1 IntroductiontoProtectionv1

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Introduction to Power System Protections
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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31364.27523
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POWER SYSTEM PROTECTIONS
Professor Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt FHEA, SMIEE
Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 1/121
Introduction
• The word “protection” is used here to describe the whole concept of
protecting a power system.
• The term 'protective gear' (or 'protective equipment') is widely used in

that sense: but here that term will be used in the narrower sense of
the actual components used in achieving the desired protection.
• The function of protective equipment is not the preventive one its

name would imply, in that it takes action only after a fault has
occurred: it is the ambulance at the foot of the cliff rather than the
fence at the top. (Only few exceptions, Buchholz relay1).
1 The Buchholz relay is used as a protective device sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure inside the equipment.
Definitions
• The definitions that follow are generally used in relation to power
system protection:
• Protection System: a complete arrangement of protection
equipment and other devices required to achieve a specified
function based on a protection principle (IEC 60255-20).
• Protection Equipment: a collection of protection devices (relays,

fuses, etc.). Excluded are devices such as Current Transformers
(CTs), Circuit Breakers (CBs) and contactors.
• Protection Scheme: a collection of protection equipment

providing a defined function and including all equipment required
to make the scheme work (i.e. relays, CTs, CBs, batteries, etc.).
IEC 60255-20 Electrical Relays Part 20: Protection (Protective) Systems
Protection Systems: Objective
• The objectives of electrical system protection and coordination are to
• Limit the extent and duration of service interruption whenever
equipment failure, human error, or adverse natural events occur on any
portion of the system
• Minimize damage to the system components involved in the failure
• The circumstances causing system malfunction are usually unpredictable
• However, sound design and preventive maintenance can reduce the

likelihood of system problems.
• The electrical system, therefore, should be designed and maintained to

protect itself automatically.
[1] IEEE, IEEE std 242-2001. IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. .
Safety
• Prevention of human injury is the most important objective when
designing electrical systems.
• Interrupting devices should have adequate interrupting capability.
• Energized parts should be sufficiently enclosed or isolated to avoid

exposing personnel to explosion, fire, arcing, or shock.
• Safety should always take priority over service continuity,

equipment damage, or economics.
[1] IEEE, IEEE std 242-2001. IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. .
Equipment damage versus service continuity
• Minimizing the risk of equipment damage or preserving service
continuity is the more important objective depends upon the
operating philosophy of the particular industrial.
• However, some operations can afford limited service

interruptions to minimize the possibility of equipment repair or
replacement costs,
• However, other operations would regard such an expense as small

compared with even a brief interruption of service. (e.g. Hospitals).

Economic and reliability considerations
• The cost of system protection determines the degree of protection
that can be feasibly designed into a system.
• Many features may be added that improve system performance, reli

ability, and flexibility, but incur an increased initial cost.
• However, failure to design into a system at least the minimum safety

and reliability requirements inevitably results in unsatisfactory
performance, with a higher probability of expensive downtime.
• Modifying a system that proves inadequate is more expensive and, in

most cases, less satisfactory than initially designing these features
into a system.
Relaying: Definition
• Relaying is the branch of electric power engineering concerned with
the principles of design and operation of equipment (called “relays”
or “protective relays”) that detects abnormal power system conditions
and initiates corrective action as quickly as possible in order to
return the power system to its normal state.

Power system configurations
• Radial
• Mesh
Power system configurations
• The manner in which the power apparatus is connected together,
system topology, in substations and switching stations, and the
general layout of the power network, has a profound influence on
protective relaying.
1 Circuit 2
breakers TRX
TRX1 1 2 3 4 5
From
Load transmission
network
SW1 SW2 SW3 SW4
Main F1 Load2 Load3 Load4
TRX2 Transformer
Power
G2 transformer
Load LEYEND Load1
SW: Switch
F: Fuse
3
4 (1) Radial power system
Load
(2) Network or Meshed power system

1. Radial System
• A radial system is a single-source arrangement with multiple loads,
and is generally associated with a distribution system (defined as a
system operating at voltages below 100 kV, depend on the country)
or an industrial complex.
• Such a system is most economical to build; but from the reliability
point of view, the loss of the single source will result in the loss of
service to all of the users
TRX
1 2 3 4 5
From
transmission
network
SW1 SW2 SW3 SW4
Main F1 Load2 Load3 Load4
Transformer
Power
transformer
LEYEND Load1
SW: Switch
F: Fuse
2. Network or Mesh System
• The network has multiple sources
and multiple loops between the
sources and the loads.
• Subtransmission and transmission TRX1
1 Circuit
breakers
2
systems (generally defined as Load

systems operating at voltages of
100–200 kV and above) are network TRX2
systems. Load
G2
• Interconnections provide more 3

flexibility in maintaining service to 4
customers, and the impact of the Load

loss of a single generator or
(2) Network or Meshed power system
transmission line on service
reliability is minimal
Example: Effect of Topology in Fault currents
• The load at bus 2 has secure service for the loss of a single power
system element.
Typical Transmission System
V1  1.00  pu V3  1.00  pu
1 3 Network
j0.1 system
2
j0.1 j0.1 Radial system
4 5 6 7 8 9
j0.4 j1.0 j1.0 j1.0

j0.3 j0.6
Typical distribution system

• The fault current for a fault at bus 2 is Icc2 = −j20.0 p.u. when all
lines are in service. V  1.00  pu V  1.00  pu 1 3
1 j0.1 3
Vf 10
I cc 2    20 j + 2 +
Z EQ 0.1 j  0.1 j j0.1 j0.1
• If lines 2–3 go out of service, the fault current changes to Icc2 =−j10.0
p.u. V3  1.00  pu
V1  1.00  pu
1 j0.1 3
Vf 10
I cc 2    10 j + 2 +
Z EQ 0.1 j j0.1 j0.1

• All the loads on the feeder will lose their source of power if
transformers 2–4 are lost.
1 3
j0.1
2
j0.1 j0.1
4 5 6 7 8 9
j0.4 j1.0 j1.0 j1.0

j0.3 j0.6
• The fault current at bus 9 on the distribution feeder with system
normal is Icc9 = −j0.22988 pu,
V1  1.00  pu V3  1.00  pu
1 j0.1 3
+ 2 +
j0.1 j0.1
4 5 6 7 8 9
j0.3 j0.4 j0.6 j1.0 j1.0 j1.0
Vf 10
I cc 9    0.22988 j
Z EQ 0.1 j  0.1 j  4.3 j
• If one of the two generators on the transmission system is lost is Icc
Icc9= −j0.22900 pu.
V1  1.00  pu
1 j0.1 3
+ 2
j0.1 j0.1
4 5 6 7 8 9
j0.3 j0.4 j0.6 j1.0 j1.0 j1.0
Vf 10
I cc 9    0.22900 j
Z EQ 0.1 j  0.2 j  4.3 j
Symbols: ANSI/IEC

Symbols: ANSI/IEC
ANSI IEC
Overhead Transmission Line
Undergroudn Cable
Fault X
Current Transformer
Voltage transformer
Phase sedignations ABC RST

(typical) 123
Components, dsignations
(positive, negative, zero) 120 120
Current I I
IEC 60617 Voltage V U

IEC
Symbols: ANSI/IEC ANSI
Normally open contact
Normally closed contacts
Form “C”
Breaker X
Disconnect Switch
Motor disconnect switch
Circuit Switcher C
S
Trasnformer two windings
Transformer 3 windings
Autotransformer
BUS ARRANGEMENT IN SUBSTATIONS
Substation layout (electrical)
Bus Arrangement in Substations
• Substations are designed for reliability of service and flexibility in
operation and to allow for equipment maintenance with a minimum
interruption of service.
• The most common bus arrangements in a substation are

(a) single bus, single breaker,
(b) two buses, single breaker,
(c) two buses, two breakers,
(d) ring bus, and
(e) breaker-and-a-half.

Single bus configuration
• A single bus configuration consists of one main bus that is energized
at all times and to which all circuits are connected.
• This arrangement is the simplest, but provides the least amount of
system reliability.
• Bus faults or failure of circuit breakers to operate under fault
conditions results in complete loss of the substation.
Typical one-line diagram

Single Bus
Plan View – Typical Bay
Elevation – Typical Bay

[1] United States Department of Agriculture, “Design guide for rural substations,” Dep. Agric., vol. 4, no. June, p. 567, 2001.
Single bus configuration
Advantages Disadvantages
• Lowest cost • High-profile arrangement equipped with
• Small land area required circuit breaker bypass facilities does not
provide for circuit protection when
• Easily expandable bypass facilities are being used inside the
• Simple in concept and operation substation.
• Relatively simple for the application of • A single bus arrangement has the lowest
protective relaying reliability.
• Failure of a circuit breaker or a bus fault
causes loss of the entire substation.
• Maintenance switching can complicate
and disable some of the protective relay
scheme and overall relay coordination.
• Maintenance at the upper elevations of
high-profile arrangements necessitates
de-energization or protection of the lower
equipment.
Single bus, single breaker
• It allows the breakers to be
maintained without de-energizing the
associated line.
• For system flexibility, and
particularly to prevent a bus fault
from splitting the system too
drastically, some of the lines are
connected to bus 1 and some to bus 2
(the transfer bus).
• When maintaining a breaker, all of
the lines that are normally connected
to bus 2 are transferred to bus 1, the
breaker to be maintained is bypassed
by transferring its line to bus 2 and
the bus tie breaker becomes the line
breaker.
• Only one breaker can be maintained
at a time.

Two buses, two breakers,
• It allows any bus or breaker to be
removed from service, and the lines can
be kept in service through the companion
bus or breaker.
• A line fault requires two breakers to trip
to clear a fault.
• A bus fault must trip all of the breakers
on the faulted bus, but does not affect
the other bus or any of the lines.
• This station arrangement provides the
greatest flexibility for system
maintenance and operation; however,
this is at a considerable expense: the
total number of breakers in a station
equals twice the number of the lines
Ring Bus
• A ring bus configuration is an extension of the sectionalized bus
arrangement and is accomplished by interconnecting the two open
ends of the buses through another sectionalizing breaker.
• This results in a closed loop or ring with each bus section separated
by a circuit breaker.
• For maximum reliability and operational flexibility, each section
should supply only one circuit.

Ring Bus

Ring Bus
• Flexible operation • Ring may be split by faults on two
• High reliability circuits or a fault during breaker
maintenance to leave possibly
• Isolation of bus sections and circuit undesirable circuit combinations
breakers for maintenance without (supply/load) on the remaining bus
disrupting circuit operation sections. Some consider this,
• Double feed to each circuit however, to be a second contingency
• No main buses factor.
• Expandable to breaker-and-a-half • Each circuit has to have its own
configuration potential source for relaying.
• Economic design • This configuration is usually limited
to four circuit positions, although
larger rings are in service, including
10-position ring buses. A 6-position
ring bus is usually considered as a
maximum limit for the number of
terminals in a ring bus.
Breaker-and-a-Half
• The breaker-and-a-half
configuration consists of two
main buses, each normally
energized.
• Electrically connected between
the buses are three circuit
breakers and, between each
two breakers,
• Three circuit breakers are used
for two independent circuits;
hence, each circuit shares the
common centre circuit breaker,
so there are one-and-a-half
circuit breakers per circuit.
Breaker-and-a-Half

Breaker-and-a-Half
Advantages Disagventages
• Flexible operation • One-and-a-half breakers are
• High reliability required per circuit.
• It can isolate either main bus • Relaying is involved, since the
for maintenance without center breaker has to respond
disrupting service to faults of either of its
associated circuits.
• It can isolate any circuit
breaker for maintenance • Each circuit should have its
without disrupting service own potential source for
relaying.
• Double feed to each circuit
• Bus fault does not interrupt
service to any circuits
• All switching done with
circuit breakers
Double Breaker–Double Bus
• The double breaker–double bus configuration consists of two main
buses, each normally energized.
• Electrically connected between the buses are two circuit breakers
and, between the breakers, one circuit.


• Flexible operation • This configuration carries a high
• Very high reliability cost.
• Isolation of either main bus for • Two circuit breakers are required
maintenance without disrupting for each circuit
service
• Isolation of any circuit breaker for
maintenance without disrupting
service
• Double feed to each circuit
• No interruption of service to any
circuits from bus fault
• Loss of only one circuit for breaker
failure
• All switching with circuit breakers

NATURE OF PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Nature of Protection Systems
• The function of protective relaying is to promptly remove from
service any element of the power system that starts to operate in an
abnormal manner.
• Relays do not prevent damage to equipment! they operate after
some detectable damage has already occurred.
• Their purpose is
• (1) to limit, to the extent possible, further damage to equipment, to
minimize danger to people, to reduce stress on other equipments and,
above all,
• (2) to remove the faulted equipment from the power system as
quickly as possible so that the integrity and stability of the remaining
system are maintained.
FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
PROTECTIVE RELAYING
Sensitivity, Selectivity, And Speed
• Sensitivity: Any relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so
that it will operate reliably, when required, under the actual
condition that produces the least operating tendency.
• Selectivity: Any relaying equipment must be able to select between

those conditions for which prompt operation is required and those for
which no operation, or time-delay operation, is required.
• Speed: Any protective relaying equipment must operate at the

required speed.

Note about Sensitivity
• Sensitivity is a term frequently used when referring to the minimum
operating level (current, voltage, power etc.) of relays or complete
protection schemes.
• Relays or protection schemes are said to be sensitive if their primary

operating parameters are low.
• With older electromechanical relays (old technology), sensitivity was

considered in terms of the measuring movement and was measured in
terms of its volt-ampere consumption to cause operation.
• With modern digital and numerical relays the achievable sensitivity is

seldom limited by the device design but by its application and associated
current and voltage transformer parameters.
[1] ALSTOM, Network Protection & Automation Guide. Protective relays, measurement and control. 2011.
Note about speed
• Note about speed. Applied to a relay, high speed indicates that the
operating time usually does not exceed 50 ms (three cycles on a 60-
Hz base).
• The term instantaneous indicates that no delay is purposely

introduced in the operation.
• In practice, the terms high speed and instantaneous are frequently

used interchangeably.
[1] Walter A. Elmore, Protective Relaying Theory and Applications, Second Edi. New York. USA: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1397.
Note about speed (2)
• The function of protection systems is to isolate faults on the power
system as rapidly as possible.
• One of the main objectives is to safeguard continuity of supply by

removing each disturbance before it leads to widespread loss of
synchronism and consequent collapse of the power system.
Note about speed (2)
• The shorter the time a fault is allowed to remain in the system, the
greater can be the loading of the system.
Curves illustrating the relation between relay-plus-breaker time and the maximum amount of power that can be
transmitted over one particular system without loss of synchronism when various faults occur [1], [2].
[2] C. Russell Mason, The Art & Science of Protective Relaying. GE Grid Solutions, 1956.
• The ultimate goal of protective relaying is to disconnect a faulty
system element as quickly as possible.
• Sensitivity and selectivity are essential to assure that the proper

circuit breakers will be tripped, but speed is the “Pay-Off”.
[1] C. Russell Mason, The Art & Science of Protective Relaying. GE Grid Solutions, 1395.
Selectivity: Note about discrimination and selective tripping
• When a fault occurs, the protection scheme is required to trip only
those circuit breakers whose operation is required to isolate the
fault.
• This property of selective tripping is also called “discrimination”

and is achieved by two general methods:
• Time Grading
• Unit System
• This will be discussed in next Sections of this Module.

FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
PROTECTIVE RELAYING
Reliability, Dependability, and Security
Reliability, Dependability, and Security
• Reliability: It is generally understood to measure the degree of
certainty that a piece of equipment will perform as intended.
• Relay have two alternative ways in which they can be unreliable:

• They may fail to operate when they are expected to.
• They may operate when they are not expected to.
• This leads to a two-pronged definition of reliability of relaying

systems: a reliable relaying system must be dependable and
secure [1].
[1] IEEE, “The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE Standards Terms,” IEEE Std 100-2000, pp. 1–1362, 2000.
[2] S. H. Horowitz and A. G. Phadke, Power System Relaying, Fourth Edi. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2014.

Reliability = Dependability + Security
• Dependability is defined as the measure of the certainty that the
relays will operate correctly for all the faults for which they are
designed to operate.
• Security is defined as the measure of the certainty that the relays

will not operate incorrectly for any fault.
Protection Systems
RELIABLE = SECURE + DEPENDABILITY
Reliability = Dependability + Security
• Most protection systems are designed for high dependability: A fault
is always cleared by some relay.
• As a relaying system becomes dependable, its tendency to become

less secure increases.
• Thus, in present-day relaying system designs, there is a bias toward

making them more dependable at the expense of some degree of
security.

Reliability
• The need for a high degree of reliability has already been discussed
briefly. Reliability is dependent on the following factors:
a) incorrect design/settings
b) incorrect installation/testing
c) deterioration in service
• Design: Due consideration must be given to the nature, frequency
and duration of faults likely to be experienced, all relevant
parameters of the power system and the type of protection
equipment used.
• Settings: The characteristics of power systems change with time, due
to changes in loads, location, type and amount of generation, etc.
• Installation: The complexity of the interconnections of many systems and
their relationship to the remainder of the system may make checking the
installation difficult. Site testing is therefore necessary. Since it will be
difficult to reproduce all fault conditions correctly, these tests must be
directed towards proving the installation itself.
• Testing: Using recognised standards is carried out during design and
production and this fulfils many of these requirements, but it will still be
necessary to test the complete protection scheme (relays, current
transformers and other ancillary items).
• Deterioration of the service: The time between operations of protection
relays may be years rather than days. During this period, defects may
have developed unnoticed until revealed by the failure of the protection to
respond to a power system fault. For this reason, relays should be
periodically tested in order to check they are functioning correctly.

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt
EXAMPLE
B1
R1
Circuit breaker
Relay
Reliability of Protections
Line
Transmission
R2
Example: Reliability of Protections
B2
1. Introduction to Protections V1
Busbar
B4
B3
R4
R3
• Consider the following transmission system.
R5
B5
54/121
53/121
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• If a fault happens in the point “F” on the transmission line.
• In normal operation, this fault should be cleared by the two relays
R1 and R2 through the CBs B1 and B2.
Normal operation
R3 R5
R1 R2
B3 B5
B1 “F” B2 B4
Open Open
R4
• If R2 does not operate for this fault, it has become unreliable through
a loss of dependability.
R3 R5
R1 R2
B3 B5
B1 “F” B2 B4
Open
FAIL
TO
R4
UNRELIABLE OPEN
LOSS OF DEPENDABILITY
• If relay R5 operates through breaker B5 for the same fault, and
before breaker B2 clears the fault, it has become unreliable through
a loss of security.
R3 R5
R1 R2
B3 B5
B1 “F” B2 B4
Open
UNRELIABLE
Open
FAIL
TO
R4 LOSS OF SECURITY
OPEN
Selectivity of Relays and Zones of

Protection

Selectivity of Relays and Zones of Protection
• The property of security of relays, that is, the requirement that they
not operate for faults for which they are not designed to operate, is
defined in terms of regions of a power system – called zones of
protection – for which a given relay or protective system is
responsible.
• From the power system point of view, to limit the extent of the power
system that is disconnected when a fault occurs, protection is
arranged in zones.
Zones of Protection
SG ZONE 1
• Ideally, the zones of protection
should overlap, so that no part of
ZONE 2
the power system is left
unprotected.
ZONE 3
ZONE 4
ZONE 6
ZONE 5 ZONE 7
Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

Zones of Protection
• The relay will be considered to be secure if it responds only to faults
within its zone of protection.
• Relays usually have inputs from several current transformers (CTs),

and the zone of protection is bounded by these CTs.
• The CTs provide a window through which the associated relays “see”
the power system inside the zone of protection.
• While the CTs provide the ability to detect a fault inside the
zone of protection, the CBs provide the ability to isolate the fault
by disconnecting all of the power equipment inside the zone.
Zones of Protection
SG ZONE 1
• A zone boundary is usually
defined by a CT and a CB.
ZONE 2
• When the CT is part of the

CB, it becomes a natural zone
boundary. When the CT is not ZONE 3
an integral part of the CB, ZONE 4
special attention must be
paid to the fault detection
and fault interruption logic.
ZONE 6
ZONE 5 Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3 ZONE 7

Zones of Protections
• The figure shows a
system of power 5 5
with the different

protection zones.
3
• Some form of
backup protection is
provided to trigger 2
the adjacent
switches or areas
3
3 3
adjacent to the
3
2
problem area. 1 2
4
4
• The protection of 4 4 2
each zone is 1
2
superimposed to
eliminate the 3
possibility of
unprotected areas
Zone of protections
• The overlapping of protection zones is carried out by connecting the
relays to the current transformers (CT) as shown.
Busbar Busbar
Protection Protection
B1
CT1
B1
CT1
CT2 CT2
Feeder Feeder
Protection Protection
CTs on both sides of circuit breaker CTs on circuit side of circuit breaker
Zones of protection: Measurement locations
CT Zone B
Zone A Zone B
CTs on both sides of circuit breaker

CT Zone A
CT Zone B
Zone A Zone B
CTs on circuit side of circuit breaker
CT Zone A
Example: Zones of protection
• Example of multiple protection Zones
Bus 2
Bus 1
Line 1 Line 2
Gen+Transf
Transformer

Zones of protection: Generator Protection
• Generator Protection
Fault location Breakers responsible

for the operation
Zones of protection: Busbar protection
• Busbar protection

for the operation

Protection Zones
Fault location
Fault location
• Transmission line protection
for the operation

for the operation
Breakers responsible
M
M
70/121
69/121
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Zones of protection: Transformer protection
• Transformer protection

for the operation

for the operation

Zones of protection: Distribution line protection
• Distribution line protection

for the operation
Zones of protection: Load protection
• Load protection (MOTOR)

for the operation

Zones of protection
• All equipment's must be inside at least one protection zone.
Zones overlapping
surrounding the circuit
breaker.
• All protection zones must overlap to provide remote backup

protection
Zones of protection
• The book [1] established a zone of protection may be closed or
open.
• Zone is closed, if all power apparatus entering the zone is monitored
at the entry points of the zone.
• Such a zone of protection is also known as “differential,” “unit,” or
“absolutely selective.”
• If the zone of protection is not unambiguously defined by the CTs,

that is, the limit of the zone varies with the fault current, the zone is
said to be “nonunit,” “unrestricted,” or “relatively selective.”
• Zone is open, there is a certain degree of uncertainty about the
location of the boundary of an open zone of protection.
Zones of protection the zone may be unrestricted; the start will be defined but the extent
(or ‘reach’) will depend on measurement of the system quantities and
Unit type protection will therefore be subject to variation, owing to changes in system
results in the conditions and measurement errors.
boundary being a Close Zone
clearly defined
closed loop.
Open Zone
Open Zone
Zones overlapping
surrounding
Open Zone
EXAMPLE
Zones of protection
[1] S. H.F.Horowitz
Professor and A. G. Phadke, Power System Relaying, Fourth Edi. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2014.
Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 78/121
Example Zones of protection
• Consider the following power system
Zone 1
Zone 3 Zone 5
1
Zone 4 Zone 6
Zone 2 2 3 4 5
B2
B1
B4 B5 B6
B3
• The zones of protection are shown.
• Consider the fault at F1, as shonw in the following Figure.
Zone 1
Zone 3 Zone 5
1
Zone 4 Zone 6
F1 Zone 2 2 3 4 5
B2
B1
Close zone B4 B5 B6
B3
Fault location
for the operation
• This fault lies in a closed zone, and will cause CBs B1 and B2 to trip.
• Consider the fault at F2, as shown in the following Figure.
Zone 1
Zone 3 Zone 5
1
Zone 4 Zone 6
F2 Zone 2 2 3 4 5
B2
B1
Overlapping
zone B4 B5 B6
Fault location
Overlapping
Breakers responsible B3 zone
for the operation

Close zone
• F2 being inside the overlap between the zones of protection of the

transmission line and the bus, will cause CBs B1, B2, B3, and B4 to trip,
although opening B3 and B4 are unnecessary.
• Consider the fault at F3, as shown in the following Figure. Overlapping
zone
Zone 1
Zone 3 Zone 5
1
Zone 4 Zone 6
Zone 2 2 3 4 5
F3
B2
B1
B4 B5 B6
Fault location
Breakers responsible B3 Overlapping
Open zone
zone
for the operation
• F3 lies in two open zones. Open zone
• The fault should cause CB B6 to trip.

• B5 is the backup breaker for this fault, and will trip if for some reason B6 fails
to clear the fault.
Relay Speed
[1] S. H. Horowitz and A. G. Phadke, Power System Relaying, Fourth Edi. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2014.
Relay speed: Time!
• It is desirable to remove a fault from the power system as quickly as
possible.
• The relay must make its decision based upon voltage and current
waveforms that are severely distorted due to transient phenomena
which must follow the occurrence of a fault.
• The relay must separate the meaningful and significant information

contained in these waveforms upon which a secure relaying decision
must be based.
• These considerations demand that the relay takes a certain amount

of time to arrive at a decision with the necessary degree of certainty.
• The operating time of relays often varies between wide limits, relays
are generally classified by their speed of operation as follows [1]:
• Instantaneous: Relays operates as soon as a secure decision is
made. No intentional time delay is introduced to slow down the relay
response.
• Time Delay: An intentional time delay is inserted between the relay
decision time and the initiation of the trip action.
• High Speed: A relay that operates in less than a specified time. The
specified time in present practice is 50 ms (three cycles on a 60Hz
system).
• Ultrahigh Speed: This term is not included in the Relay Standards
but is commonly considered to be in operation in 4ms or less.
[1] IEEE, Std C37.1 - Standard Definition, Specification, and Analysis of Systems Used for Supervisory Control, Data Acquisition, and Automatic Control, vol. 1994. 1994.
Primary and Backup Protection

• The main protection system for a given zone of protection is called
the primary protection system.
Protected Zone
CA CB
Primary Primary
protection protection
Protected zone of a “unit” system of protection
• It operates in the fastest time possible and removes the least amount
of equipment from service.
• The reliability of a power system includes the use of more than one
primary (or ‘main’) protection system operating in parallel.
CA CB
Protected Zone
• It is not always practical to duplicate every element of the protection

chain – on high voltage and EHV systems, the transducers or the
CBs are very expensive, and the cost f duplicate equipment may not
be justified.
[1] The Electricity Training Association, Power System Protection Vol.1: Principles and Components, vol. 1. The Institution of Engineering and Technology, Michael Faraday House, Six Hills Way, Stevenage SG1 2AY, UK: IET, 1995.
• On lower voltage systems, even the relays themselves may not be
duplicated. In such situations, only backup relaying is used.
• In the event of failure or non-availability of the primary protection
some other means of ensuring that the fault is isolated must be
provided.
• The secondary systems are referred to as ‘back-up protection
schemes’.
CA CB
Protected Zone

• Thus faults that occur between the current transformers and circuit
breaker (CA and CB) are outside the zone of the circuit protection and
can be dealt with either by the busbar protection (which is usual in
the transmission system, but less so in the distribution systems), or
by back-up protection.
CA CB
Fault location
Protected Zone
for the operation Protected zone of a “unit” system of protection
• The latter in performing that function would be acting as 'remote

back-up'.
• The back-up protection at CA acts as back-up for a fault at X, or a
fault at Y, not cleared for any reason by the circuit breaker at CC.
• A fault between CA and CB not cleared for any reason by the 'main
protection’ must also be cleared at CA (assuming for simplicity a
single infeed) by back up protection. In this instance the latter would
be acting as 'local back-up'.
Protected Zone
CA CB X Y
Fault location R R
Breakers responsible Back-up Zone
for the operation
Protected and back-up zones of a non-unit system of
protection (distance protection)
Locally and Remote back-up
• Backup relaying may be installed locally, that is, in the same
substation as the primary protection, or remotely.
• Remote backup relays are completely independent of the relays,
transducers, batteries, and CBs of the protection system they are
backing up.
• These functions of local and remote back-up do not necessarily

require protection additional to the main protection.
• If the latter is of the non-unit type, it possesses an inherent back-up

feature.
Substation Local Backup Protection
• The HV-transformer T feeds Back-up Protection Primary
the busbar 1 in a non- 1 2
effectively earthed radial C2
network without any other Fault location
sources. Breakers responsible
• It is assumed that a short for the operation
circuit occurs at F on the feeder R2
to 4 and that the feeder Back-up
protection R4 fails to operate. It 3

C1 C3
is also assumed that the
transformer protection R1 can
detect short circuits along any
feeder connected to the busbar
1. R1 R3 4
C4
• The transformer protection R1
at bus 1 provides substation
local backup protection of the
feeders to 2, 3 and 4. R4
Substation Local Backup Protection
Circuit Local Backup Protection
Remote backup cannot always detect all
• A shunt fault occurs at F on the power faults on the adjacent power lines.
line between bus 2 and 3 and that the
line protection C2 in substation 2 fails to
operate. 1 2 3
“F”
• The line protections C5, C7 and C8 have C5 C1 C2 C6
to detect the shunt fault.
• The intermediate infeed at 2 will enlarge
C7 C3 C4 C8
the impedances seen by the distance
protections at 1, 4 and 5.
4 5
• This enlargement may prevent the use of
remote backup protection.

Circuit Local Backup Protection
• Remote backup cannot always detect all faults on the adjacent power
lines.
1 R2 R2 2
R1 R1
Fault location
• Use of circuit local backup protection. It is assumed that the main

protection R1 comprises a distance protection. It has three zones, and
it uses telecommunication.
Example:
Primary, Local backup and Remote

Example: Primary, Local backup and Remote
• Consider the following transmission system
2 3
CB6 CB4
1
R4 4
CB5 CB1 CB7 CB9
R5 “F” 5 R9
CB8 CB10
R1
R2 R10
R3
• Consider a fault “F” inside the zone of protection of transmission line
-. 2 3
CB6 CB4
1
R4 4
CB5 CB1 CB7 CB9
R5 “F” 5 R9
CB8 CB10
R1
Fault location R2 R10
for the operation R3
• Primary relays R1 and R5 will clear this fault by acting through
breakers CB1 and CB5. 2 3
CB6 CB4
1
R4 4
CB5 CB1 CB7 CB9
R5 “F” 5 R9
CB8 CB10
Primary
R1
Fault location Primary
R2 R10
for the operation R3
• At substation , a duplicate primary relay R2 may be installed to
trip the breaker CB1 to cover the possibility that the relay R1 may
fail to trip. 2 3
CB6 CB4
1
R4 4
CB5 CB1 CB7 CB9
R5 “F” 5 R9
CB8 CB10
Primary R1
R2 will operate in the same time
Fault location Duplicate
R2 R10 as R1 and may use the same or
relay
different elements of the
Breakers responsible R3 protection chain.
for the operation
• The local backup relay R3 is designed to operate at a slower speed
than R1 and R2; it is probably set to see more of the system.
2 3
CB6 CB4
1
R4 4
CB5 CB1 CB7 CB9
R5 “F” 5 R9
CB8 CB10
Primary R1
Fault location
R2 R10
Breakers responsible Local R3
back up
for the operation
• R3 will first attempt to trip breaker CB1 and then its breaker failure
relay will trip breakers CB5, CB6, CB7, and CB8.
2 3
CB6 CB4
1
R4 4
CB5 CB1 CB7 CB9
R5 “F” 5 R9
CB8 CB10
Primary R1
Fault location
R2 R10
Breakers responsible Local R3
back up
for the operation
• R3 is local backup relaying, often known as breaker failure
protection, for CB CB1.
2 3
CB6 CB4
1
R4 4
CB5 CB1 CB7 CB9
R5 “F” 5 R9
CB8 CB10
Primary R1
Fault location
R2 R10
Breakers responsible Breaker Failure R3
Protection
for the operation
• Relays R9, R10, and R4 constitute the remote backup protection
for the primary protection R1.
2 3
CB6 CB4 Remote back-up protection of R1

1
R4 4
CB5 CB1 CB7 CB9 Remote back-up

protection of R1
R5 “F” 5 R9
CB8 CB10
Primary R1 Remote back-up protection of R1
Fault location
R2 R10
Breakers responsible R3
for the operation
• No elements of the protection system associated with R1 are shared
by these protection systems, and hence no common modes of failure
between R1 and R4, R9 and R10 are possible.
2 3
CB6 CB4
1
R4 4
CB5 CB1 CB7 CB9
R5 “F” 5 R9
CB8 CB10
R1
R2 R10
R3
Single- and Three-Phase Tripping and

Reclosing

Single- and Three-Phase Tripping
• USA common practice :
• to trip all three phases of the faulted power system element
for all types of fault. Three-pole tripping (TPT)
• European and Asian countries practice:

• to trip only the faulted phase for a phase-to-ground fault,
and
• to trip all three phases for all multiphase faults on
transmission lines.
• The differences in the tripping practice are the result of several

fundamental differences in the design and operation of power
systems.
Fautls: Transient, Semi-permanent, Permanent
• Faults statistic indicates the faults on overhead lines fall into one of
three categories:
• Transient (80-90%)
• Semi-permanent
• Permanent
• 10%-20% of faults are either semi-permanent or permanent.
• Transient faults are commonly caused by lightning or temporary

contact with foreign objects, and immediate tripping of one or more
circuit breakers clears the fault.
• Subsequent re-energisation of the line is usually successful.

Reclosing: Manual and Automatic
• As a large proportion of faults on a power system are of a temporary
nature, the power system can be returned to its pre-fault state if the
tripped CBs are reclosed as soon as possible.
• Reclosing can be manual, it is initiated by an operator working

from the switching device itself, from a control panel in the
substation control house or from a remote system control center
through a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system.
• Automatic reclosing of CBs is initiated by dedicated relays for

each switching device, or it may be controlled from
• a substation or central reclosing computer
Reclosing Supervision:
• All reclosing operations should be supervised (i.e., controlled) by
appropriate interlocks to prevent an unsafe, damaging, or
undesirable reclosing operation.
• Voltage Check. Used when good operating practice demands that
a certain piece of equipment be energized from a specific side.
• Synchronizing Check. This check may be used when the
reclosing operation is likely to energize a piece of equipment from
both sides.
• Equipment Check. This check is to ensure that some piece of
equipment is not energized inadvertently.

High speed versus low speed (delayed) reclosing
• Automatic reclosing can be high speed, or it may be delayed.
• The term high speed generally implies reclosing in times shorter

than a second.
• Many utilities may initiate high-speed reclosing for some types of

fault (such as ground faults), and not for others.
Elements of a Protection System

Elements of a Protection System
• A protection system may mean only
the relays, the actual protection Electrical Power System
system consists of many other
subsystems that contribute to the Power equipment to be
detection and removal of faults. protected
Protection
Transductors Breakers
Systems
(CT, PT, etc.)
Seccionalizers Communication to
other protection
systems
V,I I/O Intertrip,
Communication,
teleprotection
Power Supply
Protection Relay I/O
I/O
Other logics Communication
management
GPS I/O Alarms

Syncronization
Monitoring and Control

system
Battery and DC Supply
• Since the primary function of a protection
system is to remove a fault, the ability to
trip a CB through a relay must not be
compromised during a fault, when the AC
voltage available in the substation may
not be of sufficient magnitude.
• For example, a close-in three-phase fault
can result in zero AC voltage at the
substation AC outlets.
• Tripping power, as well as the power
required by the relays, cannot therefore
be obtained from the AC system, and is
usually provided by the station battery.
Circuit Breakers
• Knowledge of CB operation and
performance is essential to an
understanding of protective
relaying.
• It is the coordinated action of both
that results in successful fault
clearing.
• The CB isolates the fault by
interrupting the current at or near
a current zero.
• At the present time, an EHV CB
can interrupt fault currents of the
order of 105 A at system voltages
up to 800 kV.
General Electric type FK, 138-kv, 3500-mva oil A 345 kV SF6 circuit breaker
circuit breakers installed at Murray Gill Station,
Kansas Gas & Electric, Wichita, KA
• Live Tank - the circuit breaker the switching unit is located in an
insulator bushing which is live at line voltage (or some voltage above
ground).
• Live Tank circuit breakers are cheaper than dead tank and require
less space.
• Dead Tank - the switching unit is located within a metallic

container which is kept a earth potential.
• As the incoming/outgoing conductors are taken through insulated
bushings, it is possible to place current transformers on these (with a
Live Tank arrangement this is not possible and separate CTs are
required).
• Zone overlap with different types of CTs and circuit breakers
CT Zone B
CB
Bus F1 F2 Bus
Zone A Zone B
CB1 Line CB2

CT Zone A
Bus Bus
F1 F2 F3 F4
CB1 CB2
Line
Fault location
Summary
Summary of this Section
• Fundamentals of protective relaying philosophy.
• Concept of reliability and its two components, dependability and
security
• Selectivity and speed of relay operation has been defined.
• Three-phase tripping, the prevailing practice in the United States,
has been compared to the more prevalent European practice of
single-phase tripping.
• Various reclosing and interlocking practices and the underlying
reasons for a given choice.
• Types of CBs and their impact on the protection system design.

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTIONS
Professor Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt FHEA, SMIEE
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Introduction to Power System Protections

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Introduction to Power System Protections

Professor Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt FHEA, SMIEE

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 1/121

• The term 'protective gear' (or 'protective equipment') is widely used in

• The function of protective equipment is not the preventive one its

• Protection Equipment: a collection of protection devices (relays,

• Protection Scheme: a collection of protection equipment

Protection Systems: Objective

• However, sound design and preventive maintenance can reduce the

• The electrical system, therefore, should be designed and maintained to

• Interrupting devices should have adequate interrupting capability.

• Energized parts should be sufficiently enclosed or isolated to avoid

• Safety should always take priority over service continuity,

Equipment damage versus service continuity

• However, some operations can afford limited service

• However, other operations would regard such an expense as small

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 6/121

• Many features may be added that improve system performance, reli

• However, failure to design into a system at least the minimum safety

• Modifying a system that proves inadequate is more expensive and, in

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 8/121

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 9/121

Power system configurations

4 (1) Radial power system

(2) Network or Meshed power system

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 10/121

2. Network or Mesh System

systems (generally defined as Load

• Interconnections provide more 3

customers, and the impact of the Load

j0.4 j1.0 j1.0 j1.0

Typical distribution system

Example: Effect of Topology in Fault currents

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 14/121

j0.4 j1.0 j1.0 j1.0

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 15/121

Example: Effect of Topology in Fault currents

j0.3 j0.4 j0.6 j1.0 j1.0 j1.0

j0.3 j0.4 j0.6 j1.0 j1.0 j1.0

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 18/121

Phase sedignations ABC RST

IEC 60617 Voltage V U

Normally closed contacts

Trasnformer two windings

Substation layout (electrical)

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 21/121

Bus Arrangement in Substations

• The most common bus arrangements in a substation are

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 22/121

Typical one-line diagram

Plan View – Typical Bay

Elevation – Typical Bay

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 25/121

Single bus, single breaker

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 26/121

Professor F. Gonzalez-Longatt 1. Introduction to Protections V1 28/121

Elevation – Typical Bay