2019

PROJECT
/TRAINING REPORT
ON EMBEDDED
SYSTEM

PARMINDER KAUR1
ROLL NO 1625755
SSIET,JALANDHAR
 A PROJECT REPORT
On

EMBEDDED SYSTEM
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the
award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Electronics & Communication Engineering course of

ST. Solider Institute of Engineering &Technology

Jalandhar
(Affiliated to Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar)
SESSION (2015- 2019)

At
INFOWIZ
Chandigarh

ER. NEERAJ SHARMA Name: SHIREEN

(HOD Of ECE) Roll No: 1625761
2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Kamaljot Kansal

(CEO), Director of INFOWIZ and for providing me an
opportunity to do my project work on “Arduino Based Home
Automation ”.

This project bears on imprint of many people. I sincerely thank

my project guide Er. Amit Solanki from INFOWIZ for guidance
and encouragement in carrying out this project work.

I also wish to express my gratitude to the officials of “INFOWIZ

’’ who rendered their help during the period of my project work
and their kind co-operation to the completion of my project
work. Last but not least I wish to avail myself of this
opportunity, express a sense of gratitude and love to my
friends and my beloved parents for their manual support,
strength, help and for everything.

Place: Chandigarh
Date: ,2019

3
 CHAPTER-1
Introduction

About ‘INFOWIZ ’
INFOWIZ was formed in 2009 with the mission to provide Industrial
training to aspiring Engineers and technical support to industries. Within
a short span of 9 years “INFOWIZ” has become one of the leading
organizations which offer state of art professional IT solutions, Industrial
trainings, technical support and consultancy to software companies in
India and abroad. Due to quality assurance and high level of
commitments in our services, we have won quite a few accolades and
are associated with reputed universities and popular corporates, in the
field. We strive to impart personalized, professional and contemporary
experiential trainings on all the engineering streams that are necessary
for the career, success and growth for both students & industry
respectively.
Business Overview
Founded as industrial lab for providing industrial training to
undergraduate engineers, INFOWIZ” has grown progressively to
become vertically integrated company in the industrial training
arena. The core business of the company is to deliver range of
industrial trainings in various engineering streams to students, IT
solutions, software consultancy and support to small and big
companies. ’INFOWIZ’ enjoys the distinction of being Unique &
Positive in the tri-city (Chandigarh, Panchkula Mohali) with
extensive steams of softwares & engineering subjects. “INFOWIZ”
is in a strong position to work with reputed Universities and
Corporates`

Company Strategy
Vision:

4
 • To provide unique & high quality trainings that exceeds the
expectations of our esteemed Students and Clients.
Purpose:
• To be a leader in the Industrial training industry by providing
enhanced relationship and profitability.
Mission statement:
• To build long term relationships with our students and clients
and provide exceptional customer services by pursuing business
through innovation and advanced technology.
Core values:
• We believe in treating our students & customers with respect and
faith,
• We grow through creativity, research and innovation,
• We integrate honesty, integrity and business ethics into all aspects of
our business functioning
Goals:
• Regional & National expansion in the field of trainings/software
consultancy and develop a strong base of students & corporates.
• Increase the assets and investments of the company to support the
development of services.
• To build good reputation in the field of Industrial trainings & software
consultancy and become a key player in the industry.

Accolade
INFOWIZwon the NATIONAL AWARD for 3 consecutive years 2014-
2015,2015-2016 & 2016-2017 for BEST Industrial Training
• Best Education Provider Award 2017 from Punjab Education Minister
S. Dalijit Singh Cheema.
• Best Industrial Training Award 2016 from Honorable GOVERNER of
Punjab & Haryana.
• Best Industrial Training Award 2015 from Dr .Udit Raj (MP) & Mrs.
Vimla Mehra (IPS Delhi)

Product Portfolio
• Web Development (PHP & .NET)
5
• JAVA (Core & Advance)

• Embedded systems (AVR, PIC & ARM)

• I-phone & Android application development

• Networking (MCSE,MCITP, CCNA, CCNP & RHSE)

• CCDP certification

• Robotics

• Ethical Hacking & Cloud Computing

• SEO & Bidding

• Automation ( Scada,PLC, Pannel,Drives )

• MATLAB

• AUTOCAD Civil and Mechanical (2D & 3D)

• Solid Works,Catia,Pro-E,NX-10,Cre-o,Cnc Programimg

• Staad Pro,3Ds MAX,Revit,Prima Vera

• C/C++/Data structure

• Short term/long term Industrial training

• Technical Support & Consultancy

• BBA,MBA (MARKETING,HR & FINANCE)

Business Information
Business Type: Industrial Training on Engineering courses, IT Solutions,
Implementation
State: Chandigarh (UT) Location(s): Chandigarh, Bhatinda Country: India
Employee Count: 50 (Including CEO & MD)
Delivery Lead-time: depend on the type of course and training

6
Business Name:INFOWIZ
Business Address: SCO 118-120, Basement, Sector 34A, Chandigarh
Business Email: info@HYPERLINK "mailto:info@INFOWIZ
.co.in"INFOWIZ.HYPERLINK "mailto:info@infowiz .co.in"co.HYPERLINK
"mailto:info@infowiz.co.in"in
Business Tel: +91172-4567-88HYPERLINK "tel:172-4567-888" +91 9888-
500-888 +91 9888-600-888

Principal Customers
Sn URL's Countr
Projects
o. y
1 Viva Sales www.INFOWIZ .in/vivasales UK
Germa
2 Mds Creative
www.mdscreative.com ny
3 Liddle TV www.filmon.com UK
Ongoing Austral
4 Paradigms(Android)
ia
5 Printcost www.popgraphics.net UK
www.bootstrap.achieversperfect.c
6 PSTDO Bootstrap
om USA
Austral
7
Essencesoftwares www.essencesoftwares.com ia
Dashboard Ongoing
8
(WordPress) USA
9 Realstate www.realstate.INFOWIZ .in Russia
Dealpartners(WordP www.dealpartners.co.uk.gridhost
10
ress) ed.co.uk UK

management & leadership

INFOWIZis led by a team of professionals and technicians who are
honest, committed and always ready to accept contemporary
challenges. The leadership roles are

1. Mr. Kamaljot Kansal (CEO)

7
Mr. Kansal has been turning ideas into realities ever since he has taken
up the task of promoting INFOWIZ . In his own words “I never dreamt
about success I worked for It.” reflects that he believes in talk less and
work more theory. No doubt under his leadership INFOWIZ has become
one of strongest companies in the field of IT solutions in less than a
decade. His management fundamental is “team work” as he takes along,
talks along all his team members and appreciates and attributes their
contribution to the success of INFOWIZ . He is determined to bring
INFOWIZ in the top 5 companies in the country.

2. Dr. Seema (Managing Director)

Dr. Seema has with more than 9 years of practical experience in the field
is one of the strongest pillars of INFOWIZ. Her management style is
unique and well accepted by the students and associates. She believes in
taking new challenges and implementing rational strategies for the
benefit of organization.

ROADMAP OF FUTURE
IFOWIZ future plans include regional and national expansion through
both COCO and FOFO business models. Our 1st COCO branch is already
operational at Bhatinda. Being an ISO certified company and member of
CII we have attained very high level of accomplishments in the Industrial
training business that we would want to take to masses. INFOWIZ is
committed to develop its strengths & core competencies with continues
research & technical excellence. It would never cease to embrace and
add latest technological advancements in the field of trainings and pass
the same to the students as and when demand will arise, creating the
best and most modern atmosphere for learning.

8
 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1) Company Profile ……………………………………………1 - 4

2) Introduction to Electronic Devices ………………………5 - 45

3) Introduction to Logic Gates ……………………………46 - 52

4) Introduction to Embedded Systems ………………….52 – 117

 Micro-controller 8051

 Interfacing of Various Devices

5) Software Description …………………………………..118 - 126

 Introduction to Kiel.
 Proteus
 Arduino IDE
 Commands used.
 Introduction to ISP.
6) Some Basic programs using assembly 127-130

9
10
ELECTRONIC DEVICES

An electronic component is any indivisible electronic building block packaged

in a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads.
Components are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a
printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit with a particular function
(for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be
packaged singly (resistor, capacitor, transistor, diode etc.) or in more or less
complex groups as integrated circuits (operational amplifier, resistor array,
logic gate etc). Active components are sometimes called devices rather than
components.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE:

Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an object opposes

the passage of an electric current. The Sl unit of electrical resistance is the
ohm,

The quantity of resistance in an electric circuit determines the amount of

current flowing in the circuit for any given voltage applied to the circuit.

R=V / I
where

11
 R is the resistance of the object, usually measured in ohms, equivalent
to J.s/C2

V is the potential difference across the object, usually measured in volts

/ is the current passing through the object, usually measured in amperes
Resistors are two-terminal devices that restrict, or resist, the flow of current.
The larger the resistor, the less current can flow through it for a given voltage
(an equation known as Ohm's law, V=113, relates current, resistance, and
voltage). Electrical resistance within the resistor body is caused by the
collisions of electrons in motion through the resistor. Such collisions cause
energy to be dissipated in the form of heat or light (as in a toaster or light
bulb). Resistance is measured in Ohms - a 1 Ohm resistor is relatively small,
and a 100KOhm resistor is relatively large. Resistors find many uses in
electronic systems, On the Digilab board, resistors are used to limit the
current that flows into an output LED (so they don't burn too bright and
destroy themselves) and to limit the current that flows in response to a button
or switch input being activated. The Digilab board uses several different
resistor values. Of course, the correct resistor must be loaded in the correct
place on the PCB.

Resistors come in many shapes and sizes, and depending on their size and
construction technology, they can dissipate differing amounts of power (the
amount of power dissipated in a resistor can be calculated using the equation
P=I 2 R, where I is the current flowing through the resistor and R is the
resistance). Typically, resistors used in digital systems encounter relatively low
voltages and currents, and therefore, they can be relatively small. The Digilab
resistors are rated to dissipate 250mW of power, or 1/4 Watt. Resistors that

12
 can dissipate more than 1/4 Watt are physically larger. For example, power
resistors that can dissipate several Watts or more can be cigar-sized or even
larger. For small resistors, resistor values are "encoded" as a series of coloured
bands on the resistor body.

To determine the value of a small resistor (i.e., 1/8 Watt or 1/4 Watt), first
locate the tolerance band on one end of the resistor - it will typically be either
gold (59% tolerance) or silver (10% tolerance). The colour band at the other
end of the resistor is band1. Use the table below to find the two-digit number
associated with the colors of bands 1 and 2. The band nearest the tolerance
band is the multiplier (or exponent) band - the digits associated with the first
two colour bands are multiplied by 10 raised to the power indicated by the
colour of the multiplier band. The following table associates band colors to
digits and multiplier factors. Simply multiply the two-digit value by the
multiplier, and you’ve got the resistor value.

BAND 1st and 2nd band Multiplier Tolerance

COLOR digits
Black 0 100 1%
Brown 1 101 2%
Red 2 102 3%
Orange 3 103 4%
Yellow 4 104 N/A
Green 5 105 N/A
Blue 6 106 N/A
Violet 7 107 N/A
Grey 8 108 N/A

13
White 9 109 N/A Resistor schematic
Gold N/A .1 5% symbol
Silver N/A .01 10%
No color N/A N/A 20%

Resistors are manufactured with many body colors, with tan or light brown
being the most typical. The only significant resistor body colors are white and
blue; these colors signify a non-flammable or fusible resistor. Such resistors
are used in circuits where overheating might pose a safety risk. In circuit
schematics and in parts lists, resistor reference designators always begin with
an "R". You can see several rectangular white boxes with "R-" on the Digilab
board silk-screen. The schematic symbol for a resistor is shown above.
Resistors are non-polarised, so they can be placed in a PCB in any orientation.

For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance does
not depend on the amount of current flowing or the amount of applied
voltage. V can either be measured directly across the object or calculated
from a subtraction of voltages relative to a reference point. The former
method is simpler for a single object and is likely to be more accurate. There
may also be problems with the latter method if the voltage supply is AC and
the two measurements from the reference point are not in phase with each
other.

14
RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Series circuits

A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so the

current has only one path to take. The current is the same through each
resistor. The total resistance of the circuit is found by simply adding up the
resistance values of the individual resistors:

equivalent resistance of resistors in series : R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

A series circuit is shown in the diagram above.

With a 10 V battery, by V = I R the total current in the circuit is:

I = V / R = 10 / 20 = 0.5 A. The current through each resistor would be 0.5 A.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with their
heads connected together, and their tails connected together. The current in a
parallel circuit breaks up, with some flowing along each parallel branch and

15
re-combining when the branches meet again. The voltage across each resistor
in parallel is the same.

The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found by adding up the

reciprocals of the resistance values, and then taking the reciprocal of the total:

Equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel: 1 / R = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 +...

A parallel circuit is shown in the diagram above. In this case the current
supplied by the battery splits up, and the amount going through each resistor
depends on the resistance. If the values of the three resistors are:

With a 10 V battery, by V = I R the total current in the circuit is: I = V / R = 10 /

2 = 5 A.

The individual currents can also be found using I = V / R. The voltage across
each resistor is 10 V, so:

I1 = 10 / 8 = 1.25 A
I2 = 10 / 8 = 1.25 A
I3=10 / 4 = 2.5 A

Note that the currents add together to 5A, the total current.

16
A parallel resistor short-cut

If the resistors in parallel are identical, it can be very easy to work out the
equivalent resistance. In this case the equivalent resistance of N identical
resistors is the resistance of one resistor divided by N, the number of resistors.
So, two 40-ohm resistors in parallel are equivalent to one 20-ohm resistor;
five 50-ohm resistors in parallel are equivalent to one 10-ohm resistor, etc.

When calculating the equivalent resistance of a set of parallel resistors, people

often forget to flip the 1/R upside down, putting 1/5 of an ohm instead of 5
ohms, for instance. Here's a way to check your answer. If you have two or
more resistors in parallel, look for the one with the smallest resistance. The
equivalent resistance will always be between the smallest resistance divided
by the number of resistors, and the smallest resistance. Here's an example.

You have three resistors in parallel, with values 6 ohms, 9 ohms, and 18 ohms.
The smallest resistance is 6 ohms, so the equivalent resistance must be
between 2 ohms and 6 ohms (2 = 6 /3, where 3 is the number of resistors).

Doing the calculation gives 1/6 + 1/12 + 1/18 = 6/18. Flipping this upside down
gives 18/6 = 3 ohms, which is certainly between 2 and 6.

CAPACITORS

A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field
between a pair of closely-spaced conductors (called 'plates). When voltage is
applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite
polarity, build up on each plate.

17
A capacitor is a two-terminal device that can store electric energy in the form
of charged particles. You can think of a capacitor as a reservoir of charge that
takes time to fill or empty. The voltage across a capacitor is proportional to
the amount of charge it is storing - since it is not possible to instantaneously
move charge to or from a capacitor, it is not possible to instantaneously
change the voltage across a capacitor. It is this property that makes capacitors
useful on the Digilab board.

Capacitance is measured in Farads - a one Farad capacitor can store one

Coloumb of charge at one volt. For engineering on a small scale (i.e.,
hand-held or desk-top devices), a one Farad capacitor stores far too much
charge to be of general use (it would be like a car having a 1000 gallon gas
tank). More useful capacitors are measured in micro-farads (uF) or pico-farads
(pF). The terms "milli-farad" and "nano-farad" are rarely used. Large
capacitors often have their value printed plainly on them, such as "10 uF (for
10 microfards). Smaller capacitors, appearing as small disks or wafers, often

18
have their values printed on them in an encoded manner (similar to the
resistor packs discussed above). For these capacitors, a three digit number
indicates the capacitor value in Pico farads. The first two digits provides the
"base" number, and the third digit provides an exponent of 10 (so, for
example, "104" printed on a capacitor indicates a capacitance value of 10 x 10
4 or 100000 pF). Occasionally, a capacitor will only show a two digit number,
in which case that number is simply the capacitor value in pF. (To be
complete, if a capacitor shows a three digit number and the third digit is 8 or
9, then the first two digits are multiplied by .01 and .1 respectively). Often, a
single letter is appended to the capacitance value -this letter indicates the
quality of the capacitor.

Capacitors are used on the Digilab board to keep the voltage supplies and
some signals stable regardless of circuit activity, and to store charge when
inputs are activated in order to slow their assertion times. Twenty-seven
capacitors of three different types and values are used on the Digilab board.
The majority of the capacitors (24 out of 27) are used to decouple Digilab's
integrated circuits from the power supply. These 24 bypass capacitors are
placed on the board very close to the Vdd pins of all chips, where they can
supply the short-term electrical current needs of the chips. Without such
bypass capacitors, individual chips could cause the Vdd supply across the
entire Digilab board to dip below 5V during times of heavy current demand.
Nearly every chip in every digital system uses bypass capacitors. Bypass
capacitor value can be determined if the worst-case current requirements are
known (by using the formula I = C dv/dt), but more typically, capacitors in the
range 0.01uF to 0.1uF are used without regard to the actual current
requirements. The Digilab board uses 0.047uF bypass capacitors. The board

19
also uses a bulk bypass capacitor (C27) to provide charge storage for the
entire circuit board - this large 47uF capacitor can supply the individual bypass
capacitors during times of exceptional need.

ENERGY STORAGE

A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging
circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are common
used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being
changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.)

Capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full
or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the
energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input
voltage,

Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic
devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal
current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean"
power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example,
uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it
gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC
power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in
car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the
inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery.

20
CAPACITORS IN SERIES

The total capacitance of the above circuit is:

1 1 1 1
   ...... 
Ceq C1 C2 Cn

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

The total capacitance of this circuit will be:

Ceq = C1 + C2 + ….. + Cn

CAPACITOR TYPES

 Metal film: Made from high quality polymer foil (usually

polycarbonate, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyester (Mylar), and for

21
 high quality capacitors polysulfone), with a layer of metal deposited on
surface. They have good quality and stability, and are suitable for timer
circuits. Suitable for high frequencies.

 Mica: Similar to metal film. Often high voltage. Suitable for high
frequencies. Expensive.

 Paper: Used for high voltages

 Glass: Used for high voltages. Expensive. Stable temperature

coefficient in a wide range of temperatures.

 Ceramic: Chips of altering layers of metal and ceramic. Depending on

their dielectric, whether Class 1 or Class 2, their degree of
temperature/capacity dependence varies. They often have (especially
the class 2) high dissipation factor, high frequency coefficient of
dissipation, their capacity depends on applied voltage, and their
capacity changes with aging. However they find massive use in
common low-precision coupling and filtering applications. Suitable for
high frequencies.

 Electrolytic: Polarized. Construction ally similar to metal film, but the

electrodes are made of aluminum etched to acquire much higher
surfaces, and the dielectric is soaked with liquid electrolyte. They suffer
from high tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacity especially
when subjected to heat, and high leakage. Special types with low

22
 equivalent series resistance are available. Tend to lose capacity in low
temperatures. Can achieve high capacities.

 Tantalum: Like electrolytic. Polarized. Better performance with higher

frequencies. High dielectric absorption. High leakage. Have much better
performance in low temperatures.

 Supercapacitrs: Made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or

highly porous electrode materials. Extremely high capacity. Can be used
in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries.

USES OF CAPACITORS

Capacitors are used for several purposes:

 Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and
discharging.

 Smoothing - for example in a power supply.

 Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system and to

connect aloudspeaker.

 Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system.

 Tuning - for example in a radio system.

23
  Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit

CURRENT

Electric current Is by definition the flow of electric charge. The Sl unit of

blectric current Is the ampere (A), which Is equal to a flow of one coulomb of
charge per second.

VOLTAGE

Voltage is the difference of electrical potential between two points of an

electronic circuit, expressed in volts [1]. It measures the capacity (not the
technical meaning) of an electric field to cause an electric current in an
electrical conductor. Depending on the difference of electrical potential it is
called extra low voltage, low voltage, high voltage or extra high voltage

RESISTANCE

Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an object opposes

the passage of an electric current. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the
ohm.

OHM'S LAW
Ohm's law predicts the current in an (ideal) resistor (or other ohmic device) to
be applied voltage divided by resistance:
I=V/R

24
Where

/is the current, measured in amperes

V is the potential difference measured in volts
R is the resistance measured in ohms

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

VOLTMETER

A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the potential difference

between two points in an electric circuit.

The voltage can be measured by allowing it to pass a current through a

resistance; therefore, a voltmeter can be seen as a very high resistance
ammeter. One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the
circuit as little as possible and hence the instrument should draw a minimum
of electric current to operate. This is achieved by using a sensitive ammeter or
micrometer in series with a high resistance.
The moving coil galvanometer is one example of this type of voltmeter. It
employs a small coil of fine wire suspended in a strong magnetic field. When
an electrical current is applied, the galvanometer's indicator rotates and
compresses a small spring. The angular rotation is proportional to the current
that is flowing through the coil- For use as a voltmeter, a series resistance is
added so that the angular rotation becomes proportional to the applied
voltage

25
AMMETER

An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the flow of electric

current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes, hence the
name. The word "ammeter" is commonly misspelled or mispronounced as
"ampmeter" by some.
The earliest design is the D'Arsonval galvanometer or moving coil ammeter. It
uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil causes the coil
to move in a magnetic field. The voltage drop across the coil is kept to a
minimum to minimize resistance across the ammeter in any circuit into which
the it is inserted.

Moving iron ammeters use a piece or pieces of iron which move when acted
upon by the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of (usually heavy gauge)
wire. This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating currents (as
opposed to the moving coil ammeter, which works on direct current only).

To measure larger currents, a resistor called a shunt is placed in parallel with

the meter. Most of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small
fraction flow through the meter. With this solution, arbitrarily large currents
can be measured with a single meter. Traditionally, the meter used with a
shunt reaches full-scale deflection when a voltage of 50mV is placed across its
coil, so shunts are typically designed to produce a voltage drop of 50mV when
carrying their full rated current.

More modern ammeter designs are non-mechanical, or digital, and use an

analog to digital converter to measure the voltage across the shunt resistor.

26
The ADC is read by a microcomputer that performs the calculations to display
the current through the resistor.

One problem with the use of an ammeter is the need for the meter to be
inserted into the circuit and become part of it. Mistakenly placing the
ammeter in parallel with a circuit will blow the fuse, possibly damaging the
meter and causing injury. In AC circuits, an inductive coupling adapter
converts the magnetic field around a conductor into a small AC current that
can be easily read by a meter. See clamp meter. In a similar way, accurate DC
non-contact arnmeters have been constructed using Hall effect magnetic field
sensors

OHMMETER

An Ohmmeter is an electrical measuring instrument that measures electrical

resistance, the opposition to the flow of an electric current.

The original design of an ohmmeter provided a small battery to apply a

voltage to a resistance. It used a galvanometer to measure the electric current
through the resistance. The scale of the galvanometer was marked in ohms,
because the fixed voltage from the battery assured that as resistance
decreased, the current through the meter would increase.

A more accurate type of ohmmeter has an electronic circuit that passes a

constant current I through the resistance, and another circuit that measures
the voltage V across the resistance. According to the following equation,
derived from Ohm's Law, the value of the resistance R is given by:

27
 R= V/1

For high-precision measurements the above types of meter are inadequate,

This is because the meter's reading is the sum of the resistance of the
measuring leads, the contact resistances and the resistance being measured.
To reduce this effect, a precision ohmmeter has four terminals, called Kelvin
contacts. Two terminals carry the current from the meter, while the other two
allow the meter to measure the voltage across the resistor. With this type of
meter, any current drop due to the resistance of the first pair of leads and
their contact resistances is ignored by the meter. This four terminal
measurement technique is called Kelvin sensing, after William Thomson, Lord
Kelvin, who invented the Kelvin bridge in 1861 to measure very low
resistances.

DIODES

Diodes are constructed from the same type of silicon as transistors, but they
are simpler devices that have only two terminals. Called the anode and
cathode, the two ends of the diode are constructed of positively doped silicon
(the anode) joined directly to negatively doped silicon (the cathode). This
pn-junction exhibits the unique characteristic of allowing current to flow in
only one direction (from the anode to the cathode). Diodes have a minimum
threshold voltage (or Vth, usually around 0.7V) that must be present between
the anode and cathode in order for current to flow. If the anode voltage is not
at least Vth greater than the cathode voltage, no current will flow. Likewise, if
the cathode voltage is greater than the anode voltage, the diode is said to be
reverse-biased and no current will flow. In an ideal diode, if the diode voltage

28
equals the threshold voltage (plus a small amount), then unlimited current can
flow without causing the voltage across the diode to increase. And, if the
diode is reversed-biased, no current will flow regardless of reverse-voltage
magnitude.

Diodes

Diodes have many uses in electronic circuits. As examples, they are frequently
employed in power supply circuits to turn alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC), they are used to limit the amount of over-voltage that can be
applied to a given circuit node, and they are used to force given circuit nodes
to remain at or below a certain voltage. On the Digilab board, three individual
diodes are used to limit the voltages applied to the Red, Blue, and Green pins
of the VGA connector (M) to 0.7VDC or less.

29
Note the identification methods used to mark a diode's cathode -terminal: the
schematic symbol has a line at the point of the triangle; the physical diode has
a dark line on the plastic component housing; and the silk-screen pattern has
both a line at the cathode end and a square pad for the cathode lead. When
loading a diode into a circuit board, make sure that the dark line on the diode
matches the line in the silk-screen pattern. Remember that since diodes allow
current to flow in only one direction, a backwards diode will cause the circuit
to malfunction.

LED SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

Diodes locations on the circuit board are typically denoted with a "D-"
reference designator

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent

narrow-spectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction. This
effect is a form of electro luminescence. The color of the emitted light
depends on the composition and condition of the semi conducting material
used, and can be infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet. Rubin Braunstein of the
Radio Corporation of America first reported on infrared emission from gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Experimenters at
Texas Instruments, Bob Biard [1] and Gary Pittman, found in 1961 that gallium
arsenide gave off infrared (invisible) light when electric, current was applied.
Biard and Pittman were able to establish the priority of their work and
received the patent for the infrared lightemitting diode. Nick Holonyak Jr. of

30
the General Electric Company developed the first practical visible-spectrum
LED in 1962.

LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The 'standard' LED has
a round cross-section of 5mm diameter and this is probably the best type for
general use, but 3mm round LEDs are also popular.
Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very easy to install
on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help
to hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in
holes. Other cross-section shapes include square, rectangular and triangular.

As well as a variety of colours, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their viewing
angle. This tells you how much the beam of light spreads out. Standard LEDs
have a viewing angle of 600 but others have a narrow beam of 300 or less.

Rapid Electronics stock a wide selection of LEDs and their catalogue is a good
guide to the range available.

ADVANTAGES OF USING LEDS

 LEDs produce more light per Watt than do incandescent bulbs; this is
useful in battery powered devices.
 LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters
that traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can
lower initial costs.

31
  The solid package of an LED can be designed to focus its light.
Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external
reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.
 When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not
change their colour tint as the current passing through them is
lowered, unlike incandescent lamps, which yellow.
 LEDs are built i1nside solid cases that protect them, unlike
incandescent and discharge sources, making them extremely durable.
 LEDs have an extremely long life span: upwards of 100,000 hours, twice
as long as the best fluorescent bulbs and twenty times longer than the
best incandescent bulbs. (Incandescent bulbs can also be made to last
an extremely long time by running at lower than normal voltage, but
only at a huge cost in efficiency; LEDs have a long life when operated at
their rated power.)
 Further, LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt
burn-out of incandescent bulbs,
 LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in microseconds; LEDs used in communications devices can
have even faster response times.
 LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit
boards.

Connecting LEDs in series

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to
connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with
the same current as just one LED.
32
All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all the
same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for
each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To work
out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED voltages

SIZE AND SHAPES

33
LEDs are produced in a staggering array of shapes and sizes, The 5 mm
cylindrical package (red, fifth from the left) is the most common, estimated at
80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is
often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings.
There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages, such as those found on
blinkies.

Colours of LEDs

LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue
and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colors.

The color of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the

coloring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colors are available in
uncolored packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as
I water clear'). The colored packages are also available as diffused (the
standard type) or transparent

LIST OF LED APPLICATIONS

Some of these applications are further elaborated upon in the following text.

34
 Architectural lighting.
 Status indicators on all sorts of equipment.
 Traffic lights and signals.
 Exit signs.
 Motorcycle and Bicycle lights.
 Toys and recreational sporting goods.
 Railroad crossing signals.
 Light bars on emergency vehicles.
 Elevator Push Button Lighting.

 Thin, lightweight message displays at airports and railway stations and

as destination displays for trains, buses, trams and ferries.

 Red or yellow LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric displays in

environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits,
submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in the field,
e.g. night time animal watching and military field use.

 Red, yellow, green, and blue LEDs can be used for model railroading
applications.

 Remote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs, often use infrared LEDs.

 In dot matrix arrangements for displaying messages.

35
 Glow lights, as a more expensive but longer lasting and reusable
alternative to Glow sticks.

 Movement sensors, for example in optical computer mice.

 Because of their long life and fast switching times, LEDs have been used
for automotive high-mounted brake lights and truck and bus brake
lights and turn signals for some time, but many high-end vehicles are
now starting to use LEDs for their entire rear light clusters. Besides the
gain in reliability, this has styling advantages because LEDs are capable
of forming much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic
reflectors. The significant improvement in the time taken to light up
(perhaps 0.5s faster than an incandescent bulb) improves safety by
giving drivers more time to react.

 Backlighting for LCD televisions and displays. The availability of LEDs in

specific colors (RGB) enables a full-spectrum light source which
expands the color gamut by as much as 45%.

 New stage lighting equipment is being developed with LED sources in

primary red-green-blue arrangements.

 LED phototherapy for acne using blue or red LEDs has been proven to
significantly reduce acne over a 3 month period.

 As Voltage Reference in electronic circuits. The constant voltage drop

(e.g. 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be used instead of a Zener diode in

36
 low-voltage regulators. Zener diodes are not available below voltages
of about 3 V.

RELAY

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control of another
electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an
electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented
by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of
higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered, in a broad sense, to
be a form of electrical amplifier

OPERATION

When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an
armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement
either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to
the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position. Usually this is a spring,
but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce
noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil,
to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation,
which would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might cause damage
to circuit components. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small

37
copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring"
creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on
the armature during the AC cycle. [1]

By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a

solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device.
To achieve electrical isolation, a light emitting diode (LED) is used with a
photo transistor.

APPLICATIONS

Relays are used:

 to control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some

types of modems,

 to control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the

starter solenoid of an automobile,

 to detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by

opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

 to isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the
two are at different potentials, for example when controlling a
mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often
applied to co~trol office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily
installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change.

38
 They may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort
to conserve energy,

 to perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is

realised by connecting NO relay contacts in series, the OR function by
connecting NO contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts
perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions; for NAND
and NOR are accomplished using NC contacts. Due to the failure modes
of a relay compared with a semiconductor, they are widely used in
safety critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste
handling machinery. -

ALTERNATING CURRENT

An alternating current (AC) is an electrical current whose magnitude and

direction vary cyclically, as opposed to direct current, whose direction remains
constant. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave, as this
result in the most efficient transmission of energy. However in certain
applications different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves.

Used generically, AC refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to

businesses and residences. However, audio and radio signals carried on
electrical wire are also examples of alternating current. In these applications,
an important goal is often the recovery of information encoded (or
modulated) onto the AC signal.

DIRECT CURRENT

39
Direct current (DC or "continuous current") is considered as the constant flow
of electrons in the single direction from low to high potential. This is typically
in a conductor such as a wire, but can also be through semiconductors,
insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. In direct
current, the electric charges flow in the same direction, distinguishing it from
alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for direct current was Galvanic
current.

ALTERNATING VS. DIRECT CURRENT

So far we have been talking about a constant supply of voltage - one that
doesn't change over time, such as a battery before it starts to run down. This
is what is commonly know of as direct current or DC which is to say that there
is no change in voltage over a period of time. This is not the kind of electricity
found coming out of the sockets in your wall at home. The electricity supplied
by the hydro company changes over short periods of time (it changes over
long periods of time as well, but that's an entirely different story...) Every
second, the voltage difference between the two terminals in your wall socket
fluctuates between about -170 V and 170 V sixty times a second (if you live in
North America, at least ...). This brings up two important points to discuss.

Firstly, the negative voltage... All a negative voltage means is that the
electrons are flowing in a direction opposite to that being measured. There
are more electrons in the tested point in the circuit than there are in the
reference point, therefore more negative charge. If you think of this in terms
of the two tanks of water - if we're sitting at the bottom of the empty tank,

40
and we measure the relative pressure of the full one, its pressure will be
more, and therefore positive relative to your reference. If you're at the
bottom of the full tank and you measure the pressure at the bottom of the
empty one, you'll find that it's less than your reference and therefore
negative. (Two other analogies to completely confuse you.., it's like describing
someone by their height. It doesn't matter how tall or short someone is - if
you say they're tall, it probably means that they're taller than you.

Secondly, the idea that the voltage is fluctuating. When you plug your coffee
maker into the wall, you'll notice that the plug has two terminals. One is a
reference voltage which stays constant (normally called a "cold" wire in this
case ...) and one is the "hot" wire which changes in voltage realtive to the cold
wire. The device in the coffee maker which is doing the work is connected
with each of these two wires. When the voltage in the hot wire is positive in
comparison to the cold wire, the current flows from hot through the coffee
maker to cold. One one-hundred and twentieth of a second later the hot wire
is negative compared to the cold, the current flows from cold to hot. This is
commonly known as alternating current or AC.

So remember, alternating current means that both the voltage and the
current are changing in time.

41
42
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Digital electronics are those electronics systems that use a digital signal
instead of an analog signal. Digital electronics are the most common
representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital circuits for
computers, mobile phones, and numerous other consumer products.
The most common "fundamental unit" of digital electronics is the logic gate.
By combining numerous logic gates (from tens to hundreds of thousands)
more complex systems can be created. The complex system of digital
electronics is collectively referred to as a digital circuit.

To most electronic engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and
"logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits

ADVANTAGES

The usual advantages of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits

are,

 Digital systems interface well with computers and are easy to control
with software. It is often possible to add new features to a digital
system without changing hardware, and to do this remotely, just by
uploading new software. Design errors or bugs can be worked-around
with a software upgrade, after the product is in customer hands.

 Information storage can be much easier in digital systems than in

analog ones. In particular, the great noise-immunity of digital systems

43
 makes it possible to store data and retrieve it later without
degradation. In an analog system, aging and wear and tear will degrade
the information in storage, but in a digital system, as long as the wear
and tear is below a certain level, the information can be recovered
perfectly.

LOGIC LEVELS

A Boolean logical input or output always takes one of two logic levels, These
logic levels can go by many names Including: on / off, high (H) / low (L), one
(1) / zero (0), true (T) / false (F), positive / negative, positive / ground, open
circuit / close circuit, potential difference I no difference, yes / no. For
consistency, the names 1 and 0 will be used below

LOGIC GATE

A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and
produces a single logic output. The logic normally performed is Boolean logic
and is most commonly found in digital circuits. Logic gates are primarily
implemented electronically using diodes or transistors, but can also be
constructed using electromagnetic relays, fluidics, optical or even mechanical
elements.

A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Most logic gates
have two inputs and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in

44
one of the two binary conditions low (0) or high (1), represented by different
voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can, and generally does, change
often, as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the low state is
approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is approximately five volts
positive (+5 V).There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XDR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, and XNOR.

AND GATE

The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is called "true,"
the gate acts in the same way as the logical "and" operator. The following
illustration and table show the circuit symbol and logic combinations for an
AND gate. (In the symbol, the input terminals are at left and the output
terminal is at right.) The output is "true" when both inputs are "true."
Otherwise, the output is "false."

Symbol

Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 0

45
 0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

OR GATE

The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it behaves after the fashion of
the logical inclusive "or." The output is "true" if either or both of the inputs
are "true." If both inputs are "false," then the output is "false."

Symbol

Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

NOT GATE

The NOT gate or inverter is a digital logic gate that implements logical
negation. It behaves according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output
(1) results if the inputs is LOW (0). If the input is HIGH (1), a LOW output (0)
results.
46
 Input Input

1 0

0 1

Symbol

NAND GATE
The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the
manner of the logical operation "and" followed by negation. The outputis
"false" if both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the output is "true."
Symbol

Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

47
NOR GATE

The NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter, its output is

“true” if both inputs are “false”. Otherwise, the output is “false.”

NOR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

XNOR GATE

The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate following by an

inverter. Its output is “true” if inputs are the same, and “false” if the inputs
are different.

48
 Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be performed. In

theory, there is no limit to the number of gates that can be arrayed together
in a single device. But in practice, there is a limit to the number of gates that
can be, packed into a given physical space. Arrays of logic gates are found in
digital integrated circuits (ICs). As IC technology advances, the required
physical volume for each individual logic gate decreases and digital devices of
the same or smaller size become capable of performing
ever-more-complicated operations at ever-increasing speeds.

49
50
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM

A specialized computer system. that is part of a larger

system or machine. Typically, an embedded system is housed on a single
microprocessor board with the programs stored in ROM. Virtually all
appliances that have a digital Interface -- watches, microwaves, VCRs, cars --
utilize embedded systems. Some embedded systems include an operating
system, but many are so specialized that the entire logic can be implemented
as a single program. Embedded systems programming is the development of
programs intended to be part of a larger operating system or, in a somewhat
different usage, to be incorporated on a microprocessor that can then be
included as part of a variety of hardware devices. Several other definitions
are:
 A combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps
additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a dedicated
function. In some cases, embedded systems are part of a larger system
or product, as in the case of an antilock braking system in a car.
Contrast with general-purpose computer.
 A specialized computer system which is dedicated to a specific task.
Embedded systems range in size from a single processing board to
systems with operating systems (ex, Linux, Windows® NT Embedded).
Examples of embedded systems are medical equipment and
manufacturing equipment.
 A computer system that is a component of a larger machine or system.
Embedded systems can respond to events in real time. Most digital
appliances, such as watches or cars, utilize an embedded system.

51
 Hardware and software that forms a component of some larger system
and is expected to function without human intervention. Typically an
embedded system consists of a single-board microcomputer with
software in ROM, which starts running a dedicated application as soon
as power is turned on and does not stop until power is turned off.

 An embedded system is some combination of computer hardware and

software, either fixed in capability or programmable, that is specifically
designed for a particular kind of application device. Industrial
machines, automobiles, medical equipment, cameras, household
appliances, airplanes, vending machines, and toys (as well as the more
obvious cellular phone and PDA) are among the myriad possible hosts
of an embedded system.

 A phrase that refers to a device that contains computer logic on a chip

Inside it. Such equipment is electrical or battery powered. The chip
controls one or more functions of the equipment, such as remembering
how long it has been since the device last received maintenance,

 An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system, which is

completely encapsulated by the device it controls. An embedded
system has specific requirements and performs pre-defined tasks,
unlike a general-purpose personal computer.

52
53
 KIEL

Keil Software makes C compilers, macro assemblers, real-time kernels,

debuggers, simulators, integrated environments, and evaluation boards for
the 8051, 251, ARM, and XC16x/Cl6x/ST10 microcontroller families

Keil don’t make a compiler for every different microcontroller architecture.

They concentrate on just a few chip families that they can support very well.
That's why most of Keil's customers will agree that they have the best
development tools for ARM, XC1 6x/C1 6x/ST1 0, 251 and 8051
microcontroller families. Since they have fewer product lines to support, Keil
can dedicate more time to better supporting each tool chain. That allows
them to improve their tools and product support faster than other vendors.

pVision3 IDE

pVision3, the new IDE from Keil Software, combines project management,
make facilities, source code editing, program debugging, and complete
simulation in one powerful environment, pVision3 helps you get programs
working faster than ever while providing an easy-to-use development
platform. The editor and debugger are integrated into a single application and
provide a seamless embedded project development environment.

pVision3 provides unique features like

54
 The Device Database which automatically sets the assembler, compiler,
and linker options for the chip you select. This prevents you from
wasting your time configuring the tools and helps you get started
writing code faster.

 A robust Project Manager which lets you create several different

configurations of your target from a single project file. Only the Keil
pVision3 IDE allows you to create an output file for simulating, an
output file for debugging with an emulator, and an output file for
programming an EPROM--all from the same Project file.

 An integrated Make facility with automatic dependency generation.

You don't have to figure out which header files and include files are
used by which source files. The Keil compilers and assemblers do that
automatically.

 Interactive error correction. As your project compiles, errors and

warnings appear in an output window. You may make corrections to
the files in your project while pVision3 continues to compile in the
background. Line numbers associated with each error or warning are
automatically resynchronized when you make changes to the source.

55
Keil Software

pVision Debugger

The pVision Debugger from Keil supports simulation using only your PC or
laptop, and debugging using your target system and a debugger interface.
pVision includes traditional features like simple and complex breakpoints,
watch windows, and execution control as well as sophisticated features like
trace capture, execution profiler, code coverage, and logic analyzer. Viewing
Code & Data

56
The pVision Debugger provides a number of ways to display variables and
program objects.

 Source Code Windows display your high-level language and assembly

program source code.

 The Disassembly Window shows mixed high-level language and

assembly code.

 The Registers Tab of the Project Workspace shows system registers.

 The Symbol Window heir archly displays program symbols in your

application.

 The Output Window displays the output of various debugger

commands.

 The Memory Window displays up to four regions of code or data

memory.

 The Watch Window displays local variables, user-defined watch

expression lists, and the call stack.

Executing
pVision offers several ways you can control and manipulate program
execution.

57
  Reset - It is possible to debug reset conditions using the pVision
Simulator.

 Run/Stop - Buttons and Commands make starting and stopping

program execution is easy.

 Single-Stepping - pVision supports various methods of single-stepping

through your target program.

 Execution Trace - Execution trace information for each executed

instruction is stored by pVision.

 Breakpoints - Both simple and complex breakpoints are supported by

the pVision Debugger.

Advanced Analysis Tools

Advanced analysis' tools are available to help you test and debug your
embedded applications.

 Code Coverage helps you determine how much of your program has
been tested.

 The Performance Analyser shows how functions and code blocks in

your program perform.

58
  The Execution Profiler shows execution counts and time for each line
of code or instruction.

 The Logic Analyser shows how various signals and variables in your
program change over time.

Simulation
Simulation capabilities make it possible to test your target system without
target hardware.

 Instruction Simulation simulates the exact effects and timing of each

IVICU instruction.
 Interrupt Simulation simulates the cause and effect of a system or
peripheral interrupt.
 Peripheral Simulation simulates the effects of on-chip peripherals
including special function registers.
 Debugger Functions allow you to expand the command scope of the
debugger and create and respond to stimuli.
 Toolbox Buttons are a convenient way for you to connect debugger
functions buttons on the user-interface.

Target Debugging
Target debug drivers allow you to test programs running on target hardware.

 JTAG Debugging uses external hardware to interface your PC to your

target system.

59
 A Target Monitor interfaces your PC to your target system using RS-232
and software.
 Flash Programming uses a target interface to download your target
program to Flash memory.
 AGDl Drivers interface the  Vision Debugger to third-party hardware
or provide additional debugger features.

60
 ABOUT C

As a programming language, C is rather like Pascal or Fortran. Values are

stored in variables. Programs are structured by defining and calling functions.
Program flow is controlled using loops, if statements and function calls. Input
and output can be directed to the terminal or to files. Related data can be
stored together in arrays or structures.

Of the three languages, C allows the most precise control of input and output.
C is also rather more terse than Fortran or Pascal. This can result in short
efficient programs, where the programmer has made wise use of C's range of
powerful' operators. It also allows the programmer to produce programs,
which are impossible to understand.

Programmers who are familiar with the use of pointers (or indirect addressing,
to use the correct term) will welcome the ease of use compared with some
other languages. Undisciplined use of pointers can lead to errors, which are
very hard to trace. This course only deals with the simplest applications of
pointers.

It is hoped that newcomers will find C a useful and friendly language. Care
must be taken in using C. Many of the extra facilities, which it offers, can lead
to extra types of programming error. You will have to learn to deal with these
to successfully make the transition to being a C programmer.

C is a programming language developed at AT& T's Bell Laboratories of USA in

1972.
61
It was designed and written by a man named Dennis Ritche. In late seventies C
begin to replace the more familiar languages of that time like ALGOL etc.
Ritche seems to have been rather surprised that so many programmers
preferred C to older languages like FORTRAN or PL/I or the newer like Pascal
and APL. But, that's what happened.

STEPS IN LEARNING C

Alphabets, Constants,
digits, special variables, Instructions Program
symbols keywords

USAGE

C's primary use is for "system programming", including implementing

operating systems and embedded system applications, due to a combination
of desirable characteristics such as code portability and efficiency, ability to
access specific hardware addresses, ability to "pun" types to , match
externally imposed data access, requirements, and low runtime demand on
system resources.

C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications, although as

applications became larger much of that development shifted to other, higher
level languages.

62
One consequence of C's wide acceptance and efficiency is that the compilers,
libraries, and interpreters of other higher-level languages are often
implemented in C.

C is used as an intermediate language by some higher-level languages.

"hello, world" example

The following simple application appeared in the first edition of K&R, and has
become the model for an introductory program in most programming
textbooks, regardless of programming language. The program prints out
"hello, world" to the standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen
display. Standard output might also be a file or some other- hardware device,
depending on how standard output is mapped at the time the program is
executed.

Main()
{
printf(“hello, world\n”);
}

The above program will compile on most modern compilers that are not in
compliance mode, but does not meet the requirements of either C89 or C99.
Compiling this program in C99 compliance mode will result in warning or error
messages. 151 A compliant version of the above program follows:

#include <stdio.h>

63
int main(void)
{
printf(“hello, world\n”);
return 0;
}

A Very Simple Program

This program which will print out the message This is a C program
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
printf(“This is a C program\n”);
}

Though the program is very simple, a few points are worthy of note.

Every C program contains a function called main. This is the start point of the
program.

#include <stdio.h> allows the program to interact with the screen, keyboard
and file system of your computer. You will find it at the beginning of almost
every C program.

Main() declares the start of the function, while the two curly brackets show
the start and finish of the function. Curly brackets in C are used to group

64
statements together as in a function, or in the body of a loop. Such a grouping
is known as a compound statement or a block.

printf("This is a C program\n");
prints the words on the screen. The text to be printed is enclosed in double
quotes. The \n at the end of the text tells the program to print a newline as
part of the output.

Expressions and Operators

One reason for the power of C is its wide range of useful operators. An
operator is a function which is applied to values to give a result. You should be
familiar with operators such as+,-,/.

Arithmetic operators are the most common. Other operators are used for
comparison of values, combination of logical states, and manipulation of
individual binary digits. The binary operators are rather low level for so are
not covered here,

Operators and values are combined to form expressions. The values produced
by these expressions can be stored in variables, or used as a part of even
larger expressions.
_______________________________________________________________

Assignment Statement

65
The easiest example of an expression is in the assignment statement. An
expression is evaluated, and the result is saved in a variable. A simple example
might look like

y = (m* X) + C
This assignment will save the value of the expression in variable y.

Arithmetic operators

Here are the most common arithmetic operators

+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulo Reduction (Remainder from integer division)

*,/and % will be performed before + or - in any expression. Brackets can be

used to force a different order of evaluation to this. Where division is
performed between two integers, the result will be an integer, with remainder
discarded. Modulo reduction is only meaningful between integers. If a
program is ever required to divide a number by zero, this will cause an error,
usually causing the program to crash.

Here is some arithmetic expressions used within assignment statements.

66
velocity = distance / time;

force = mass acceleration;

count = count + 1;
C has some operators which allow abbreviation of certain types of arithmetic
assignment statements.

Shorthand Equivalent

i++; or ++i; i = i + 1;
i--; or --i; I = I – 1;

These operations are usually very efficient. They can be combined with
another expression.

X = a * b++; is equivalent to x = a * b;
x = b+ 1;

Versions where the operator occurs before the variable name change the
value of the variable before evaluating the expression, so

x = --i * (a + b) ; is equivalent to i = i – 1;
x = I * (a + b);
These can cause confusion if you try to do too many things on one command
line. You are recommended to restrict your use of ++ and - to ensure that your
programs stay readable.

67
Another shorthand notation is listed below

Shorthand Equivalent

i+ = 10; i = i + 10;
i -= 10; i = i - 10;
i *= 10; i = i * 10;
i /= 10; i = i / 10;

These are simple to read and use.

Logical Connectors

These are the usual And, Or and Not operators.

Symbol Meaning

&& And
II Or
! Not

They are frequently used to combine relational operators, for example

x < 20 && x >= 10

In C these logical connectives employ a technique known as lazy evaluation.
They evaluate their left hand operand, and then only evaluate the right hand

68
one if this is required. Clearly false && anything is always false, true 11
anything is always true. In such cases the second test is not evaluated.

Not operates on a single logical value, its effect is to reverse its state. Here is
an example of its use.
if ( ! acceptable)
printf(“Not Acceptable !!\n”);

Special Characters

The following special patterns are used to represent a single character in C

programs. The leading backslash in the single quotes indicates that more
information is to follow.

C code Meaning

’\014’ Bit pattern for Form Feed

’\n’ New line
’\t’ Tab
’\\’ Backslash
’\” Single Quote
’\” ‘ Double Quote
’\b’ Backspace
’\r’ Carriage Return
’\f’ Form Feed
’\0’ NULL (String Terminator)

COMMANDS USED
69
1. SWITCH-CASE STATEMANT:
The control statement that allows us to make a decision from the number of
choices is called a switch, or switch case - default. Since these three keywords
go together to make up the control statement.
2. FOR LOOP:

For is the most popular looping instruction. It allows us to specify three things
in a single line.

a) Setting loop counter to initial value

b) Testing the loop counter to determine whether its value has reached
the no. of repetitions desired
c) Increasing the value of loop counter each time the program segment
within the loop has been executed.

3. WHILE:
A while loop is ideally suited for cases where we want to do something a fixed
no. of times.

4. BREAK:
We often come across situations where we want to jump out of a loop
instantly, without waiting to get back to conditional test. The keyword break
allows us to do this. When break is encountered inside any loop, control
automatically passes to the first statement after the loop,

5. INPORT:

70
Inport reads a word from a hardware port
Inportb reads a byte from a hardware port

6. OUTPORT:
Outport outputs a word to a hardware port
Outportb outputs a byte to a hardware port

Proteus Design Suite

71
 Developer(s) Labcenter Electronics Ltd.

Initial release 1988

Stable release 8.8

Operating system Windows

Type Electronic design automation

Licence Proprietary

Website www.labcenter.com

The Proteus Design Suite is a proprietary software tool suite used

primarily for electronic design automation. The software is used mainly
by electronic design engineers and technicians to create schematics and
electronic prints for manufacturing printed circuit boards.

It was developed in Yorkshire, England by Labcenter Electronics Ltd and

is available in English, French, Spanish and Chinese languages.

History

The first version of what is now the Proteus Design Suite was called PC-B
and was written by the company chairman, John Jameson, for DOS in
1988. Schematic Capture support followed in 1990, with a port to the
Windows environment shortly thereafter. Mixed mode SPICE Simulation
was first integrated into Proteus in 1996 and microcontroller simulation
then arrived in Proteus in 1998. Shape based auto-routing was added in
2002 and 2006 saw another major product update with 3D Board
Visualisation. More recently, a dedicated IDE for simulation was added in
72
2011 and MCAD import/export was included in 2015. Support for high
speed design was added in 2017. [1]Feature led product releases are
typically biannual, while maintenance based service packs are released
as required.

Product Modules

The Proteus Design Suite is a Windows application for schematic

capture, simulation, and PCB (Printed Circuit Board) layout design. It can
be purchased in many configurations, depending on the size of designs
being produced and the requirements for microcontroller simulation. All
PCB Design products include an autorouter and basic mixed mode SPICE
simulation capabilities.

Schematic Capture

Schematic capture in the Proteus Design Suite is used for both the
simulation of designs and as the design phase of a PCB layout project. It
is therefore a core component and is included with all product
configurations.

Microcontroller Simulation

The micro-controller simulation in Proteus works by applying either a

hex file or a debug file to the microcontroller part on the schematic. It is
then co-simulated along with any analog and digital electronics
connected to it. This enables its use in a broad spectrum of project
prototyping in areas such as motor control,[2][3] temperature control
[4][5] and user interface design.[6] It also finds use in the general
hobbyist community[7][8] and, since no hardware is required, is
convenient to use as a training[9][10] or teaching tool.[11][12] Support
is available for co-simulation of:

73
• Microchip Technologies PIC10, PIC12, PIC16,PIC18,PIC24,dsPIC33
Microcontrollers.

• Atmel AVR (and Arduino), 8051 and ARM Cortex-M3

Microcontrollers

• NXP 8051, ARM7, ARM Cortex-M0 and ARM Cortex-M3

Microcontrollers.

• Texas Instruments MSP430, PICCOLO DSP and ARM Cortex-M3

Microcontrollers.

• Parallax Basic Stamp, Freescale HC11, 8086 Microcontrollers.

PCB Design

The PCB Layout module is automatically given connectivity information

in the form of a netlist from the schematic capture module. It applies
this information, together with the user specified design rules and
various design automation tools, to assist with error free board design.
PCB's of up to 16 copper layers can be produced with design size limited
by product configuration.

3D Verification

The 3D Viewer module allows the board under development to be

viewed in 3D together with a semi-transparent height plane that
represents the boards enclosure. STEP output can then be used to
transfer to mechanical CAD software such as Solidworks or Autodesk for
accurate mounting and positioning of the board.

74
Arduino IDE

Developer(s) Arduino Software

Stable release 1.8.8 / 7 December 2018; 2 months ago[1]

Written in Java, C, C++

Operating system Windows, macOS, Linux

Platform IA-32, x86-64, ARM

Type Integrated development environment

License LGPL or GPL license

Website www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Software

75
The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is
a cross-platform application (for Windows, macOS, Linux) that
is written in the programming language Java. It is used to write
and upload programs to Arduino board.[2]
The source code for the IDE is released under the GNU General
Public License, version 2.[3] The Arduino IDE supports the
languages C and C++ using special rules of code
structuring.[4] The Arduino IDE supplies a software library from
the Wiringproject, which provides many common input and
output procedures. User-written code only requires two basic
functions, for starting the sketch and the main program loop,
that are compiled and linked with a program stub main() into
an executable cyclic executive program with the GNU toolchain,
also included with the IDE distribution.[5] The Arduino IDE
employs the program avrdude to convert the executable code
into a text file in hexadecimal encoding that is loaded into the
Arduino board by a loader program in the board's firmware.

What is Arduino?
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-
to-use hardware and software. Arduino boards are able to read
inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter
message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor,
turning on an LED, publishing something online. You can tell
your board what to do by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino
programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino
Software (IDE), based on Processing.

76
Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of
projects, from everyday objects to complex scientific
instruments. A worldwide community of makers - students,
hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals - has
gathered around this open-source platform, their contributions
have added up to an incredible amount of accessible
knowledge that can be of great help to novices and experts
alike.

Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an

easy tool for fast prototyping, aimed at students without a
background in electronics and programming. As soon as it
reached a wider community, the Arduino board started
changing to adapt to new needs and challenges, differentiating
its offer from simple 8-bit boards to products
for IoT applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded
environments. All Arduino boards are completely open-source,
empowering users to build them independently and eventually
adapt them to their particular needs. The software, too, is
open-source, and it is growing through the contributions of
users worldwide.

Why Arduino?
Thanks to its simple and accessible user experience, Arduino
has been used in thousands of different projects and
applications. The Arduino software is easy-to-use for beginners,
yet flexible enough for advanced users. It runs on Mac,
Windows, and Linux. Teachers and students use it to build low
cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry and physics
principles, or to get started with programming and robotics.
Designers and architects build interactive prototypes, musicians
and artists use it for installations and to experiment with new
musical instruments. Makers, of course, use it to build many of
77
the projects exhibited at the Maker Faire, for example. Arduino
is a key tool to learn new things. Anyone - children, hobbyists,
artists, programmers - can start tinkering just following the step
by step instructions of a kit, or sharing ideas online with other
members of the Arduino community.

There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller

platforms available for physical computing. Parallax Basic
Stamp, Netmedia's BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's Handyboard, and
many others offer similar functionality. All of these tools take
the messy details of microcontroller programming and wrap it
up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also simplifies the
process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some
advantage for teachers, students, and interested amateurs over
other systems:

 Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive

compared to other microcontroller platforms. The least
expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled
by hand, and even the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost
less than $50
 Cross-platform - The Arduino Software (IDE) runs on
Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux operating systems.
Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
 Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino
Software (IDE) is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible
enough for advanced users to take advantage of as well. For
teachers, it's conveniently based on the Processing
programming environment, so students learning to program
in that environment will be familiar with how the Arduino
IDE works.
 Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software
is published as open source tools, available for extension by
78
 experienced programmers. The language can be expanded
through C++ libraries, and people wanting to understand the
technical details can make the leap from Arduino to the AVR
C programming language on which it's based. Similarly, you
can add AVR-C code directly into your Arduino programs if
you want to.
 Open source and extensible hardware - The plans of the
Arduino boards are published under a Creative Commons
license, so experienced circuit designers can make their own
version of the module, extending it and improving it. Even
relatively inexperienced users can build the breadboard
version of the module in order to understand how it works
and save money.

How do I use Arduino?

See the getting started guide. If you are looking for inspiration
you can find a great variety of Tutorials on Arduino Project Hub.

The text of the Arduino getting started guide is licensed under

a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License. Code
samples in the guide are released into the public domain.

79
Introduction
Nowadays, we have remote controls for our television sets and
other electronic systems, which have made our lives real easy.
Have you ever wondered about home automation which would
give the facility of controlling tube lights, fans and other
electrical appliances at home using a remote control? Off-
course, Yes! But, are the available options cost-effective? If the
answer is No, we have found a solution to it. We have come up
with a new system called Arduino based home automation
using Bluetooth. This system is super-cost effective and can
give the user, the ability to control any electronic device
without even spending for a remote control. This project helps
the user to control all the electronic devices using his/her
smartphone.

Time is a very valuable thing. Everybody wants to save time as

much as they can. New technologies are being introduced to
save our time. To save people’s time we are introducing Home
Automation system using Bluetooth . With the help of this
system you can control your home appliances from your mobile
phone. You can turn on/off your home appliances within the
range of Bluetooth.

Project Aim
The aim of the project is to design and construct a home
automation system that will remotely switch on or off any
household appliances connected to it, using a microcontroller,
voice dial on phone, or Bluetooth based android application.

80
Project Objective
The objective of this project is to implement a low cost, reliable
and scalable home automation system that can be used to
remotely switch on or off any household appliance, using a
microcontroller to achieve hardware simplicity, low cost short
messaging service for feedback and voice dial from any phone
to toggle the switch state.

Project scope and limitation

This project work is complete on its own in remotely and
automatically switching on or off of an electrical appliance not
limited to household appliances and sends a feedback message
indicating the new present state of the appliance.

Description of the Project

This project is one of the important Arduino Projects. Arduino
based home automation using Bluetooth project helps the user
to control any electronic device using Device Control app on
their Android Smartphone. The android app sends commands
to the controller – Arduino, through wireless communication,
namely, Bluetooth. The Arduino is connected to the main PCB
which has five relays as shown in the block diagram. These
relays can be connected to different electronic devices. As per
the block diagram, Device 1 – Buzzer, Device 2- Fan, Device 3 –
Lights.

When the user presses on the ‘On’ button displayed on the app
for the device 1, the Buzzer is switched on. This Buzzer can be
switched off, by pressing the same button again.
Similarly, when the user presses on the ‘On’ button displayed
on the app for the device 2, the fan is switched on. The fan can
be switched off, by pressing the same button again.
81
This project of home automation using Bluetooth and Arduino
can be used for controlling any AC or DC devices. In the
demonstration, we have used DC Fan and DC Bulb. To drive this
DC Fan and Light, a 9V battery is connected.

Hardware Requirement
The list of components mentioned here are specifically for
controlling 4 different loads.
 Arduino Uno with Atmega 328P microcontroller
 HC – 05 Bluetooth Module
 10 KΩ Resistor
 1 KΩ Resistor X 4
 BC547 NPN Transistor X 4
 1N4007 Diode X 4
 5 V Relay X 4
 Prototyping board (Bread board)
 Connecting wires
 9 V Power supply
 Smartphone or tablet (Bluetooth enabled)

Software Requirement
Arduino IDE
Proteus 7
Android application

Description of Hardware Required

Arduino uno
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the
ATmega328P . It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6
can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz
82
crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP
header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to
support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer
with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery
to get started.
The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not
use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the
Atmega8U2 programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.

Some Technical Specification of Arduino Uno

are:
1. Microcontroller ATmega328P
2. Operating Voltage 5V
3. Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
4. Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V
5. Digital I/O Pins 14
6. Analog Input Pins 6
7. DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
8. DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
9. Flash Memory 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
10. SRAM 2 KB
11. EEPROM 1 KB
12. Clock Speed 16 MHz

83
Circuit Diagram

HC-05 Bluetooth Module

HC-05 module is an easy to use Bluetooth SPP (Serial Port
Protocol) module, designed for transparent wireless serial
connection setup.
Serial port Bluetooth module is fully qualified Bluetooth
V2.0+EDR (Enhanced Data Rate) 3Mbps Modulation with
complete 2.4GHz radio transceiver and baseband. It uses CSR
Bluecore 04-External single chip Bluetooth system with CMOS
technology and with AFH(Adaptive Frequency Hopping
Feature). It has the footprint as small as 12.7mmx27mm. Hope
it will simplify your overall design/development cycle.

84
HC-05 Bluetooth Module Interfacing with Arduino UNO HC-05
is a Bluetooth device used for wireless communication with
Bluetooth enabled devices (like smartphone). It communicates
with microcontrollers using serial communication (USART).
Default settings of HC-05 Bluetooth module can be changed
using certain AT commands. As HC-05 Bluetooth module has
3.3 V level for RX/TX and microcontroller can detect 3.3 V level,
so, there is no need to shift TX voltage level of HC-05 module.
But we need to shift the transmit voltage level from
microcontroller to RX of HC-05 module.

Sketch for Displaying Data Received Via Bluetooth On Serial

Monitor
#include<SoftwareSerial.h> /* Create object named bt of the
class SoftwareSerial */ SoftwareSerial bt(2,3); /* (Rx,Tx) */ void
setup() { bt.begin(9600); /* Define baud rate for software serial
85
communication */ Serial.begin(9600); /* Define baud rate for
serial communication */ } void loop() { if (bt.available()) /* If
data is available on serial port */ { Serial.write(bt.read()); /*
Print character received on to the serial monitor */ } }
13
Design And Implementation
A low cost and efficient smart home system is presented in our
design. This system has two main modules: the hardware
interface module and the software communication module. At
the heart of this system is the Arduino Mega 2560
microcontroller which is also capable of functioning as a micro
web server and the interface for all the hardware modules. All
communication and controls in this system pass through the
microcontroller.
Designing the Circuit
Technical Specification for this project
1) A smartphone or an Android mobile which should have the
android app installed in it.
2) Bluetooth receiver module – Our project will be connected
to the smartphone using Bluetooth technology.
3) Controller or the main processing circuit- In this project,
Arduino Uno is the main controlling / processing unit. Also, this
project can be developed using PIC18F4550, AVR ATmega32
and 8051 series like: 89s51, 89c51, 89s52, 89v51RD2.
4) LCD Display – The Liquid Crystal Display is optional but shows
important messages like device status once command is
received from Bluetooth.
5) Relays to control devices – We have used 12volt Single push
single throw relays.
6) Output devices – For the demo purpose, we connected a DC
devices to a relay (12 volt DC bulb). You can connect any AC/DC
devices to the remaining 3 relays. Also, Device 6 is a Buzzer.
15
86
Program Code
16
Pros of Home Automation
1. Security
Tap your finger to turn on the lights when you get home so you
worried about what’s hiding in the shadows, or in your
pathways. Or automate to turn on when you aren’t home to
look like you are to ward off potential robbers. Door locks are
another automated home product that can increase your home
security.
2. Energy Efficiency
Increase your home’s energy efficiency by remotely powering
off systems and appliances when they aren’t in use. In addition
to the standard home automation products that give you active
control, some products actively monitor systems and arm the
homeowner with knowledge, insight and guidance to achieve
greater control and energy efficiency.
3. Savings
Home automation literally pays off. When you are able to use
home systems and appliances only when needed, the savings
will be apparent in the first utility bill. No more wasting money
on lights left on when you aren’t home, or spending money on
gas to drive home because you forgot to lock the door.
Monetary savings are apparent, but you’ll also be saving time.
No wasted trips home, no running through the house turning
everything off, no time spent worrying about what was or
wasn’t turned off.
4. Convenience
Don’t you hate having to rely on neighbors to watch your house
when you’re gone? With home automation, convenient control
of your home is at your fingertips. You don’t have to trust
someone else with your most valued possessions.
5. Comfort
87
Ever leave for work in the morning when it was a comfortable
68° outside only to come home to a sweltering house because
the temperature shot up to 90°? Connected home products like
the Sensi™ Wi-Fi Thermostats let you conveniently adjust your
home temperature from the mobile app so your family is
always comfortable.

Cons of Home Automation

1. Cost of Intelligence Installing state-of-the-art features
inside a home results in a higher price tag for the
property. The cost of an intelligent home that makes our
lives convenient is high because some of the technology is
relatively new. The cost of living expenses such as utilities,
maintenance and repair of the technology can be
expensive as well. 2. Technology Learning Curve Owning a
smart home means having to learn how to use your
home. Unlike traditional homes, smart home technology
requires you to adapt to the innovations within your living
area such as security systems, air units and a remote that
controls your entire house. For the technology-savvy
family, the smart home will help achieve convenience
faster, but for others, it will take reading manuals and
learning how-to before the benefits of convenience pay
off. 3. Video Surveillance Video surveillance can be a
wonderful tool in heightening security and deterring
crime, but when the technology falls into the wrong
hands, issues of privacy can occur. Security sensors within
the doors and walls of a smart home use wireless
technology to transfer signals to a central control unit
that notifies emergency officials of any foreign activity.

Applications
88
 Using this project, we can turn on or off appliances remotely
i.e. using a phone or tablet.
The project can be further expanded to a smart home
automation system by including some sensors like light sensors,
temperature sensors, safety sensors etc. and automatically
adjust different parameters like room lighting, air conditioning
(room temperature), door locks etc. and transmit the
information to our phone.
Additionally, we can connect to internet and control the home
from remote location over internet and also monitor the safety.
Future Development of the project
Arduino based device control using Bluetooth on Smartphone
project can be enhanced to control the speed of the fan or
volume of the buzzer etc.
Home automation and Device controlling can be done using
Internet of Things – IOT technology.
We can replace Bluetooth by GSM modem so that we can
achieve device controlling by sending SMS using GSM modem.

Conclusion
The home automation system has been experimentally proven
to work satisfactorily by connecting sample appliances to it and
the appliances were successfully controlled from a wireless
mobile device. We learned many skills such as soldering, wiring
the circuit and other tools that we use for this project and was
able to work together as a team during this project. The
Bluetooth client was successfully tested on a multitude of
different mobile phones from different manufacturers, thus
proving its portability and wide compatibility. Thus a low-cost
home automation system was successfully designed,
implemented and tested.

89
Reference
The web sites that provide the information’s:

90