+INTRO

"CRISPR" (pronounced "crisper") is shorthand for "CRISPR-Cas9." CRISPRs are specialized stretches of DNA. The protein
Cas9 (or "CRISPR-associated") is an enzyme that acts like a pair of molecular scissors, capable of cutting strands of DNA.

The CRISPR technology allows scientists to make changes to the DNA in cells that could allow us to cure genetic disease. It is
interesting to know that the CRISPR technology came about through a basic research project that was aimed at discovering how
bacteria fight viral infections. Bacteria have to deal with viruses in their environment, and we can think about a viral infection
like a ticking time bomb --a bacterium has only a few minutes to defuse the bomb before it gets destroyed. So, many bacteria
have in their cells an adaptive immune system called CRISPR, that allows them to detect viral DNA and destroy it .Part of the
CRISPR system is a protein called Cas9,that's able to seek out, cut and eventually degrade viral DNA in a specific way. And it was
through our research to understand the activity of this protein, Cas9, that we realized that we could harness its function as a
genetic engineering technology --a way for scientists to delete or insert specific bits of DNA into cells with incredible precision --
that would offer opportunities to do things that really haven't been possible in the past. The CRISPR technology has already
been used to change the DNA in the cells of mice and monkeys, other organisms as well.

The opportunity to do this kind of genome editing also raises various ethical issues that we have to consider, because this
technology can be employed not only in adult cells, but also in the embryos of organisms, including our own species.

MAIN BODY
CRISPR technology is a simple yet powerful tool for editing genomes. It allows researchers to easily alter DNA sequences and
modify gene function. Its many potential applications include correcting genetic defects, treating and preventing the spread of
diseases and improving crops. However, its promise also raises ethical concerns.

CRISPR technology was adapted from the natural defense mechanisms of bacteria and archaea .These organisms use CRISPR-
derived RNA and various Cas proteins, including Cas9, to foil attacks by viruses and other foreign bodies. They do so primarily
by chopping up and destroying the DNA of a foreign invader. When these components are transferred into other, more complex,
organisms, it allows for the manipulation of genes, or "editing."

Who Discovered CRISPR: The Pioneers Behind This Technology

1. Jennifer Doudna: The mother of CRISPR

Jennifer Doudna is the biggest household name in the world of CRISPR, and for good reason, she is credited as the one who co-
invented CRISPR. 

2. Emmanuelle Charpentier: CRISPR co-inventor

Emmanuelle Charpentier is the co-inventor of CRISPR. Together with Dr. Doudna, Dr. Charpentier was involved in the biochemical
characterization of guide RNA and Cas9 enzyme-mediated DNA cleavage.

. They were awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their role in the development of CRISPR technology.

CRISPR-Cas9: The key players

CRISPRs: "CRISPR" stands for "clusters of regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats." It is a specialized
region of DNA with two distinct characteristics: the presence of nucleotide repeats and spacers. Repeated sequences
of nucleotides — the building blocks of DNA — are distributed throughout a CRISPR region.
In a 2007 paper published in the journal Science, the researchers used Streptococcus thermophilus bacteria, which
are commonly found in yogurt and other dairy cultures, as their model. They observed that after a virus attack, new
spacers were incorporated into the CRISPR region. Moreover, the DNA sequence of these spacers was identical to
parts of the virus genome. They also manipulated the spacers by taking them out or putting in new viral DNA
sequences. In this way, they were able to alter the bacteria's resistance to an attack In the case of bacteria, the
spacers are taken from viruses that previously attacked the organism. They serve as a bank of memories, which
enables bacteria to recognize the viruses and fight off future attacks.

CRISPR Cas9: The Cas9 protein is an enzyme that cuts foreign DNA. 

The protein typically binds to two RNA molecules: crRNA and another called tracrRNA (or "trans-activating
crRNA"). The two then guide Cas9 to the target site where it will make its cut. This expanse of DNA is
complementary to a 20-nucleotide stretch of the crRNA. 

MECHANISM
CRISPR-Cas9 as a genome-editing tool
When viruses infect a cell, they inject their DNA.And in a bacterium,the CRISPR system allows that DNA to be plucked out of the
virus, and inserted in little bits into the chromosome -the DNA of the bacterium.And these integrated bits of viral DNA get
inserted at a site called CRISPR.

It's a mechanism that allows cells to record, over time,the viruses they have been exposed to. And importantly, those bits of
DNA are passed on to the cells' progeny,so cells are protected from viruses not only in one generation, but over many
generations of cells.This allows the cells to keep a record of infection,the CRISPR locus is effectively a genetic vaccination card in
cells.

Once those bits of DNA have been inserted into the bacterial chromosome,the cell then makes a little copy of a molecule called
RNA,that is an exact replicate of the viral DNA.RNA is a chemical cousin of DNA, and it allows interaction with DNA molecules
that have a matching sequence.So those little bits of RNA from the CRISPR locusassociate -- they bind --to protein called Cas9
and form a complex that functions like a sentinel in the cell.It searches through all of the DNA in the cell,to find sites that match
the sequences in the bound RNAs. And when those sites are found -this complex associates with that DNA and allows the Cas9
cleaver to cut up the viral DNA.It makes a very precise break. So we can think of the Cas9 RNA sentinel complex like a pair of
scissors that can cut DNA --it makes a double-stranded break in the DNA helix. And importantly,this complex is
programmable,so it can be programmed to recognize particular DNA sequences,and make a break in the DNA at that site.So
once a double-stranded break is made in DNA,we can induce repair,and thereby potentially achieve astounding things,like
being able to correct mutations that cause sickle cell anemia or cause Huntington's Disease.

Limitations
However, CRISPR-Cas9 is not without its drawbacks.

"I think the biggest limitation of CRISPR is it is not a hundred percent efficient,". Moreover, the genome-editing efficiencies can
vary. According to the 2014 Science article by Doudna and Charpentier, in a study conducted in rice, gene editing occurred in
nearly 50 percent of the cells that received the Cas9-RNA complex. Whereas, other analyses have shown that depending on the
target, editing efficiencies can reach as high as 80 percent or more. 

There is also the phenomenon of "off-target effects," where DNA is cut at sites other than the intended target. This can lead to the
introduction of unintended mutations. Furthermore, Church noted that even when the system cuts on target, there is a chance of
not getting a precise edit. He called this "genome vandalism."
 . 

Recent research and possible future applications

 In April 2017, a team of researchers released research in the journal Science that they had programmed a CRISPR
molecule to find strains of viruses, such as Zika, in blood serum, urine and saliva.
 On Aug. 2, 2017, scientists revealed in the journal Nature that they had removed a heart disease defect in an embryo
successfully using CRISPR. 
 On Jan. 2, 2018, researchers announced that they may be able to stop fungi and other problems that threaten
chocolate production using CRISPR to make the plants more resistant to disease .
 On April 16, 2018, researchers upgraded CRISPR to edit thousands of genes at once.

 In 2015, scientists use CRISPR to cut the HIV virus out of living cells from patients in the lab, proving that it was
possible.
Only about a year later, they carried out a larger scale project with rats that had the HIV virus in basically all of
their body cells.By simply injecting CRISPR into the rats tails,they were able to remove more than 50 % of the virus
from cells all over the body.

 In 2015 and 2016, Chinese scientists experimented with human embryos and were partially successful on their
second attempt.
 The first clinical trial for a CRISPR cancer treatment on human patients was approved in early 2016 in the US.
Not even a month later, Chinese scientists announced that they would treat lung cancer patients with immune
cells modified with CRISPR in August 2016.

In a few decades, a CRISPR therapy might cure HIV and other retroviruses, viruses that hide inside human DNA like
Herpes could be eradicated this way.

CRISPR could also defeat one of our worst enemies—cancer.

And then there are genetic diseases that could be cured by the technology.

CONCLUSION:
In all ,the technology crispr offers many new possibilities for humans and the future of medicine. So many questions
still remain unclear and the long term impact has yet to be determined, and with that comes numerous ethical issues.
With most new technology it comes with an ethical dilemma, and especially since this one will be able to change the
human genome for both disease and cosmetic purposes. The most serious debate and ethical concerns come from
the ability of crispr to edit germ line cells, not only will those cells be passed down to future generations but also
along with any genetic change that occurred. Germ line cells and eventually embryos will be able to be edited anyway
an individual likes opening up the door for “designer babies”. Opening the door for cosmetic editing would give
people and usually the ones who could afford to make their child “better” in several ways than a baby born without
any genetic modification(s). The ethical concerns that arise come from crispr is the question should this technology be
opened to the public for cosmetic purposes or leave it just for medical reasons.

Two-thirds of the 150,000 people who died today will die of age-related causes.Currently we think aging is caused
by the accumulation of damage to our cells,like DNA breaks and the systems responsible for fixing those wearing
off over time.But there are also genes that directly affect aging.A combination of genetic engineering and other
therapy could stop or slow down aging, maybe even reverse it.Some scientists even think biological aging could be
something that eventually just stops being a thing. We would still die at some point, but instead of doing so in
hospitals at age 90,we might be able to spend a few thousand years with our loved ones.

The technology is certainly a bit scary, but we have a lot to gain,and genetic engineering might just be a step in the
natural evolution of intelligent species in the universe.We might end disease.

There's no need to think small when it comes to this topic.Whatever our opinion on genetic engineering, the future
is approaching no matter what.What has been insane science fiction is about to become our new reality a reality
full of opportunities and challenges.

ANALYSIS
In the final analysis, CRISPR opens up an entire new world of possibilities for the human life. This
technology could dramatically improve human life for everyone across all fields drastically in areas such as
cancer immunotherapy, biofuel, pollution techniques, disease modification, and medicine production. The
ethical debates will be a very severe debate in the upcoming decade as the crispr technology advances.
The foremost concerns will arise from the what, why, and when is crispr allowed to be used. The core
debate will be about the entity who will oversee this, because eventually it is an individual’s own genome
and genetic succession line. I for one am excited for the future development and advancement of crispr to
see how far we can go with this technology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 YouTube : Ted Talks- How CRISPR lets us edit our DNA | Jennifer Doudna
 YouTube- Genetic Engineering Will Change Everything Forever – CRISPR
 Web Search - What is CRISPR | Live Science
 Web Search -UKEssays. November 2018. Advantages and Disadvantages of Crispr Technology.