster Method
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
V = {a, e, i, o, u}
E = {2, 4, 6, 8, . . . }
Rule Method
A = {x : x is a counting number less than 5}
V = {x : x is a vowel in the English
alphabet}
E = {x : x is a positive even number}
• In the example, we have
• 2 ∈ A but 0 ∉ A,
• i ∈ V but c ∉ V,
• 2 ∈ E but 9 ∉ E
Some Special Sets
We now give definitions to some special
sets, for our next discussions.
• A universal set, denoted by 𝑈, is the set
of all objects under discussion in a particular
setting.
• The empty set, denoted by ∅ or { }, is the
set with no element.
• A set with only one element is called a
singleton.
Note: From now on, unless stated
otherwise, we assume that all sets are
subsets of a universal set 𝑈.
Relations on Sets
Relations on Sets
We now discuss the following relations
between sets.
Let A and B be sets. We say that A is a
subset of B (or B is a superset of A),
denoted by A ⊆ B, whenever every element
of A is also an element of B. Otherwise, we whenever A and B have exactly the same
write A ⊈ B. number of elements. Otherwise, we write
A ≉ B.
Furthermore, if A ⊆ B, but B has an The number of elements in the set A is
element not in A, then we say that A is a called its cardinality, denoted by η(A)
proper (or |A|).
subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. Otherwise,
we write 𝐴 ⊄ 𝐵. Example: Let W = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then V =
{a, e, i, o, u} ≈ W, since
Example: Consider the set V = {a, e, i, o, u} • η(V) = η(W) = 5.
Then we have
• {a, o} ⊆ V Finite and Infinite Sets
• {a, o} ⊂ V We say that a set is finite if we can give a
• {b, i} ⊈ V complete list of all its elements.
Otherwise, the set is said to be infinite.
{u, a , e, i, o} ⊆ V
{u, a , e, i, o} ⊄ V Example:
• V = {a, e, i, o, u} is a finite set,
Some Properties • E = {x : x is an even number } is infinite.
Let A, B and C be sets. Then we have the
following. Operations on Sets
• A ⊆ A. (reflexivity)
• ∅ ⊆ A and A ⊆ U.
• If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.
(transitivity)

Relations on Sets
We now look at the following set relation.
We say that the sets A and B are equal,
denoted by A = B, if A has exactly the
same elements with B.
Moreover, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.
Example: Let L = {x : x is a vowel in
"abstemious"}. Then we have the
following.
• L = {a, e, i, o, u} = V
• L ≠ E = {x : x is an even number }
Relations on Sets
Now, we discuss equivalence of sets.
Let A and B be sets. We say that A is
equivalent to B, written as A ≈ B,
Venn Diagram
The rectangle represents the universal set.
The sets are represented by circles and
their elements may be represented by dots.
Operations on Sets
In the following discussions, we assume
that all sets are subsets of a
universal set U.
Let A and B be sets. We define the
intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩
B, to be the set of elements common to A
and B, that is,
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
On the other hand, the union of A and B, Some Properties
denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of Let A and B be sets such that A ⊆ B. Then
elements either in A or B, that is, we have the following.
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}. A∪B=B
A∩B=A
Venn Diagram
Intersection

Union Operations on Sets

Let A and B be sets. We define the
complement of A, denoted by A𝑐 or A’, to
be the set of elements in U which are not in
A, that is,
𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ∶ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.

Venn Diagram
Similarly, the set difference, denoted by
Intersection
B\A or B – A , contains the elements in B
which are not in A, that is,
𝐵\𝐴 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.

Finally, we define the symmetric

difference of A and B, denoted by A△B, to
Union be the set whose elements are in A or B,
but not both, that is,
𝐴 △ 𝐵 = (𝐴\𝐵) ∪ (𝐵\𝐴).
𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 \ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

Venn Diagram
Example Complement
Consider the sets A = {1, 3, 7, 9}, B = {1, 7,
10}, C = {3, 4, 5}. Then we have
the following

A ∩ B = {1, 7}
B∩C={}
A ∪ B = {1, 3, 7, 9, 10}
B ∪ C = {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10}

Remark: If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said

to be disjoint.
Venn Diagram Venn Diagram
Complement Symmetric Difference
A△B

Venn Diagram Venn Diagram

Set Difference Symmetric Difference
A\B A△B

B\A Examples
• Example: Consider the sets
X = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and Y = {1, 5, 9, 13}.
• Then we have the following
• X \ Y = {3, 7},
• Y \ X = {13}, and
• X△Y = {3, 7, 13}.
Venn Diagram
Set Difference Operations on Sets
A\B Given sets A and B, we define the
Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by
A×B, to be the set of ordered pairs from the
elements of A and B, that is,
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.

Example: Consider the sets V = {1, 2, 3}

B\A and W = {a, b}. Then
V ×W = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3,
b)}.
Some Properties
Let A,B and C be sets. Then we have the
following properties of the union and
Intersection.
A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A. idempotence
A ∪ ∅ = A and A ∩ ∅ = ∅.
A ∪ U = U and A ∩ U = A.
A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
commutativity
A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C. associativity
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C. associativity
A ⊆ A ∪ B and A ∩ B ⊆ A.
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
distributivity
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩
C).distributivity
Some Properties
Let A,B and C be sets. Then we have the
following properties.
A′′ = A. double complementation
A ∪ A′ = U and A ∩ A′ = ∅.
U′ = ∅ and ∅′ = U.
A \ B = A ∩ B′.
A \ ∅ = A and ∅ \ A = ∅.
A′ \ B′ = B \ A.
(A \ B) \ C = (A \ C) \ (B \ C).
(A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′ and (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′.
De Morgan’s Laws
Cardinality Formulas
Cardinality Formulas
Let A and B be subsets of some finite
universal set U. Then we have the
following formulations.
• η(A ∪ B) = η(A) + η(B) − η(A ∩ B)
• η(AC) = η(U) − η(A)
• η(A \ B) = η(A) − η(A ∩ B)
• η(A × B) = η(A) · η(B)
Example 1
In a community of 200 residents, 135
persons have been exposed to
chemical X, 85 to chemical Y, and 40 to
both chemicals X and Y. Find the
number of persons exposed to
• chemical X but not chemical Y,
• chemical Y but not chemical X,
• chemical X or chemical Y, and
• neither of the chemicals.
Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135
persons have been exposed to chemical X,
85 to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals
X and Y. Find the number of persons
exposed to
Let 𝑈 be the set of all residents in the
community
Let 𝑋 be the set of residents exposed to
chemical X
Let 𝑌 be the set of residents exposed to
chemical Y
Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135
persons have been exposed to chemical X,
85 to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals
X and Y. Find the number of persons
exposed to
Let 𝑈 be the set of all residents in the
community
Let 𝑋 be the set of residents exposed to
chemical X
Let 𝑌 be the set of residents exposed to
chemical Y
Then
𝜂 𝑈 = 200, 𝜂 𝑋 = 135 ,
𝜂 𝑌 = 85, 𝜂 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 = 40

Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135
persons have been exposed to chemical X,
85 to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals
X and Y. Find the number of persons
exposed to
• chemical X but not chemical Y, 𝜂(𝑋\Y)
• chemical Y but not chemical X, 𝜂(𝑌\X)
• chemical X or chemical Y, and, 𝜂(𝑋 ∪ 𝑌)
• neither of the chemicals, 𝜂 ((𝑋∪𝑌)𝑐)
Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135
persons have been exposed to chemical X,
85 to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals
X and Y. Find the number of persons
exposed to
• neither of the chemicals,
𝜂 ((𝑋∪𝑌)𝑐)= 𝜂 (𝑈) − 𝜂 (𝑋 ∪ 𝑌) = 200−180
=20
Example 2
In a survey of 200 students, 100 watched
Meteor Garden (M), 80 watched Itaewon
Class (I), 60 watched Crash Landing on You
(L), 40 watched both M and I, 35 watched
both M and L, 20 watched I and L and 15
watched all the series. How many student
watched
• Meteor Garden only,
• M or I,
• M but not L,
• exactly one of the series (E),
• none of the series (N).

• chemical X but not chemical Y,

𝜂 (𝑋\Y) =𝜂(𝑋) − 𝜂(𝑋 ∩ 𝑌)
• chemical Y but not chemical X,
𝜂(𝑌\X) = 𝜂 (𝑌) − 𝜂(𝑋 ∩ 𝑌)
• chemical X or chemical Y, and,
𝜂 (𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 )= 𝜂 (𝑋) + 𝜂 (𝑌) − 𝜂(𝑋 ∩ 𝑌)
• neither of the chemicals,
𝜂 ((𝑋∪𝑌)𝑐)= 𝜂 (𝑈) − 𝜂(𝑋 ∪ 𝑌)

Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135
persons have been exposed to chemical X,
85 to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals
X and Y. Find the number of persons
exposed to

• chemical X but not chemical Y,

𝜂 (𝑋 \Y) = 𝜂 (𝑋) − 𝜂 (𝑋 ∩ 𝑌) = 135 − 40 = 95
• chemical Y but not chemical X,
𝜂 (𝑌 \ X) = 𝜂 (𝑌)− 𝜂 (𝑋 ∩ 𝑌) = 85 − 40 = 45
• chemical X or chemical Y, and,
𝜂 (𝑋 ∪ 𝑌) = 𝜂 (𝑋) + 𝜂 (𝑌) − 𝜂 (𝑋 ∩ 𝑌) = 135 +
85 − 40 = 180