3.

Measurement of Nonelectrical quantities

➢ VELOCITY TRANSDUCERS
Linear velocity as well as angular velocity can be measured using velocity transducers. Many
times to measure linear velocity, it is first converted into angular velocity and then it ismeasured.
Linear and angular velocity transducers are explained in detail in this chapter.

➢ Linear Velocity Transducers

In linear velocity transducers, the mechanical vibrations are converted into alternating voltages
based on the principle of electromagnetic inductions. Hence, these transducers are also called
Electro-magnetic transducers. There are two types of electro-magnetic transducers:

i) Moving coil type

ii) Moving magnet type
➢ Moving coil type velocity transducers
The moving coil type velocity transducer operation is based on the action of the moving coil in a
magnetic field. The construction of such a transducer is shown in the fig given below.

Fig.1. Moving coil type velocity transducer

In this transducer, a coil is suspended between the pole pieces of the permanent magnet with the
help of the spring assembly. The voltage generated is due to the motion of the coil in the
magnetic field. Hence the output is proportional to the velocity of the coil. But this is the relative
velocity of the coil with respect to the permanent magnet. Above system is also termed as electro
dynamic pick-up system. This system is useful in measurement of linear, sinusoidal or random
velocities.

The voltage induced in the coil at any instant of time is given by

e0 = B.l.v

where e0 is the output voltage, B is the flux density, l is the length of the coil and v is the relative
velocity of the coil with respect to the permanent magnet which is fixed.

Advantages:

i) The system forms closed magnetic circuit with constant air gap.
ii) The assembly is kept inside antimagnetic material case. Hence, the effects of the stray
magnetic fields are reduced.
iii) Damping is achieved by an electrical means. Therefore, under varying temperature
conditions, the system provides high stability.

➢ Moving Magnet Type Velocity Transducer

In this transducer, a constant polarized field is obtained with the help of permanent magnet. The
construction of the transducer is shown in the fig given below.

1
 Fig.2.Moving magnet type velocity transducer

A coil surrounds a permanent magnet rod whose velocity is to be measured. The motion of the
rod induces a voltage in the coil whose amplitude is proportional to the velocity of the rod. The
polarity of the output voltage determines the direction of motion.

Advantages:

i) There are no mechanical surfaces or contacts, hence the maintenance required is

negligible.
ii) The output voltage is linearly proportional to the velocity.
iii) It is robust and less expensive.

Disadvantages:

i) The stray magnetic fields affect the performance of these transducers.

ii) Limited frequency response.
iii) As the contacts with steel wools demagnetize progressively deteriorating the
calibration, hence these transducers are not very useful for the vibration
measurements.

➢ Angular Velocity Transducers

The main disadvantage of the linear velocity measurement is that for the large distance travel it is
very difficult to detect the fixed reference. In such cases, angular velocity transducers are used
and the linear velocity is measured by converting it into angular velocity.

The measurement of speed can be done with the help of tacho generator. Majorly,
tachogenerators are of two types:

i) Electrical type tachogenerators

ii) Mechanical type tachogenerators

But electrical type tachogenerators are preferred over mechanical type tachogenerators as the
electrical transducers are always advantageous as compared to mechanical type tachogenerators.

Let us discuss electrical type tachogenerators.

➢ D.C.Tachogenerators
The d.c.tachogenerator is shown in the fig given below.

2
 Fig.3. D.C. Tachogenerator

The armature of the d.c.tachogenerator is placed in the permanent magnetic field. The armature
of the tachogenerator is coupled to the machine whose speed is to be measured. When the shaft
of the machine revolves, the armature of the tachogenerator revolves in the magnetic field
producing an e.m.f. which is proportional to the product of the flux and the speed to be
measured. Now as the field of permanent magnet is fixed, the e.m.f. generated is proportional to
the speed directly. The e.m.f. induced is measured using moving coil voltmeter with uniform
scale calibrated in speed directly. The series resistance is used to limit the current under output
short circuit condition. The polarity of the output voltage indicates the direction of rotation. The
commutator collects current from armature conductors and converts internally induced a.c. e.m.f.
into d.c. (unidirectional) e.m.f. while the brushes are used to collect current from commutator
and make it available to the external circuitry of the d.c. tachogenerator.

Advantages

The advantages of tachogenerators are as follows:

i) The output is small enough to measure it with conventional D.C. voltmeters.

ii) The polarity of the output directly indicates the direction of rotation.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of D.C. tachogenerators are as follows:

i) Because of variations in contact resistances, considerable error is introduced in the

output voltage. Hence periodic maintenance of the commutator and brushes is
required.
ii) Non-linearity of the output of the D.C. tachogenerator occurs because of distortions in
the permanent magnetic field due to large armature currents. Hence the input
resistance should be very high as compared to the output resistance of the generator.
➢ A.C.Tachogenerator

Fig.4. A.C. Tachogenerator

3
The coil is wound on the stator itself. In the tachogenerator, the magnetic field is rotating. The
magnetic field can be obtained by using electromagnet or permanent magnet. Due to rotation of
magnet, an e.m.f. induces in the stator coil which has amplitude and frequency directly
proportional to the speed of rotation. Thus the speed of rotation can be calibrated in terms of
either amplitude or frequency of the induced voltage.

In the circuit shown, the amplitude of the induced voltage is used to measure speed. A rectifier
and filter are used to get constant d.c. voltage which can be measured with the help of the
moving coil voltmeter.

Advantages

The advantages of a.c. tachogenerator are as follows:

i) The output can be calibrated in terms of two parameters namely amplitude and
frequency of induced voltage.
ii) Commutator and brush contact resistance problems are eliminated as the coil is
wound on stator.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of a.c.tachogenerator are as follows:

i) For very low speed rotation, the frequency of the induced voltage is also very low.
Thus, the ripple in the output increases. To overcome this, the number of poles of
stator is increased so that the frequency of the induced voltage increases even at low
speeds of rotation.
ii) At high speeds, the frequency of the induced voltage is also very high. Thus the coil
impedance increases. This effects linearity of the output. To maintain the good
linearity, the display device used should have greater impedance than that of the coil

4
 ACCELERATION TRANSDUCERS

➢ Introduction
The device used for the measurement of acceleration is called accelerometer. The accelerometers
are widely used for the measurement of general purpose motion such as measurement of
acceleration, velocity and displacement. Besides this application, the accelerometers are also
used for the measurement of mechanical shocks and vibrations.

➢ Principal of Operation
The design of an accelerometer is based on Newton’s law of mass and acceleration and Hooke’s
law of spring action. The basic structure is as shown in the fig below. The accelerometer is
fastened to the body undergoing acceleration.

Fig.5.Basic structure of accelerometer

According to Newton’s law, if mass m is undergoing acceleration a, exerts a force Fa on mass

given by

Fa= m.a

This force is opposed by the restraining effect of a spring. Let spring constant be k. If mass m is
displaced from its original position by a distance∆𝑥, then according to Hooke’s law, the force
exerted is given by,

Fs=k.∆𝑥

In a steady state, when the acceleration of mass and accelerometer case is same, then, we can
write,

Fa= Fs

m.a=k.∆𝑥

6
 kΔ𝑥
a=
m

The above equation represents second order system. So in such systems if damping is not
provided, the output of the accelerometer undergoes non-decaying sustained oscillations. Hence
to overcome this generally, a damper is used in the system which exerts a force Fdproportional to
the velocity of mass. The damping force is given by,

Fd=B.v

Where, ‘v’ is the velocity of mass.

Fs+Fd=Fa

𝑘. ∆𝑥 + 𝐵. 𝑣 = 𝑚. 𝑎

The mass that converts acceleration to the spring displacement is called test mass or seismic
waves.

➢ Types of Accelerometers
The measurement of acceleration reduces to the measurement of linear displacement. So, we can
have different types of accelerometers based on the different displacement measuring techniques.
Based on the type of spring element and the form of damping used, there are number of types of
accelerometers.

➢ Potentiometric type accelerometer

It is the simplest form of accelerometer.The basic structure of a potentiometric accelerometer is
shown in the fig shown below.

Fig.6 Basic structure of a Potentiometric type accelerometer

The seismic mass is attached to the wiper arm of the potentiometer. The change in position of
mass relative to accelerometer case is converted directly into change in resistance at the output
terminals. By using different signal conditioning circuits, change in resistance can be converted
into corresponding voltage or current signal.

7
In this type of accelerometer, damping is provided by either filling the space inside the case with
a viscous fluid of providing dashpot.

Inspite of being simple in construction, the use of the potentiometric accelerometer is limited.
Firstly, its natural frequency is very less and it is of the order of 30 Hz. Hence the application of
the accelerometer is limited to very low frequency vibration measurement or steady state
acceleration. Secondly, a number of signal conditioning systems are required to convert the
variation of resistance into either voltage or current signal. Then lastly, the sliding contacts in the
system introduce errors in the output progressively.

➢ LVDT Accelerometer
The basic structure of LVDT accelerometer is fig below.

Fig.7. Basic structure of LVDT accelerometer

In LVDT accelerometer, the core of the LVDT itself acts as the seismic mass.The core is
attached to two spring steel, one at the top and the other at the bottom with the help of rods as
shown. The spring steels are attached to the case firmly. With the help of this arrangement, null
position of the core of LVDT is maintained. Both the spring steel probide necessary spring
action.When the instrument is subjected to variations, the core moves up and down. Thus voltage
induces in the secondaries and we get output voltage having amplitude directly proportional to
the magnitude of vibrations.

As compared to the potentiometric type accelerometer, the natural frequency of LVDT

accelerometer is higher and it is around 80Hz. It offers lower resistance to the motion, so the
resolution is better compared with the potentiometric type accelerometer. No errors due to the
moving contacts as there are no sliding contacts in the instrument.Due to low natural frequency,
the application is again limited to steady state acceleration or low frequency vibration
measurements.

8
 ➢ Piezoelectric Accelerometer

The piezoelectric accelerometer is based on a property of certain crystals that when it is

subjected to stress, a voltage is generated across the crystal.The basic structure of the
piezoelectric accelerometer is shown below.

Fig.8Baisc structure of Piezoelectric accelerometer

In the piezoelectric accelerometer, a spring loaded crystal is placed touching the seismic mass as
shown in the fig given above. When the accelerometer is subjected to the acceleration, the
seismic mass stresses the crystal by a force equal to (F=m.a). This generates voltage across
crystal which is directly proportional to the acceleration.

Advantages:

i) The crystal acts as both spring and damper in the instrument.

ii) The natural frequency of the crystal is very high and hence it can be used for very
high frequency vibrations.

Disadvantages:

The output voltage must be measured with a instrument having very high impedance to avoid
loading effect as the electrical impedance of the piezoelectric crystal is very high.

9
 ➢ Strain gauge accelerometer

Fig. 9 Cantilever beam type accelerometer

Similar to piezoelectric crystals, strain gauge elements also act as spring element and mass
displacement measuring element. The main advantage of this fact is that, the construction of the
strain gauge accelerometer is simple.

+ω0 strain gauges are mounted on the beam. At one end of the seismic mass m is attached. When
the accelerometer is subjected to acceleration, the beam bends producing strains in the beam
which are directly proportional to the acceleration. Then the displacement of mass with respect
to case is directly proportional to the force acting on mass.

Even though this type of accelerometer is simple in construction, its natural frequency is very
low because of limitations of the beam size on which gauges are mounted. To increase
bandwidth, fluid filled damping is provided.

The standard wire, foil or semiconductor strain gauges are used in Wheatstone’s bridge, with
two gauges in compression and remaining two in tension. To have higher frequency response,
generally a cylinder type accelerometer is used. The cylinder type accelerometer is as shown in
the fig above. In the basic structure of a cylinder type accelerometer the seismic mass is
supported by a solid cylindrical structure. The supporting structure acts as a spring. The strain
gauges bonded on the surface of the cylindrical support are arranged in Wheatstone’s bridge with
four arms. These gauges measure strain in the cylindrical support due to acceleration. It is
observed that the deflection is relatively small but the natural frequency is much higher as
compared to the cantilever type accelerometer. With this structure, the natural frequencies of the
order of few thousands with higher sensitivities can be obtained.

10
 FORCE TRANSDUCERS & TORQUE TRANSDUCERS

➢ Introduction
According to the Newton’s law, when a force ‘F’ is applied to a body of mass ‘m’, it accelerates
at a rate ‘a’. Mathematically we can write,

F=m.a

From the above equation, it is clear that unknown force applied to body of mass m can be
measured by measuring acceleration of that body. Another technique is to measure the change in
resonant frequency of a vibrating wire under tension due to applied force. The unknown force
can be measured by using force measuring sensors i.e., load cells.

➢ Force measurement using accelerometer:

By using accelerometer of any type, the acceleration of a body of known mass due to the applies
force can be measured. Then by using Newton’s law of mass acceleration, the applied unknown
force can be calculated. But practical use of accelerometers for force measurement is limited
because the forces are not free but they are the part of the system. It is very difficult to decouple
the forces from the system. Also, in many systems, the body on which force is acting is not free
to accelerate. Still, this technique is useful in measuring some transient forces. The advanced
application of this technique is in calibration of forces produced by thrust motors in the space
vehicles.

➢ Force measurement using vibrating wire sensors:

Fig.10. Vibrating wire sensor arrangement

11
The vibrating wire sensor arrangement is shown in fig.10. A wire is kept vibrating at its resonant
frequency by using variable frequency oscillator. The resonant frequency is given by

0.5 𝑀
𝑓=
𝐿 𝑇

Where f=resonant frequency

L=length of a wire

M=mass per unit length of wire, and

T=tension due to applied force

Thus, from equation (i) stated above it is clear that when applied force changes, tension changes
and hence the output frequency changes. Thus by measuring the output frequency of the local
oscillator, the force applied to the wire can be calculated.

➢ Force measurement using load cell:

Basically, the load cell is a electromechanical sensor used to measure static and dynamic forces.
It is the most widely used transducer used in many industrial applications which can handle wide
range of forces. The material used for load cell should possess linear stress strain relationship
upto a fairly large elastic strain limit, low strain hysteresis and very low creep-over during load
period. The various elastic materials suitable for the purpose are medium to high carbon steels of
chromium molybdenum and precipitate hardened stainless steel.Typical forms of force
measuring devices using load cells are:

➢ Cantilever beam type load cell:

Fig.11 Cantilever beam type load cell

12
On the top and bottom surfaces of the beam four strain gauges are bonded. On the application of
force F, at free end of the cantilever beam, a bending moment develops in the beam which is
proportional to the applied force. With reference to the direction of force shown, strain gauges 1
and 3 measures tensile strains developed o the top surface while strain gauges 2 and 4 measures
compressive strains developed at the bottom surface. The maximum deflection (𝛿) occurs at the
free end of the beam while the maximum strain (𝜀) develops at the fixed end of the beam. Thus,
in cantilever beam type load cell, applied force 𝜀 can be measured as a function of deflection 𝛿 or
strain𝜀.

➢ Column type load cell

The simplest method for measuring unidirectional forces is to use column or rod in tension or
compression. By using the electrical strain gauges attached to the body, the stress developed due
to force on loading can be measured. The column type load cell structure is shown below.

Fig.12 Column type load cell

The strain gauges are mounted on exactly opposite faces of each other. Strain gauges 1 and 3 are
aligned to measure axial strains while the strain gauges 2 and 4 are aligned to measure
circumferential strains only. It is very essential to arrange gauges and the rod symmetrically.
Also the column must be loaded as centrally as possible to avoid bending forces in the columns.
For strain measurements, generally, foil strain gauges are used. Under the adverse industrial
conditions, for better operation, the whole load cell assembly is hermetically sealed with electron
beam joints welded.

➢ Torque transducers
In all the rotating bodies, it is necessary to ensure that the design of the element rotating, is
adequate to sustain under shear stresses. This can be done by applying torque measurements. It is
also required to measure torque for the measurement of power delivered by rotating shafts.

Dynamic measurement of torque is based on the angular displacement or twist in the shaft in a
calibrated length of a torque tube attached to the shaft. Generally torque measurements are based

13
on the methods measuring i) strain produced in a rotating body due to applied torque and ii)
reaction force in rotating body.

➢ Torsion bar
For the measurement of power delivered by a shaft, a torsion bar or torsion tube is inserted in
between machine and load. Then by using either strain gauges or other electrical transducer, the
output of torsion bar is measured.

A torsion bar is a metallic rod of either circular or rectangular cross section. A torsion bar is
connected between the source and load along the axis of rotation in perfect alignment. So when
the torque is transmitted by the source, the torsion bar gets strained. Then the torque is measured
in terms of the angular displacement of the bar or the surface strain on the bar. A torsion bar with
circular cross section is shown below.

Fig.13 Torsion bar

The angular displacement 𝜑 radians of a hollow cylinder is given by

𝜑= 2𝑙𝑇
𝜋𝐺(𝑅4 − 𝑟4)
0 1

Where l= active length of torsion bar (m)

T= torque (N-m)

G= modulus of rigidity (N/m2)

R0= outer radius (m)

r1= inner radius (m)

➢ Torque measurement based on induced strain measurement

Torque measurement based on induced strain measurement is popular because it does not
introduce friction torques in the measurement.

14
The typical arrangement with four strain gauges is shown in the figures given below.

Fig.14 Position of torque measuring strain gauge on shaft

Typically four strain gauges are installed precisely on surface of shaft as shown in the fig.
Generally, rosette type strain gauges are used. Out of these four gauges, two are in tensile mode
while other two are in compressive mode. The gauges are positioned perfectly at 45 0 with the
shaft axis. The gauges 1 and 2 and 3 and 4 must be diametrically opposite. The gauges are so
mounted that they give maximum sensitivity to the strains produced by the torque. By the theory
of two dimensional stress systems, the gauges are strained in direction of their major axis if they
are mounted at 450 to the axis of the shaft.An arrangement with four gauges has the following
advantages:

i) For given torque, it gives maximum sensitivity.

ii) It is fully temperature compensated.
iii) It provides automatic compensation for bending and axial loads.

Inspite of all such advantages, there are major difficulties with the use of this arrangement in
connecting it to power source and display unit. To overcome this difficulty, slip rings are used.
The slip rings are the conducting rings attached to the shaft but insulated from it and one of the
slip rings is connected to each of the bridge terminals. A contact is made between the rings and
the stationary brushes which are connected to the input and output devices.

➢ Piezoelectric torque transducer

A measurement of torque is possible by using piezoelectric cantilever type bimorph used as a
bender type bimorph. When a small force is transmitted through a lever, a twisting moment is
generated. A twisting moment can be obtained by connecting driving shaft directly to the
bimorph. A piezoelectric torque transducer is shown in the fig given below.

15
 Fig.15 A cantilever type twister bimorph

The main advantage of this transducer is its high sensitivity. Hence, it is most useful for
measuring small torques. The most commonly used elements are Rochelle salt at room
temperature and ADP upto 1000 C.

➢ Optical torque measurement:

In recent years, a new technique of torque measurement is developed which uses laser diodes and
fiber optic transmission system. A simple optical torque measurement set up is shown in the fig
below.

Fig.16 Optical torque measurement

At the ends of a rotating shaft, two wheels with black and white strips are mounted. These
wheels are properly aligned without appluing any torque. A laser diode light source directs light
on to the wheels through a pair of fiber optic cables. Under no torque condition, the reflected
pulse train are in phase with each other. When the wheels are rotated, the pulses of reflected light
are generated.

When the torque is applied to the rotating shaft, the modulation of reflected light takes place.
Then the phase difference between the reflected pulse trains is measured using receiver. This
phase difference directly gives the torque magnitude directly. The technique is advantageous as
its physical size is small and cost of the total setup is relatively small.

16
 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

➢ Introduction
Temperature of a body or system is the fundamental parameter which identifies the degree of
hotness or coldness of a body or system. When any substance, in solid, liquid or gaseous state,
accepts or releases heat, then it affects the physical dimension and state of the substance. This
principle is used to develop the primary temperature measurement methods. In this method,
output signal may be in the form of mechanical displacement or pressure and then this output
signal is converted into electrical signal. Bimetal strip, liquid-in-gas thermometer are a few
examples of temperature measurement instruments.

➢ Absolute thermodynamic scale or Kelvin scale

The absolute thermodynamic scale is based on the mechanical work obtained from reversible
heat engine between two bodies at two temperatures. Moreover, this scale is independent of the
properties of the subject.

If Q11 is the heat supplied by the source at temperature at T1 and Q2 is the heat received by the
sink at temperature T2, then for the heat engines working on cornot cycle we can write,

𝑄2 𝑇2
=
𝑄1 𝑇1
This relationship is obtained by applying second law of thermodynamics. This temperature scale
was first postulated by lord Kelvin, hence the scale is called as Kelvin scale. The unit of
thermodynamic scale is Kelvin(K) and is defined as 1 of the temperature of the triple point
273.16
of the water which is equal to 273.16K.

The thermodynamic temperature are realized by using gas law given as

PV= mRT

Where P= absolute pressure

V= Volume of the gas

m= mass of gas

R= gas constant

T= temperature on Kelvin scale

The temperature measurement has limitation that it cannot be related to the fundamental standard
of temperature. Due to this, it becomes difficult to establish standard for the temperature in the

17
form of a relationship between it and other quantities for which primary standards do exists. So
to establish fixed reference points in the form of freezing and boiling points of substances
become essential. There are 6 primary fixed points defined as follows,

Triple point of equilibrium hydrogen -259.340 C

Boiling point of oxygen -182.9620 C

Boiling point of water 100.00 C

Freezing point of zinc 419.580 C

Freezing point of silver 961.930 C

Freezing point of gold 1064.430 C

The instruments for measuring temperature are categorized into following classes according to
the principle of operation of these instruments. Some of the important principles are

I. Thermal expansion
II. Thermoelectric effect
III. Resistance change
IV. Thermography
V. Fiberglass optic devices.
➢ Thermal expansion mode
The instruments based in thermal expansion make use of principle that the dimension of the
substance in solid, liquid or gaseous state changes with the temperature change. The most
commonly used instruments based on thermal expansion methods are bimetallic thermometer,
liquid-in-gas thermometer, and pressure thermometer.

➢ Bimetallic thermometer
It is based on the principle that If two strips of different metals are joined together then with the
change in temperature applied to it causes bend in the bimetallic strip. So by calibrating the
magnitude of bending with respect to temperature change in bimetallic strip can be used as
thermometer.

There are different configurations possible in bimetallic strip thermometer as shown below.

18
 (a) Flat bimetallic strip (b) Curved bimetallic strip

(C) Flat spiral bimetallic strip (d) helical bimetallic strip

Fig.17 Various configurations of bimetallic strip

The simplest type of the bimetallic strip is flat straight bimetallic strip as shown in the previous
figure. The two metals with different coefficients of expansion are bonded together firming a
bimetallic strip unit. The step remains flat and straight at the temperature at which the pieces are
bonded. When the strip is heated to high temperature, the strip bends towards metal side having

19
lower coefficient of thermal expansion. The metal with higher coefficient is called active side
and the metal with lower coefficient is called passive side. Same technique is used in the curved
bimetallic strip as shown in the previous figure. To obtain higher sensitivity, spiral bimetallic as
shown in the previous figure is extensively used. Here the thickness of the strip is kept lower
than the radius of curvature. It offers relatively large displacements of free end of the strip for
any temperature changes. For visual indication, at the free end of strip a pointer with scale is
mounted which gives direct indication of temperature on a calibrated scale. If we require an
electrical output, then LVDT is the best option. To increase sensitivity further, a helical
bimetallic strip as shown in fig (d) is used. To increase measurement sensitivity, two metals are
carefully selected such that degree is bending is maximized and thus temperature range of
measurement is increased. It is observed that the nickel-steel alloy called Invar and Brass shows
highest measurement sensitivity and temperature range with maximum degree of bending.

➢ Liquid-in-gas Thermometer
It is the most common temperature measuring instrument used widely in various applications.
The liquid or fluid used is either mercury (Hg) or colored alcohol. This fluid is contained within
a bulb and a capillary tube as shown below.

Fig.18 Liquid-in-gas thermometer

When the temperature of surroundings increases, the fluid in the bulb expands along the capillary
tube. The level of expansion can be directly read out using the calibrated scale which gives direct
reading of the temperature of surroundings. Generally, this type of thermometer is used in
industrial applications to measure temperature within -200 C to 1000 C range.

➢ Pressure Thermometer
In this thermometer, instead of fluid, gas is used. The pressure thermometer consists of a bulb
containing gas. This gas is constrained in a bulb. It is necessary to constrain gas, otherwise, with
rise in temperature, the volume of gas would rise tremendously. With the gas constrained in a

20
bulb, the gas cannot expand but its pressure increases. Basically, it is not actually based on
thermal expansion type instruments directly but it obeys Boyle’s law,

PV=KT

The typical pressure thermometer is shown in fig.19

Fig.19 Pressure thermometer

The change in the pressure of gas is measured using pressure transducer such as Bourdon tube.
The pressure transducer is located away from the bulb containing gas and the transducer is
connected to the bulb through the capillary tube as shown in the previous fig.

It is necessary to protect pressure transducer from changes in the environment to achieve

accurate temperature reading.

21
 PRESSURE SENSORS & FLOW MEASUREMENT

➢ Pressure sensors
Pressure is basically a physical parameter encountered in many fields. It is defined as the force
acting per unit area measured at a given point or over the surface.

Most pressure measuring devices use elastic members for sensing pressure at the primary stage.
These elastic members are of many types and convert the pressure into mechanical displacement
which is later converted into an electrical form using a secondary transducer.

The principle of working of these devices can be explained as- the fluid or gas whose pressure is
to be measured is made to press the pressure sensitive element and since the element is an elastic
member, it deflects causing a mechanical displacement. The displacement is proportional to the
pressure applied. The displacement is then measured with the help of electrical transducers. The
output of the electrical transducer is proportional to the displacement and hence to the applied
input pressure. The commonly used pressure sensitive devices are:

• Diaphragms
• Capsule
• Bourdon tube
• Bellows
• Diaphragms
The pressure sensing elastic element most commonly used in the pressure transducer is the
diaphragm. The diaphragm is essentially a thin circular plate stretched and fastened at its
periphery. Diaphragms are widely used as a sensing elemen for high accuracy and good dynamic
response. They can respond to pressure values ranging from a few millimeters of water column
to several atmospheres. The main characteristics of the diaphragm are ruggedness, excellent
stability and reliability.

Sensing diaphragms are made from elastic metal alloys, such as bronze, phosphor bronze,
beryllium copper and stainless steel. The main considerations while selecting a suitable
diaphragm material are temperature range, effects of shock and vibration and frequency response
requirements.

The diaphragms are of two types:

i) Flat type
ii) Corrugated type

22
Corrugated diaphragms, on account of their increased surface area, give greater deflections,
typically, 2% of diaphragm diameter. Hence, for larger deflection requirements, corrugated
diaphragms are ideal.

Fig.20. Diaphragms

• Capsule
A capsule consists of two identical annular corrugated metal diaphragms sealed together at the
periphery to form a shell-like enclosure. One of the diaphragms is provided with a central port to
admit the pressure to be measured, and the other is linked to a mechanical member. The
displacement of this member is proportional to the difference of the inner and outer pressures. As
one diaphragm is rigidly held, the other deflects and results in double the displacement of a
single diaphragm. For increasing the sensitivity further, two or more capsules are connected in
series and the net displacement is proportional to the number of capsules.

Fig.21 Capsule

• Bourdon tube
This is a curved or twisted metallic tube having an elliptical cross-section and sealed at one end.
The tube tends to straighten out on the application of pressure and the angular deflection of the
free end is taken as a measure of the pressure. In the C-shaped tube, the angular deflection is
normally measured with a mechanical pointer moving over a calibrated scale. The deflection of a
Bourdon tube varies with ratio of its major to minor cross-sectional axis, tube length, difference

23
between the internal and external pressures and radius of curvature. It also varies inversely with
the tube-wall thickness and the modulus of elasticity of the material used.

Fig.22 C-type bourdon tube

Bourdon tubes are fabricated with metal alloys such as brass, phosphor bronze, beryllium copper,
stainless steel and nickel alloys.Bourdon tube elements have several distinct advantages and
these include low cost, simple construction, high sensitivity, good repeatability, high pressure
range and high accuracy at low pressure. Their greatest advantage is that they are easily adapted
for design for obtaining electrical outputs.

Low spring gradient of a bourdon tube limits its use for precision measurements upto a pressure
of 3 MN/m2. Bourdon tubes are more sensitive to shock and vibration than diaphragms and
hence are used for static measurements.

• Bellows
Bellows are thin-walled cylindrical shells with deep convolutions. They are sealed at one end.
The sealed end moves axially when pressure is applied to the other end. Depending upon the
pressure range, required displacement and operating temperature, the number of convolutions
may from 5 to 20.

Bellows are normally used for low pressure measurements. They are sensitive to vibrations. The
materials used for the fabrication of bellows are phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, stainless
steel or nickel alloys.

24
 • FLOW MEASUREMENT
In many process industries, measurement of flow is an important aspect. Depending on the
quantity flowing such as solid, liquid, gaseous, appropriate method of flow rate measurement is
used. In case of solids, rate of mass flow is measured while in the case of liquids and gases flow
is usually measured in terms of volume flow rate.

• Mass flow rate

In the process industries, measurement of mass flow rate of solids is concerned with solids
transported from one point to another by some conveyor as shown in the fig given below. In such
systems, the mass flow rate is expressed in terms of mass of the solid along the length of
conveyor multiplied by speed of the conveyor.

Fig.23 Mass flow rate measurement

The mass of solid along the length of conveyor, L, is measured with the help of load cell. Let it
be ‘m’. If the conveyor velocity is ‘v’, then the mass flow rate Q is given by

Q= (m.v)/L

The mass flow rate of fluids is measured with simultaneous measurement of volume flow rate
and the fluid density.

• Volume flow rate

The volume flow rate measurement is the correct way of finding flow of materials which are in
liquid, gaseous or semi-liquid forms. The devices measuring the volume flow rate are flowmeters
and these are classified as mechanical and electrical type flow meters.

25
In mechanical type flow meters, an obstruction is placed in the flow pipe and the secondary
effect of the obstruction such as torque developed on vens or differential pressure across plate is
measured. In electrical type flow meters, the frequency of rotation of a turbine, change in
velocity of sound in fluid, change in resistance of an element, an electrical potential developed in
a coil by liquid moving in a magnetic field are measured. The instruments used for the
measurement of volume flow rate are as follows:

i) Head-type flow meters( based on differential pressure measurement)

ii) Variable area meters( Rotameters)
iii) Mechanical flow meters( Turbine flow meters)
iv) Electromagnetic flow meters
v) Anemometers
vi) Ultrasonic flow meters
vii) Vortex flow meter
• Head type flow meters (Based on differential pressure measurement)

In these types of flow meters, some device is inserted into a pipe carrying a fluid. It obstructs the
flow of fluid and creates a pressure difference on either side of the device. The most commonly
used devices are as follow:

i) Orifice plate
ii) Venturi Tube
iii) Flow nozzle
iv) Doll flow tube
v) Pilot tube

The basic principle of all such devices is that due to obstruction, the velocity of the fluid
increases and the pressure decreases. Then, the volume flow rate is proportional to the square
root of pressure difference across the obstruction. To measure pressure difference, a diaphragm
based on differential pressure transducer is used.

The orifice plate

26
 Flow across flow nozzle Pitot tube

Flow across venture tube Doll flow tube

Fig.24. Head type flow meters
• Variable Area Meter (Rotameter):
The rotameters are also called constant pressure drop meters or variable aperture meters. The
area of aperture is adjusted by a differential pressure across the variable pressure. The area of the
aperture directly gives the flow rate.

The variable area meter gives a visual indication of the flow. It consists of a glass tube tapered at
one end and a float in the vertical position. The float is made up of brass, steel, monel or special
plastic.

The float assumes a stable vertical position as its submerged weight is balanced by upthrust due
to differential pressure across it. The position of the float is a measure of effective annular area
of passage of the flow and hence the flow rate. The accuracy of rotamter is moderate but it is
cheaper and reliable. Hence its extensively used in the industries.

27
 • Mechanical flow meter
It extensively uses multi-bladed turbine. The basic structure of this type of flowmeter is shown
below.

Fig.25 The turbine flow meter

It consists of multi-bladed wheel mounted in side pipe along the axis parallel to the direction of
the flow of fluid. When the flow of the fluid passes the wheel, the wheel starts rotating at a rate
proportional to the volume flow rate. The flow meter is constructed such that it acts as variable
reluctance tachogenerator and then the rate of rotation of when is measured using tachogenerator.
The turbine blades are made of ferromagnetic material. During fabrication, the permanent
magnet and coil are placed properly inside the flow meter. When each blade on the turbine
passes the coil, a voltage pulse is induced in the coil. Then by counting these pulses, we can
calculate frequency of pulses and hence the flow rate. This type of flow meters provide high
accuracy when the turbine wheel is mounted on low friction bearing. Turbine flow meters are
lighter and preferred mostly in oil-industries, for low viscosity and high flow measurements.

28
 • Electromagnetic flow meters
Only the volume flow rates of electrically conductive fluids can be measured using
electromagnetic flow meters. The basic structure of this instrument is shown below.

Fig.26 Electromagnetic flow meter

The instrument consists of a stainless steel cylindrical tube. The tube is fitted with an insulating
linear which carries a fluid. The coils are placed on the either side of the tube. By energizing the
coils, the magnetic field is created in the tube. The voltage induced in the fluid is measured with
the help of two electrodes inserted into opposite sides of the tube. The electodes are
manufactured from a material such as stainless steel, platinum-iridium alloys, titanium and
tantalum which is unaffected by the most types of flowing fluids.

In this flow meter, there is no obstruction in the fluid flow and hence there is no pressure loss
associated with the measurement. It requires minimum length of the tube so as to increase the
accuracy. These meters are useful for the measurement of flow of slurries in which the liquid
part is electrically conductive. By using appropriate lining material, it can be used to handle
corrosive fluids.

The main drawback is that its application is limited for electrically conductive fluids. It is very
expensive since the electrodes used are costly. As electricity is required for proper use of meter,
its running cost is also high.

29
 • Anemometer (Hot Wire Anemometer)
Anemometer is a device used for the measurement of velocity of fluid stream such as air flow in
a duct or wind tunnel. Hot wire anemometer is based on the principles of heat transfer. The
principle of heat transfer used in hot wire anemometer is that when a fluid flows over a heated
surface, the heat transfers from the surface and hence the temperature of the surface reduces. The
rate of the change in temperature is related to the flow rate. The basic arrangement of the this
meter is shown below.

Fig.27 Anemometer

The heat is supplied electrically to a fine wire which is placed in a flow stream. The temperature
of the wire is obtained by measuring resistance of wire with the help of Wheatstone’s bridge. In
other method, temperature is kept constant by adjusting current flowing through the wire. Then
heating current is calculated by measuring a voltage drop across standard resistance Rs which is
connected in series with the heating wire. If the resistance and temperature of the wire is kept
constant then the rate of flow of the fluid is measured by measuring the current I through the
heater wire.

30