U.S.

Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Hydrology of the Black Hills Area,

South Dakota

By Daniel G. Driscoll, Janet M. Carter, Joyce E. Williamson, and Larry D. Putnam

Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4094

Prepared in cooperation with the

South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources
and the West Dakota Water Development District
U.S. Department of the Interior
GALE A. NORTON, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Charles G. Groat, Director

The use of firm, trade, and brand names in this report is for identification purposes only and
does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Rapid City, South Dakota: 2002

For additional information write to:

District Chief
U.S. Geological Survey
1608 Mt. View Road
Rapid City, SD 57702

Copies of this report can be purchased from:

U.S. Geological Survey
Information Services
Building 810
Box 25286, Federal Center
Denver, CO 80225-0286
CONTENTS
Abstract................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Purpose and Scope...................................................................................................................................................... 2
Description of Study Area .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
Hydrogeologic Framework ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Climatic Framework ................................................................................................................................................... 5
Geologic Framework .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Regional Geologic Setting................................................................................................................................ 10
Paleostructure ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Stratigraphy ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Local Geologic Setting ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Ground-Water Framework .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Regional Aquifers............................................................................................................................................. 20
Local Aquifers .................................................................................................................................................. 23
Characteristics and Properties of Major Aquifers .................................................................................. 24
Overview of Other Aquifers ................................................................................................................... 31
Surface-Water Framework .......................................................................................................................................... 31
Hydrogeologic Settings .................................................................................................................................... 34
Streamflow Losses............................................................................................................................................ 34
Streamflow Regulation ..................................................................................................................................... 36
Hydrologic Processes and Characteristics............................................................................................................................ 37
Hydrologic Processes ................................................................................................................................................. 37
Ground-Water Characteristics .................................................................................................................................... 38
Water-Level Trends and Comparisons.............................................................................................................. 38
Temporal Trends ..................................................................................................................................... 38
Comparisons Between Madison and Minnelusa Aquifers ..................................................................... 38
Comparisons for Other Aquifers ............................................................................................................ 43
Responses to Climatic Conditions.......................................................................................................... 43
Water Quality.................................................................................................................................................... 45
General Characteristics for Major Aquifers ........................................................................................... 50
General Characteristics for Minor Aquifers ........................................................................................... 56
Susceptibility to Contamination ............................................................................................................. 59
Summary Relative to Water Use............................................................................................................. 60
Surface-Water Characteristics .................................................................................................................................... 62
Streamflow Characteristics............................................................................................................................... 62
Streamflow Variability............................................................................................................................ 62
Response to Precipitation ....................................................................................................................... 70
Annual Yield........................................................................................................................................... 77
Water Quality.................................................................................................................................................... 82
Standards and Criteria ............................................................................................................................ 87
Common-ion Chemistry ......................................................................................................................... 87
Anthropogenic Effects ............................................................................................................................ 95
Additional Factors Relative to In-Stream Standards .............................................................................. 103

Contents III
CONTENTS—Continued
Hydrologic Budgets ............................................................................................................................................................. 103
Methods for Estimating Basin Yield and Recharge ................................................................................................... 105
Ground-Water Budgets............................................................................................................................................... 106
Budgets for Madison and Minnelusa Aquifers ................................................................................................ 107
Budgets for Other Bedrock Aquifers ............................................................................................................... 118
Surface-Water Budgets............................................................................................................................................... 120
Combined Ground-Water and Surface-Water Budgets .............................................................................................. 120
Evaluation of Hydrologic Budgets............................................................................................................................. 122
Madison and Minnelusa Flow System ................................................................................................................................. 123
Isotope Information.................................................................................................................................................... 123
Background Information and Composition of Recharge Water....................................................................... 123
Isotope Distributions and General Considerations........................................................................................... 131
Flowpaths, Ages, and Mixing Conditions.................................................................................................................. 135
Rapid City Area ............................................................................................................................................... 135
Northern Black Hills ........................................................................................................................................ 137
Southern Black Hills ........................................................................................................................................ 139
Interactions Between Aquifers................................................................................................................................... 140
Influence on Overall Hydrology of Black Hills Area ................................................................................................ 143
References ............................................................................................................................................................................ 145

FIGURES
1. Map showing area of investigation for the Black Hills Hydrology Study ............................................................ 3
2. Map showing present-day structural and physiographic features in the northern Great Plains area .................... 4
3. Map showing monthly precipitation distribution for October 1995 ..................................................................... 6
4. Isohyetal map showing distribution of average annual precipitation for Black Hills area,
water years 1950-98.............................................................................................................................................. 7
5. Boxplots showing distribution of annual precipitation for the study area and counties within
the study area, water years 1931-98...................................................................................................................... 8
6. Boxplots showing distribution of monthly precipitation for the study area, water years 1931-98....................... 8
7. Graph showing mean monthly precipitation for study area and selected counties, water years 1931-98 ............ 9
8. Graphs showing long-term trends in precipitation for the Black Hills area, water years 1931-98....................... 9
9. Stratigraphic section for the Black Hills............................................................................................................... 11
10. Map showing regional paleostructure during Jurassic and Cretaceous time in the
western interior of the United States..................................................................................................................... 12
11. Maps showing approximate extent of rocks in the northern Great Plains area for
selected geologic periods ...................................................................................................................................... 14
12. Generalized correlation chart for Paleozoic-age rocks in Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, and Wyoming ................................................................................................................................ 15
13. Generalized correlation chart for Mesozoic- and Cenozoic-age rocks in Montana,
North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming ........................................................................................................ 16
14. Map showing distribution of hydrogeologic units in the Black Hills area ........................................................... 17
15. Geologic cross section A-A′ ................................................................................................................................. 19
16. Schematic showing simplified hydrogeologic setting of the Black Hills area ..................................................... 21
17. Map showing general direction of ground-water flow in regional aquifer system
within Paleozoic aquifer units............................................................................................................................... 22
18. Boxplots showing distribution of well yields from selected aquifers ................................................................... 26
19-23. Maps showing:
19. Potentiometric surface of the Madison aquifer and locations of major artesian springs............................. 29
20. Potentiometric surface of the Minnelusa aquifer and locations of major artesian springs.......................... 30
21. Saturated thickness of the Madison aquifer................................................................................................. 32
22. Saturated thickness of the Minnelusa aquifer.............................................................................................. 33
23. Hydrogeologic settings for the Black Hills area.......................................................................................... 35

IV Contents
FIGURES—Continued
24. Schematic diagram illustrating hydrologic processes........................................................................................... 37
25. Map showing location of observation wells for which hydrographs are presented.............................................. 39
26-30. Hydrographs illustrating:
26. Temporal trends in ground-water levels ...................................................................................................... 40
27. General similarities in water levels for some colocated Madison/Minnelusa
wells with confined conditions .................................................................................................................... 42
28. Distinct hydraulic separation for two Madison/Minnelusa well pairs with unconfined conditions ............ 42
29. Generally separated water levels for some colocated Madison/Minnelusa wells ....................................... 44
30. Colocated Minnelusa/Minnekahta and Deadwood/Madison wells ............................................................. 45
31. Graphs showing relations between dissolved solids and specific conductance for the major aquifers ................ 51
32-36. Maps showing:
32. Distribution of specific conductance in the Madison aquifer...................................................................... 52
33. Distribution of hardness in the Inyan Kara aquifer ..................................................................................... 53
34. Stiff diagrams showing the distribution of common-ion chemistry in the Madison aquifer....................... 54
35. Stiff diagrams showing the distribution of common-ion chemistry in the Minnelusa aquifer .................... 55
36. Distribution of radon concentrations in the Deadwood aquifer .................................................................. 57
37. Graphs showing relations between dissolved solids and specific conductance for the minor aquifers................ 58
38. Boxplots of concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate for selected aquifers ................................................................ 59
39. South Dakota irrigation-water classification diagram for selected aquifers ......................................................... 61
40. Duration curves of daily mean streamflow for basins representative of hydrogeologic settings ......................... 65
41. Graphs showing mean monthly streamflow for basins representative of hydrogeologic settings ........................ 66
42. Boxplots showing distribution of annual yield for basins representative of hydrogeologic settings.................... 68
43-48. Graphs showing:
43. Relations between annual streamflow and precipitation for crystalline core basins................................... 72
44. Relations between annual runoff efficiency and precipitation for crystalline core basins .......................... 74
45. Relations between annual streamflow and precipitation for loss zone basins............................................. 74
46. Long-term trends in annual streamflow for station 06402000, relative to annual precipitation ................. 75
47. Relations between annual streamflow and precipitation for exterior basins ............................................... 76
48. Relations between annual runoff efficiency and precipitation for exterior basins ...................................... 77
49. Map showing basin yields for selected streamflow-gaging stations..................................................................... 79
50. Map showing comparison between surface-drainage areas and contributing ground-water
areas for streamflow-gaging stations in Limestone Plateau area.......................................................................... 80
51. Schematic diagram illustrating recharge and streamflow characteristics for selected outcrop types ................... 81
52. Map showing generalized average annual yield efficiency, water years 1950-98 ................................................ 83
53. Graphs showing relations between yield efficiency and precipitation for selected
streamflow-gaging stations ................................................................................................................................... 84
54. Map showing estimated annual yield potential for the Black Hills area, water years 1950-98............................ 86
55. Graphs showing relations between hardness and freshwater aquatic-life standards for
acute and chronic toxicity of selected trace elements........................................................................................... 89
56. Graph showing relations between dissolved solids and specific conductance by hydrogeologic settings ........... 90
57. Graphs showing relations between specific conductance and streamflow for selected sampling
sites by hydrogeologic setting............................................................................................................................... 91
58. Trilinear diagrams showing proportional concentrations of common ions by hydrogeologic setting.................. 92
59. Stiff diagrams showing median concentrations by hydrogeologic setting............................................................ 93
60. Map showing spatial distribution of median sulfate concentrations in surface water .......................................... 94
61. Map showing spatial distribution of maximum selenium concentrations in surface water .................................. 96
62. Maps showing locations of selected water-quality sampling sites used for analysis
of anthropogenic effects in Lawrence County and Rapid Creek Basin ................................................................ 97
63. Graph showing downstream progression of pH for selected streams influenced by acid-mine drainage ............ 98
64. Graph showing comparison of dissolved copper concentrations to hardness-dependent
chronic and acute aquatic-life criteria for Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood ...................................................... 99
65. Map showing spatial distribution of maximum arsenic concentrations in surface water ..................................... 101

Contents V
FIGURES—Continued
66. Boxplots of concentrations of dissolved nitrite plus nitrate by hydrogeologic setting......................................... 102
67. Boxplots of concentrations of dissolved nitrite plus nitrate within the Rapid Creek Basin ................................. 104
68. Graph showing annual recharge to the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, water years 1931-98,
in the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming................................................................................................ 107
69. Map showing subareas, generalized ground-water flow directions, and flow zones for the Madison aquifer ..... 112
70. Map showing subareas, generalized ground-water flow directions, and flow zones
for the Minnelusa aquifer...................................................................................................................................... 113
71. Schematic diagram showing average hydrologic budget components for study area,
water years 1950-98.............................................................................................................................................. 121
72. Schematic showing generalized average streamflow relative to surface geology and depletions ........................ 122
73. Graph showing relation between δ18O and δD in Black Hills samples in comparison to
the Global Meteoric Water Line ........................................................................................................................... 124
74. Map showing generalized distribution of δ18O in surface water and ground water in near-recharge areas ......... 126
75. Graphs showing temporal variation of δ18O for selected sites ............................................................................. 127
76. Graph showing estimated tritium concentrations in precipitation for Black Hills
area and decay curves for selected years .............................................................................................................. 128
77. Graphs showing monthly tritium concentrations in precipitation at Ottawa, Canada .......................................... 129
78. Schematic diagrams illustrating mixing models for age dating for various ground-water
flow conditions...................................................................................................................................................... 130
79. Decay-curve family for delayed-arrival mixing model for a 1995 sampling date ................................................ 131
80. Map showing distribution of δ18O in samples from selected Madison and Minnelusa wells
and springs in the Black Hills area ....................................................................................................................... 132
81. Map showing tritium occurrence for selected sample sites in Black Hills area ................................................... 134
82. Boxplots of tritium concentrations for selected ground-water and surface-water samples
collected during 1990-98 in the Black Hills area.................................................................................................. 135
83. Map showing concentrations of δ18O in Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in Rapid City area ........................... 136
84. Map showing distribution of δ18O in selected Madison wells and springs and generalized
flowpaths in the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming ............................................................................... 138
85. Schematic showing breccia pipes and caves in relation to the hydrogeologic setting
of the Black Hills area........................................................................................................................................... 143

TABLES
1. Summary of the characteristics of major and Precambrian aquifers in the study area.......................................... 25
2. Estimates of hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, storage coefficient, and porosity from
previous investigations........................................................................................................................................... 27
3. Summary of loss thresholds from Black Hills streams to bedrock aquifers.......................................................... 36
4. Water-quality criteria, standards, or recommended limits for selected properties and constituents ..................... 46
5. Summary of selected site information and flow characteristics for streamflow-gaging stations
representative of hydrogeologic settings ............................................................................................................... 63
6. Summary of regression information for limestone headwater basins.................................................................... 71
7. Summary of regression information for artesian spring basins ............................................................................. 75
8. Summary of information used in analysis of yield characteristics ........................................................................ 78
9. Surface-water-quality standards for selected physical properties and constituents............................................... 88
10. Summary of regression information (dissolved solids versus specific conductance), by
hydrogeologic setting............................................................................................................................................. 90
11. Estimates of average precipitation, precipitation recharge, runoff, total yield, and evapotranspiration
for the study area, water years 1950-98................................................................................................................. 105
12. Recharge factors and outcrop areas for bedrock aquifers...................................................................................... 105
13. Estimated annual hydrologic budget components for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers,
water years 1931-98, for the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming ............................................................ 108
14. Average hydrologic budgets for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers ................................................................. 110

VI Contents
TABLES—Continued
15. Hydrologic budgets, by subareas, for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in the Black Hills area,
water years 1987-96............................................................................................................................................... 114
16. Average ground-water budgets for bedrock aquifers, water years 1950-98 .......................................................... 119
17. Average surface-water budgets for study area, water years 1950-98 .................................................................... 120
18. Selected hydraulic and geochemical information for major artesian springs........................................................ 141

CONVERSION FACTORS

Multiply By To obtain
acre 4,047 square meter
acre 0.4047 hectare
acre-foot (acre-ft) 1,233 cubic meter
acre-foot (acre-ft) 0.001233 cubic hectometer
acre-foot per year (acre-ft/yr) 1,233 cubic meter per year
acre-foot per year (acre-ft/yr) 0.001233 cubic hectometer per year
cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second
foot (ft) 0.3048 meter
foot per day (ft/d) 0.3048 meter per day
foot squared per day (ft2/d) 0.09290 meter squared per day
inch 2.54 centimeter
inch 25.4 millimeter
inch per year (in/yr) 25.4 millimeter per year
mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer
square foot (ft2) 929.0 square centimeter
square mile (mi2) 259.0 hectare
square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F = (1.8 × °C) + 32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C = (°F - 32) / 1.8

Sea level: In this report, "sea level" refers to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD
of 1929)—a geodetic datum derived from a general adjustment of the first-order level nets of both
the United States and Canada, formerly called Sea Level Datum of 1929.

Water year (WY): Water year is the 12-month period, October 1 through September 30, and is des-
ignated by the calendar year in which it ends. Thus, the water year ending September 30, 1998, is
called the “1998 water year.”

Contents VII
Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
By Daniel G. Driscoll, Janet M. Carter, Joyce E. Williamson, and Larry D. Putnam
ABSTRACT
The Black Hills Hydrology Study was initi-
ated in 1990 to assess the quantity, quality, and
distribution of surface water and ground water in
the Black Hills area of South Dakota. This report
summarizes the hydrology of the Black Hills area
and the results of this long-term study.
The Black Hills area of South Dakota and
Wyoming is an important recharge area for several
regional, bedrock aquifer systems and various
local aquifers; thus, the study focused on describ-
ing the hydrologic significance of selected bed-
rock aquifers. The major aquifers in the Black
Hills area are the Deadwood, Madison, Minnelusa,
Minnekahta, and Inyan Kara aquifers. The highest
priority was placed on the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers, which are used extensively and heavily
influence the surface-water resources of the area.
Within this report, the hydrogeologic frame-
work of the area, including climate, geology,
ground water, and surface water, is discussed.
Hydrologic processes and characteristics for
ground water and surface water are presented. For
ground water, water-level trends and comparisons
and water-quality characteristics are presented.
For surface water, streamflow characteristics,
responses to precipitation, annual yields and yield
efficiencies, and water-quality characteristics are
presented. Hydrologic budgets are presented for
ground water, surface water, and the combined
ground-water/surface-water system. A summary
of study findings regarding the complex flow
systems within the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers also is presented.
INTRODUCTION
The Black Hills area is an important resource
center that provides an economic base for western
South Dakota through tourism, agriculture, the timber
industry, and mineral resources. In addition, water orig-
inating from the area is used for municipal, industrial,
agricultural, and recreational purposes throughout
much of western South Dakota. The Black Hills area
also is an important recharge area for aquifers in the
northern Great Plains.
Population growth, resource development, and
periodic droughts have the potential to affect the quan-
tity, quality, and availability of water within the Black
Hills area. Because of this concern, the Black Hills
Hydrology Study was initiated in 1990 to assess the
quantity, quality, and distribution of surface water and
ground water in the Black Hills area of South Dakota
(Driscoll, 1992). This long-term study has been a coop-
erative effort between the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS), the South Dakota Department of Environment
and Natural Resources, and the West Dakota Water
Development District, which represents various local
and county cooperators.
The specific objectives of the Black Hills
Hydrology Study included:
1. Inventorying and describing precipitation amounts,
streamflow rates, ground-water levels of selected
aquifer units, and selected water-quality charac-
teristics for the Black Hills area.
Introduction 1
2. Developing hydrologic budgets to define relations
among precipitation, streamflow, and aquifer
response for selected Black Hills watersheds.
3. Describing the significance of the bedrock aquifers
in the Black Hills area hydrologic system, with an
emphasis on the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers,
through determination of:
a. aquifer properties (depth, thickness, structure,
storage coefficient, hydraulic conductivity,
etc.);
b. the hydraulic connection between the aquifers;
c. the source aquifer(s) of springs;
d. recharge and discharge rates, and gross volu-
metric budgets; and
e. regional flow paths.
4. Developing conceptual models of the hydrogeo-
logic system for the Black Hills area.
Purpose and Scope
The purpose of this report is to summarize the
hydrology of the Black Hills area and present major
findings pertinent to the objectives of the Black Hills
Hydrology Study. The information summarized in this
report has been presented in more detail in previous
reports prepared as part of the study. Because the Black
Hills area of South Dakota and Wyoming is an impor-
tant recharge area for several regional, bedrock aquifers
and various local aquifers, the study concentrated on
describing the hydrogeology and hydrologic signifi-
cance of selected bedrock aquifers. The highest priority
was placed on the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers
because: (1) these aquifers are heavily used and could
be developed further; (2) these aquifers are connected
to surface-water resources through streamflow loss
zones and large springs; and (3) hydraulic connection
between these aquifers is extremely variable. The
Deadwood and Minnekahta aquifers had a lower pri-
ority because they are used less and have less influence
on the hydrologic system. The fractured Precambrian
rocks, Inyan Kara Group, and various local aquifers,
including minor bedrock aquifers and unconsolidated
aquifers, had the lowest priorities because: (1) the Pre-
cambrian and local aquifers are not regional aquifers
with regional flowpaths; and (2) the Inyan Kara Group
is not used as extensively in the Black Hills area as the
other priority units.
Hydrologic analyses within this report generally
are by water year, which represents the period from
2 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
October 1 through September 30. Discussions of time-
frames refer to water years, rather than calendar years,
unless specifically noted otherwise.
Description of Study Area
The study area for the Black Hills Hydrology
Study consists of the topographically defined Black
Hills and adjacent areas located in western South
Dakota (fig. 1). Outcrops of the Madison Limestone
and Minnelusa Formation, as well as the generalized
outer extent of the Inyan Kara Group, which approxi-
mates the outer extent of the Black Hills area, also are
shown in figure 1. The Black Hills are situated between
the Cheyenne and Belle Fourche Rivers. The Belle
Fourche River is the largest tributary to the Cheyenne
River. The study area includes most of the larger com-
munities in western South Dakota and contains about
one-fifth of the State’s population.
The Black Hills uplift formed as an elongated
dome about 60 to 65 million years ago during the Lara-
mide orogeny (Darton and Paige, 1925). The dome
trends north-northwest and is about 120 mi long and
60 mi wide. Land-surface altitudes range from 7,242 ft
above sea level at Harney Peak to about 3,000 ft in the
adjacent plains. Most of the higher altitudes are heavily
forested with ponderosa pine, which is the primary
product of an active timber industry. White spruce,
quaking aspen, paper birch, and other native trees and
shrubs are found in cooler, wetter areas (Orr, 1959).
The lower altitude areas surrounding the Black Hills
primarily are urban, suburban, and agricultural.
Numerous deciduous species such as cottonwood, ash,
elm, oak, and willow are common along streams in the
lower altitudes. Rangeland, hayland, and winter wheat
farming are the principal agricultural uses for dryland
areas. Alfalfa, corn, and vegetables are produced in
bottom lands and in irrigated areas. Various other
crops, primarily for cattle fodder, are produced in both
dryland areas and in bottom lands.
Beginning in the 1870’s, the Black Hills have
been explored and mined for many commodities
including gold, silver, tin, tungsten, mica, feldspar,
bentonite, beryl, lead, zinc, uranium, lithium, sand,
gravel, and oil (U.S. Department of Interior, 1967).
Mines within the study area have used various tech-
niques including placer mining, underground mining,
and open-pit mining.
 104o 45' 103o30'
Indian
EXPLANATION

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl

e
Cr Newell OUTCROP OF MADISON LIMESTONE
BE eek
LL Cr
E
Nisland
ee
k (from Strobel and others, 1999)
F
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC
HE RIVER OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION
ek
Hay Cre
(from Strobel and others, 1999)

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO
APPROXIMATE EXTENT OF THE BLACK

k
Cree
Cox
Lake Cr
Saint HILLS AREA, REPRESENTED BY
ow Onge
GENERALIZED OUTER EXTENT OF
Cree lch reek
30' k Gu Spearfish C INYAN KARA GROUP (modified
h

m
Gulc

from Strobel and others, 1999)

Botto
Whitewood

ek
Cre

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal te
fish

hit
t
Bu

W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

k k
El
ee k

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k

C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
For
gs

Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU
k

s
adN. Fo
rk Rap
o

Cas
Rh

tl id
eC
r RAPID CITY
Beav
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree
k

pid
e

Cr
stle

Reservoir
Cr

ee Cre
eek
eek

Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
o S. F Reservoir Spring
44
r

ork
e C

C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C an y o n

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

bird

ee

r ulch
Gr

Cr

e Fre G
ett
Red

nch CUSTER
ac

ill
e

G ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek

National
SOUTH DAKOTA

Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle
National Park
Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
ek

o t Brook
Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
SOUTH DAKOTA
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Black
Edgemont Ho
rse Hills Mis
he so
eek Angostura ad
Cr
43o15' Reservoir Cr
uri

od ee
wo k Area
k
on

Ri
ee

shown
Cott

Igloo
Cr

ve
Provo r
t
Ha

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 0 10 20 MILES

1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13 0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 1. Area of investigation for the Black Hills Hydrology Study.

Introduction 3
Acknowledgments HYDROGEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK
The authors acknowledge the efforts of the West The Black Hills are located within the Great
Dakota Water Development District for helping to Plains physiographic province in western South Dakota
develop and support the Black Hills Hydrology Study. and eastern Wyoming (fig. 2). The Black Hills strongly
West Dakota’s coordination of various local and county influence the hydrology of western South Dakota and
cooperators has been a key element in making this northeastern Wyoming. Many streams in western
study possible. The authors also recognize the South Dakota originate in the Black Hills, and major
numerous local and county cooperators represented by bedrock aquifers are recharged along outcrop areas in
West Dakota, as well as the numerous private citizens the Black Hills. Ground and surface water interact
who have helped provide guidance and support for the extensively in the Black Hills, and both streamflow and
Black Hills Hydrology Study. The South Dakota aquifer recharge are influenced by climatic conditions.
Department of Environment and Natural Resources has Overviews of the climate, geology, ground water, and
provided support and extensive technical assistance to surface water are provided in the following sections.
the study. In addition, the authors acknowledge the
input and technical assistance from many faculty and
students at the South Dakota School of Mines and
Technology.

112o CANADA 100o 98o

49o 110o 108o 104o 102o
106o

CE
CE
UNITED STATES

Red Rive
Sou
SW

IC PROVIN
BO DO

ris

PHYSIO PHIC PROVIN

LT T
EET

UL
W ME

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DO

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ANTICLINE
EF NESSON
GRA

R ve
IN

AL LA r
48o BEARPAW
S D
PO
P DOME
UL
T
SS

r
UPLIFT IN
H FA

of the
Missouri Little Rocky ver ON
AR

Ri KT
River
H
C

Mts
OC

GRAPH
Judith Mts
N
BR NORT H DAKOTA

North
BL O O D CREEK
DO M
Big
E L iss
Little Snowy SYNCLINE ou
CE TICL

IOGRA
MONTANA
uri

Belt Mts CAT CREE ri

DA
AN

Mts K FAULT
HELENA
Misso
R C INE

WHE SUMATR
BISMARCK
RE

AT A
SYN LAND PORCUPINE
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PHYS
CLIN WILL DOME
SY

E OW WILLISTON BASIN
FAULCREEK
46o
NC

CRAZY T RiverM
ANDS
ILE
LIN

BULL S
MOUNTAINS CI
E

LAK
MOUNTAIN TY
Approximate
AINS
River

BASIN Y E BA BASIN
ellow SIN
boundary of
er

stone FAUL
LOWL

T
le
Riv

Be
ARC

Williston
Litt

ar t
T PL

oo
POWDER
H

th Pryor Basin
M Mts
ts RIVER
SOUTH DAKOTA
NYE
CENTRAL

-BO BASIN
FAULWLER River
GREA

T River
e
Big

OV
rch

Ab
sa PIERRE
ho

E
Fou

RT ro
Powder
rn

ka
44o H
Mt

RU M
ne

ts Rive Area of
lle
s

S BLACK r
en

T Be Sioux Uplift
ey

Owl C HILLS
reek
Ch

Mts UPLIFT
BE

e
hit

IDAHO
LT

W
CA RCH

T
A
SP

WYOMING UL
W

ER

FA
in

TN
d

CASPER M
CH
Ri

SW
E

No
ve

AD
UP VILL

EE
rM

rth
UP TWA
RO
T
La
ts

LIF

LIF TER
RT

N
ra

GREEN T
HA

o
m

AR

42
ie

RIVER
CH
M

BASIN RED HANNA Plat

ts

DESERT BASIN LARAMIE te NEBRASKA er

UTAH ROCK BASIN Medicine BASIN ALLIANCE BASIN Riv
Bow Mts Rive
SPRINGS r
SALT LAKE UPLIFT Sierra CHEYENNE iver Plat LINCOLN
Madre R te
CITY Uinta Mts WASHAKIE Mts a tte
BASIN COLORADO Pl
S.

0 100 200 MILES

0 100 200 KILOMETERS

Figure 2. Present-day structural and physiographic features in the northern Great Plains area (modified from
Peterson, 1981, and Busby and others, 1995).

4 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Climatic Framework
The overall climate of the Black Hills area is
continental, with generally low precipitation amounts,
hot summers, cold winters, and extreme variations in
both precipitation and temperatures (Johnson, 1933).
Local climatic conditions are affected by topography,
with generally lower temperatures and higher precipi-
tation at the higher altitudes. The average annual tem-
perature is 43.9°F (U.S. Department of Commerce,
1999) and ranges from 48.7°F at Hot Springs to
approximately 37°F near Deerfield Reservoir.
Precipitation data sets used for this study gener-
ally were taken from Driscoll, Hamade, and Kenner
(2000), who summarized available precipitation data
(1931-98) for the Black Hills area. These investigators
compiled monthly precipitation records for 52 long-
term precipitation gages operated by National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (1998) and 42 short-
term precipitation gages operated by the USGS. These
data sets are available on the World Wide Web at
http://sd.water.usgs.gov/projects/bhhs/precip/
home.htm. A geographic information system (GIS)
was used by Driscoll, Hamade, and Kenner (2000) to
generate spatial distributions of monthly precipitation
data for 1,000-by-1,000-meter grid cells for the study
area; an example is shown in figure 3. Monthly distri-
butions were composited to produce annual distribu-
tions for counties within the study area and for drainage
areas of selected streamflow-gaging stations; these data
sets were presented by Driscoll and Carter (2001). The
precipitation distributions were used extensively for
various applications including evaluating responses of
ground-water levels and streamflow to precipitation,
estimating precipitation recharge for bedrock aquifers,
and developing long-term hydrologic budgets.
Spatial precipitation patterns in the Black Hills
area are highly influenced by orography, as shown by
an isohyetal map (fig. 4) for 1950-98, which is the
period commonly used for hydrologic budgets pre-
sented in this report. Areas of relatively low precipita-
tion occur in the low altitudes around the periphery of
the Black Hills. Most areas with altitudes exceeding
6,000 ft above sea level have average annual precipita-
tion in excess of 19 inches, with the largest amounts
occurring in the northern Black Hills near Lead, where
the average annual precipitation (1950-98) exceeds
28 inches. Orographic effects also are apparent in the
high-altitude areas near Harney Peak.
Local conditions also are affected by regional
climatic patterns, with the northern Black Hills influ-
enced primarily by moist air currents from the north-
west, and the southern Black Hills influenced primarily
by drier air currents from the south-southeast. As a
result, annual precipitation averages about 16 to
17 inches for most of Fall River County (fig. 4) and is
much less than parts of Lawrence and Meade Counties
that have comparable altitudes. Boxplots showing the
distribution of annual precipitation for the study area
and for counties within the study area during 1931-98
are presented in figure 5. For the study area, the long-
term average of 18.61 inches is slightly larger than the
median (50th percentile) of 17.96 inches. The 90th per-
centile indicates that annual precipitation over the
study area is less than about 23.70 inches 90 percent of
the time. Annual precipitation for both Butte and Fall
River Counties is less than the long-term average for
the study area about 75 percent of the time.
The largest precipitation amounts typically occur
during May and June, and the smallest amounts typi-
cally occur during November through February (fig. 6).
The most variable month is May, during which precip-
itation has ranged from a minimum of about 0.4 inch to
a maximum of 8.5 inches. The seasonal distribution of
precipitation is fairly uniform throughout the study
area; however, Lawrence County receives slightly
larger proportions of its annual precipitation during
winter months than the other counties (fig. 7).
Long-term (1931-98) trends in precipitation
(fig. 8) are an important consideration for hydrologic
analysis for the Black Hills area. Figure 8A shows that
annual precipitation for the study area averages
18.61 inches and has ranged from 10.22 inches in 1936
to 27.39 inches in 1995. Figure 8B shows that the asso-
ciated departures (from the average) have ranged from
a deficit (-) of 8.39 inches to a surplus (+) of
8.78 inches, respectively. The cumulative trends are
readily apparent from figure 8C, with the most pro-
nounced trends identified by the longest and steepest
line segments. Sustained periods of generally deficit
precipitation occurred during 1931-40 and 1948-61.
Sustained periods of generally surplus precipitation
occurred during 1941-47, 1962-68, and 1993-98. The
middle to late 1990’s stand out as the wettest period
since 1931.
Climatic Framework 5
 104o 45' 103o30'
Indian EXPLANATION

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

e
Cr Newell
BE eek
LL Cr Less than 2
E ee
Nisland k
F
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC
HE RIVER 2 to 3
ek
Hay Cre

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale 3 to 4
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO
4 to 5

k
Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr
ow Onge 5 to 6
Cree

lch reek
Gu Spearfish C Greater than 6
30'
k
h

m
Gulc

Botto
Whitewood
ek
Cre

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

tte
fish

hit
Bu

W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

k k
El
ee k

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k
C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
For
gs

Rochford
k

s
PLATEAU

adN. Fo
rk Rap
o

Cas
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
Spring
LIMESTONE

Reservoir
44o
r

S. F
e C

ork
C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
reek Cr
ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

te Fre G
nch CUSTER
ac

let
Red

l
e

Gi ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
he
eek Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 3. Monthly precipitation distribution for October 1995 (from Driscoll, Hamade, and Kenner, 2000).

6 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 104o 45' 103o30'
EXPLANATION

3,
Indian

00

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Cr

0
OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME

17
Reservoir
Owl

e
Cr Newell
BE 3,00 eek STONE (from Strobel and
LL
E 0 Cr 1k5
ee
F
Nisland others, 1999)
BELLE FOURCHE OU 16
RC RIVER
ek
HE OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA

17
Hay Cre
19

V ER
FORMATION (from Strobel

18
BUTTE CO Vale
ER RI MEADE CO and others, 1999)
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO
22

k
21

Cree
Cox 1 20 LINE OF EQUAL PRECIPITA-
19 8
Saint
Lake Cr Onge
ow 4,000 3,0 TION--Number is average
23 20 00
Cree

lch reek annual precipitation. Interval

Gu Spearfish C
30' 4,0 24
k

Bear
h

1 inch
m
00
Gulc

x Butte
Botto Whitewood
ek

25
Cre

d
5,000 LAND-SURFACE CONTOUR--

oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
26 5,000
Fal

tte
fish

hit
Bu Number is altitude above

W
5,00 Spear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Tinton Central mean sea level. Contour
aw

Cr CityCr li
0

Iron
er

DEADWOOD lka 103o

ood 15' interval 1,000 feet
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

28

h nie Cr 7,000
An
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford 3,000
ee
Wh

Cheyenne 27 El
k k
k

Crossing
ee

6,000 Little
Cr

20
Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k

C
25
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

24 ld
Spear

er Ellsworth 3,00

19
R api

S. F Air Force 0
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
For 7,000
gs

Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU
k

s 3,000
23 adN. Fo
rk C Rap
o

0
Rh

a s tl id5,000 RAPID CITY

4,00
eC
Beav 7,000 r
Ca

Ra
22
stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek 3,000
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
Reservoir Spring
44o S. F
r
e C

ork
C astl
20

Rockerville
ek Sheridan
21

Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
5,000
National Keystone
ing

7,000
6,0

Memorial
18
Spr

anyon Harney Hayward

00

17
Peak Iron
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO
7,000
x Mountain
x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
19 6,000 reek Cr
ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

Calamity
ee

6,0
bird

20 r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre Peak
te 00 nch CUSTER x G
ac

let
Red

l
e

Gi ge
6,000 C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
5,
Ca

Lam

3,000
nd
00

Creek
0

Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr

5,000
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
ny
Dewey 18 Onyx Beav
er
d

Cave
Re

R
VE
17
Hell

Cre RI
00 Gap
Buffalo ek
30' 4,0
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo 00
ek

o t Brook
Ca HOT SPRINGS 3,0
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
16

R
4,000
4,0
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
00
EN

4,000
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
he
eek Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 4. Isohyetal map showing distribution of average annual precipitation for Black Hills area, water years
1950-98 (from Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001).

Climatic Framework 7
 40
EXPLANATION
Maximum

ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

90th percentile
30 75th percentile
Median
25th percentile
10th percentile
20
Minimum

Long-term average
for study area
10
(18.61 inches)

0
ea

tte

de

r
te

ive
nc

to
ar

Bu

ea

us
ng

lR
re

C
y

ni
ud

l
Fa
La

n
Pe
St

Figure 5. Distribution of annual precipitation for the study area and counties within the study area,
water years 1931-98 (modified from Driscoll and Carter, 2001).

100
50

20
PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

10 EXPLANATION
5
Maximum
90th percentile
2 75th percentile
1 Median
0.5 25th percentile
10th percentile
0.2
Minimum
0.1
0.05

0.02
0.01
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP

Figure 6. Distribution of monthly precipitation for the study area, water years 1931-98 (from
Driscoll, Hamade, and Kenner, 2000).

8 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

MEAN MONTHLY PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES
10

Study area
5 Lawrence County
Fall River County

0.5

0.2

0.1
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP

Figure 7. Mean monthly precipitation for study area and selected counties, water years 1931-98 (from Driscoll and
Carter, 2001).

30
A Annual precipitation for the entire study area
ANNUAL PRECIPITATION,

20
IN INCHES

10
Annual precipitation
Long-term average
(18.61 inches)
0

10
B Annual departure from long-term average
ANNUAL DEPARTURE,

5
IN INCHES

-5

-10

0
C Cumulative departure from long-term average
CUMULATIVE DEPARTURE,

-10
IN INCHES

-20

-30

-40

-50
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
YEAR

Figure 8. Long-term trends in precipitation for the Black Hills area, water years 1931-98 (from Driscoll, Hamade, and
Kenner, 2000).

Climatic Framework 9
 The long-term precipitation trends are especially
important because of potential for bias in analysis and
interpretation of available hydrologic data sets, which
are much more abundant for the recent wet years.
Water-level records are available for 71 observation
wells in the Black Hills area for 1998, compared with
five wells for 1965 (Driscoll, Bradford, and Moran,
2000). Miller and Driscoll (1998) reported streamflow
records for 65 gages for 1993, compared with 30 gages
for 1960. Thus, the potential for bias is an important
consideration in analysis of hydrologic data sets for the
Black Hills area.
Average annual potential evaporation generally
exceeds average annual precipitation throughout the
study area. Thus, evapotranspiration generally is
limited by precipitation amounts and availability of soil
moisture. Average pan evaporation for April through
October is about 30 inches at Pactola Reservoir
and about 50 inches at Oral (U.S. Department of
Commerce, 1999).
Geologic Framework
The stratigraphic and structural features in the
Black Hills area are complex. Many of the geologic
formations, such as the Deadwood Formation, Madison
Limestone, Minnelusa Formation, Minnekahta Lime-
stone, and Inyan Kara Group, in the Black Hills (fig. 9)
are regionally extensive. Several formations thin or
pinch out in southern and eastern South Dakota. To
better understand the stratigraphic and structural set-
tings in the Black Hills, an overview of the regional
geologic setting is provided first and is followed by an
overview of the local geologic setting.
Regional Geologic Setting
Parts of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota,
and Wyoming are included in the Northern Great Plains
area. The present-day structural features (fig. 2) of the
Northern Great Plains are directly related to the geo-
logic history of the Cordilleran platform, which is a
part of the stable interior of the North American Conti-
nent (Downey, 1986). The present-day structure prob-
ably was controlled by the pre-existing structural grain
10 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
in the Precambrian basement and modified during the
Laramide orogeny (Downey, 1984).
During Paleozoic time, the area generally was
broad, flat, and covered by shallow, warm seas
(Downey, 1984). Numerous disconformities during
Paleozoic time indicate intermittent transgressions and
regressions when seas advanced from west to east in
response to tectonic activity of the Antler orogeny to
the west (Sandberg and Poole, 1977). Deposits gener-
ally were beach, shallow marine, carbonate, sabkha,
and evaporite units (Redden and Lisenbee, 1996).
During Cretaceous time, the area was covered by
a north-south trending sea, which extended from the
Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean (Downey, 1986).
During Late Cretaceous time, the sea was at its widest
extent, but marine deposition was interrupted by fre-
quent east-west regressions (Anna, 1986).
Paleostructure
The Northern Great Plains area was part of the
Cordilleran platform throughout most of Paleozoic
time. The Williston Basin, which covers parts of North
Dakota, South Dakota, southern Saskatchewan, south-
western Manitoba, and eastern Montana (fig. 10),
began to take shape during Ordovician time (Carlson
and Anderson, 1965). Other major Jurassic and Creta-
ceous (pre-Laramide) paleostructural elements
(fig. 10) include the Powder River Basin, the Central
Montana trough and uplift, the Cedar Creek anticline,
and the Alberta shelf (Anna, 1986).
The Laramide orogeny, which affected the
eastern Rocky Mountains of the United States, began
during late Cretaceous time and continued in the
Eocene period (Redden and Lisenbee, 1996). The
Laramide orogeny was characterized by large-scale
warping, deep erosion of uplifts, and deposition of oro-
genic sediments into basins (Tweto, 1975). Most, if not
all, pre-Laramide structural features (fig. 10) were
reactivated and became more prominent during the
Laramide orogeny (Anna, 1986). During the Laramide
orogeny, the Bighorn and Laramie Mountains, the
Black Hills, and the Central Montana uplift formed,
and the Williston and Powder River Basins (fig. 2)
were downwarped into essentially their present config-
uration (Anna, 1986).
 ABBREVIATION
ERATHEM SYSTEM FOR STRATIGRAPHIC UNIT THICKNESS DESCRIPTION
STRATIGRAPHIC IN FEET
INTERVAL
QUATERNARY QTac UNDIFFERENTIATED ALLUVIUM AND COLLUVIUM 0-50 Sand, gravel, boulder, and clay.
& TERTIARY (?) Tw WHITE RIVER GROUP 0-300 Light colored clays with sandstone channel fillings and local limestone lenses.
TERTIARY Tui INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS -- Includes rhyolite, latite, trachyte, and phonolite.

Principal horizon of limestone lenses giving teepee buttes.

CENOZOIC
Dark-gray shale containing scattered concretions.
PIERRE SHALE 1,200-2,700

Widely scattered limestone masses, giving small teepee buttes.

Black fissile shale with concretions.

NIOBRARA FORMATION 180-300 Impure chalk and calcareous shale.

Kps Light-gray shale with numerous large concretions and sandy layers.
CARLILE SHALE Turner Sandy Member 1350-750

Wall Creek Member Dark-gray shale

CRETACEOUS Impure slabby limestone. Weathers buff.
GREENHORN FORMATION 225-380
Dark-gray calcareous shale, with thin Orman Lake limestone at base.
Gray shale with scattered limestone concretions.
BELLE FOURCHE SHALE 150-850
Clay spur bentonite at base.

MESOZOIC
MOWRY SHALE 125-230 Light-gray siliceous shale. Fish scales and thin layers of bentonite.
MUDDY NEWCASTLE
SANDSTONE SANDSTONE 0-150 Brown to light-yellow and white sandstone.
150-270 Dark-gray to black siliceous shale.

GRANEROS GROUP
SKULL CREEK SHALE
FALL RIVER FORMATION 10-200 Massive to thin-bedded, brown to reddish-brown sandstone.
Fuson Shale 10-190
Kik Minnewaste Limestone Yellow, brown, and reddish brown massive to thinly bedded sandstone, pebble
0-25 conglomerate, siltstone, and claystone. Local fine-grained limestone and coal.

FM
Chilson Member

GROUP
LAKOTA
25-485

INYAN KARA
MORRISON FORMATION 0-220 Green to maroon shale. Thin sandstone.
UNKPAPA SS 0-225 Massive fine-grained sandstone.
Redwater Member
JURASSIC Ju Lak Member Greenish-gray shale, thin limestone lenses.
Hulett Member 250-450
SUNDANCE
FORMATION Stockade Beaver Mem. Glauconitic sandstone; red sandstone near middle.
Canyon Spr Member
GYPSUM SPRING FORMATION 0-45 Red siltstone, gypsum, and limestone.

TRIASSIC Red silty shale, soft red sandstone and siltstone with gypsum and thin limestone layers.
TR Ps SPEARFISH FORMATION 375-800
Goose Egg Equivalent Gypsum locally near the base.
Pmk MINNEKAHTA LIMESTONE 125-65 Thin to medium-bedded, fine-grained, purplish gray laminated limestone.
Po OPECHE SHALE 125-150 Red shale and sandstone.
PERMIAN
Yellow to red cross-bedded sandstone, limestone, and anhydrite locally at top.

P Pm MINNELUSA FORMATION 1375-1,175

Interbedded sandstone, limestone, dolomite, shale, and anhydrite.

PENNSYLVANIAN Red shale with interbedded limestone and sandstone at base.

1 Massive light-colored limestone. Dolomite in part. Cavernous in upper part.

MISSISSIPPIAN MADISON (PAHASAPA) LIMESTONE <200-1,000
MDme

PALEOZOIC
DEVONIAN ENGLEWOOD FORMATION 30-60 Pink to buff limestone. Shale locally at base.
WHITEWOOD (RED RIVER) FORMATION 1 Buff dolomite and limestone.
0-235
ORDOVICIAN Ou
WINNIPEG FORMATION 10-150 Green shale with siltstone.
Massive to thin-bedded buff to purple sandstone. Greenish glauconitic shale flaggy
OCd DEADWOOD FORMATION 1
CAMBRIAN 0-500 dolomite and flat-pebble limestone conglomerate. Sandstone, with conglomerate
locally at the base.
UNDIFFERENTIATED IGNEOUS
PRECAMBRIAN pCu AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS Schist, slate, quartzite, and arkosic grit. Intruded by diorite, metamorphosed
to amphibolite, and by granite and pegmatite.

1
Modified based on drill-hole data Modified from information furnished by the Department of Geology and Geological Engineering,
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (written commun., January 1994)

Geologic Framework
Figure 9. Stratigraphic section for the Black Hills.

11
 Base from U.S. National Atlas 0 100 200 300 400 MILES
1:17,000,000, 1970
0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS

Figure 10. Regional paleostructure during Jurassic and Cretaceous time in the western interior of the United States
(modified from Anna, 1986).

12 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Stratigraphy
Precambrian rocks form the basement in the
northern Great Plains area. Precambrian rocks are
exposed in the central core of many of the mountain
ranges, but lie greater than 15,000 ft below land surface
at the center of the Williston Basin (Downey and
Dinwiddie, 1988).
Rocks of Cambrian and Ordovician age consist
of sandstone, shale, limestone, and dolomite and repre-
sent the shoreward facies of a transgressive sea
(Peterson, 1981). The extent of the Cambrian and
Ordovician rocks in the northern Great Plains area is
shown in figure 11. The principal geologic units of
Cambrian and Ordovician age are the Deadwood
Formation, Emerson Formation, Winnipeg Formation,
Red River Formation (Whitewood Formation), and
Stony Mountain Formation (fig. 12). Rocks of Cam-
brian and Ordovician age extend into Canada where
they are exposed along the Precambrian shield
(Downey, 1986). Erosion during Devonian time trun-
cated the Ordovician geologic units in South Dakota
and Wyoming to the south of a line extending between
the central Black Hills and southern Bighorn Moun-
tains (Peterson, 1981). Rocks of Silurian age are not
present in the Black Hills area.
The extent of Mississippian rocks in the northern
Great Plains area is shown in figure 11. These rocks
overlying the Bakken Formation (where present) are
termed the Madison Limestone, or Madison Group
where divided (fig. 12). The Madison Limestone con-
sists of a sequence of marine carbonates and evaporites
deposited mainly in a warm, shallow-water environ-
ment (Downey, 1986). Development of karst (solution)
features in the Madison Limestone was common
because the carbonate rocks are relatively soluble in
water (Downey, 1986). Complex and interconnected
solution features developed in the Madison Limestone
during tropical conditions when it was exposed at or
near land surface (Busby and others, 1995). Large and
extensive cave systems have formed in the outcrop
areas of the Madison Limestone in the Bighorn
Mountains and in the Black Hills.
Rocks of Pennsylvanian age consist primarily of
marine sandstone, shale, siltstone, and carbonate. The
Pennsylvanian rocks are divided into many different
geologic units (fig. 12). Rocks of Pennsylvanian-age
have been truncated by pre-Jurassic erosion progres-
sively northward across central Montana; these rocks
thin to zero thickness near the axis of the central
Montana trough (Downey, 1986; figs. 10 and 11).
A sequence of red shale, siltstone, and evaporite
deposits belonging to the upper part of the Goose Egg
and Spearfish Formations of Triassic age overlie the
Minnelusa Formation (Downey and Dinwiddie, 1988).
Jurassic rocks, which include the Nesson, Piper,
Rierdon, and Sundance Formations and their equiva-
lents (fig. 12) are predominantly carbonate, shale, and
calcareous shale (Anna, 1986).
Deposits during Cretaceous time primarily were
sandstones, shales, and minor carbonates (Redden and
Lisenbee, 1996). A number of formation names have
been applied to the various Cretaceous units in the
northern Great Plains area; however, in several
instances, these formation names are used only in one
State or subregion (fig. 13). Lower Cretaceous rocks
(fig. 13) range in thickness from zero in eastern North
Dakota and South Dakota to more than 1,400 ft in west-
central Wyoming (Anna, 1986). The extent of the
Lower Cretaceous sandstones, which include the Inyan
Kara Group, Muddy Sandstone, and Newcastle or
Dakota Sandstone, is shown in figure 11. The sedimen-
tary pattern of Upper Cretaceous rocks (fig. 13) is asso-
ciated with four main transgressions and regressions of
shallow seas.
Tertiary units (fig. 13) generally were deposited
in a continental environment (Downey, 1986). Deposits
of Quaternary age in the northern Great Plains area
consist of alluvium, glacial materials, and other surfi-
cial deposits. Alluvial deposits fill major drainages in
the area. Glacial deposits are located only in the eastern
parts of North Dakota and South Dakota and in the
northernmost part of Montana (Downey, 1986).
Local Geologic Setting
The Black Hills uplift is a northwest-trending,
asymmetric, elongate dome, or doubly plunging anti-
cline. Uplift began about 62 million years ago during
the Laramide orogeny and probably continued in the
Eocene period (Redden and Lisenbee, 1996). Large
anticlines occur on the northern and southern flanks of
the Black Hills and plunge away from the uplift into the
surrounding plains. Numerous smaller folds, faults,
domes, and monoclines also occur in the Black Hills
(fig. 14). Igneous intrusions were emplaced on the
northern flanks of the uplift during the Tertiary Period.
Geologic Framework 13
 115 o 115 o

14
110o 100o 110o 100o
105o 105o

48 o 48 o

● ●
Grand Forks Grand Forks
Great Falls Great Falls
● ●

NORTH DAKOTA Fargo ● NORTH DAKOTA Fargo ●

M O N T A N M O N T A N
Helena ★ A Bismarck ★ Helena ★ A Bismarck ★

● Butte ● Butte
● Billings ● Billings

SOUTH DAKOTA SOUTH DAKOTA

★ ★
Pierre Pierre
0 50 100 MILES ● Rapid City 0 50 100 MILES ● Rapid City
Sioux Sioux
0 50 100 KILOMETERS Falls ● 0 50 100 KILOMETERS Falls ●

43o W Y O M I N G 43o W Y O M I N G
● Casper ● Casper
Modified from Downey and Dinwiddie, Modified from Downey and Dinwiddie,
1988; Whitehead, 1996 1988; Whitehead, 1996

Cheyenne ★ Cheyenne ★

Base modified from U.S. Geological Base modified from U.S. Geological
Survey digital data, 1:2,000,000, 1972 Survey digital data, 1:2,000,000, 1972

Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Cambrian and Ordovician-age rocks Mississippian-age rocks

115 o 115 o
110o 100o 110o 100o
105o 105o

48 o 48 o

● ●
Grand Forks Grand Forks
Great Falls Great Falls
● ●

NORTH DAKOTA Fargo ● NORTH DAKOTA Fargo ●

M O N T A N M O N T A N
Helena ★ A Bismarck ★ Helena ★ A Bismarck ★

● Butte ● Butte
● Billings ● Billings

SOUTH DAKOTA SOUTH DAKOTA

★ ★
Pierre Pierre
0 50 100 MILES ● Rapid City 0 50 100 MILES ● Rapid City
Sioux Sioux
0 50 100 KILOMETERS Falls ● 0 50 100 KILOMETERS Falls ●

43o W Y O M I N G 43o W Y O M I N G
● Casper ● Casper
Modified from Downey and Dinwiddie, 1988 Modified from Downey and Dinwiddie,
1988; Whitehead, 1996

Cheyenne ★ Cheyenne ★

Base modified from U.S. Geological Base modified from U.S. Geological
Survey digital data, 1:2,000,000, 1972 Survey digital data, 1:2,000,000, 1972

Pennsylvanian-age rocks Cretaceous-age rocks

Figure 11. Approximate extent of rocks in the northern Great Plains area for selected geologic periods.
 SYSTEM Series Powder River Basin
South-Central Western
Williston Basin
Central North-Central
Montana South Dakota Montana Trough Montana

JURASSIC MIDDLE JURASSIC Piper Formation Piper Formation Gypsum Spring Formation Piper Formation Piper Formation Piper Formation

TRIASSIC Chugwater Formation Chugwater Formation

Spearfish Formation Spearfish Formation

UPPER PERMIAN Goose Egg Formation
PERMIAN

Minnekahta Limestone Minnekahta Limestone

Opeche Shale Opeche Shale

LOWER PERMIAN

UPPER
PENNSYLVANIAN
PENNSYLVANIAN

Tensleep Minnelusa Formation

Sandstone Minnelusa Tensleep Sandstone
MIDDLE Formation Tensleep Sandstone Minnelusa Formation
PENNSYLVANIAN
Amsden Group
Amsden Group
(upper part)
(upper part)
Amsden
LOWER Amsden Formation
Formation Tyler Formation
PENNSYLVANIAN Tyler Formation
of Amsden Group

Big Snowy Heath Formation Big Snowy Heath Formation

Group Otter Formation Group Otter Formation
UPPER Kibbey Formation Kibbey Formation
MISSISSIPPIAN
MISSISSIPPIAN

Charles Charles Charles

Formation Formation Formation

Madison Limestone Mission Canyon

Mission Canyon Mission Canyon Mission Canyon
or Madison Group Madison Group Limestone
Madison Limestone Madison Group Limestone Limestone Limestone
Pahasapa Limestone
LOWER Madison Group
MISSISSIPPIAN
Lodgepole Lodgepole
Lodgepole Lodgepole
Limestone Limestone
Limestone Limestone

Englewood Formation Bakken Formation Bakken Formation Bakken Formation

Three Forks Formation Three Forks Formation

Three Forks Formation Three Forks Formation Three Forks Formation
UPPER
DEVONIAN Birdbear Formation Birdbear Formation
DEVONIAN

Jefferson Formation
Jefferson Formation Jefferson Formation Duperow Formation Duperow Formation
Souris River Formation Souris River Formation
Dawson Bay Formation
MIDDLE
DEVONIAN Prairie Formation
Winnipegosis Formation

LOWER DEVONIAN

UPPER SILURIAN
SILURIAN

MIDDLE SILURIAN

Interlake Formation

LOWER SILURIAN
Interlake Formation

Stony Mountain Stony Mountain Formation

Formation
UPPER
Red River Formation
ORDOVICIAN Bighorn Dolomite
ORDOVICIAN

Bighorn Red River Formation or

Red River Formation Red River Formation Red River Formation
Dolomite Whitewood Dolomite

MIDDLE Winnipeg Formation Winnipeg Formation Winnipeg Formation Winnipeg Formation Winnipeg Formation
ORDOVICIAN

LOWER
ORDOVICIAN

Snowy Range Snowy Range Deadwood Formation

Formation or Formation or
UPPER Gallatin and Deadwood Gallatin and Deadwood Deadwood Formation Emerson Formation Emerson Formation
CAMBRIAN Formation Formation
CAMBRIAN

Gros Ventre Gros Ventre

Formations Formations
or equivalents or equivalents

MIDDLE Flathead Flathead

CAMBRIAN Sandstone Sandstone Flathead Sandstone Flathead Sandstone

LOWER
CAMBRIAN

PRECAMBRIAN

Figure 12. Generalized correlation chart for Paleozoic-age rocks in Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming
(modified from Downey, 1986).

Geologic Framework 15
 Eastern
Eastern Montana
Series and Western Powder North Dakota
Western Central Black Hills-- --
System European River Basin-- --
Montana Montana South Dakota Western
Stage Wyoming Eastern
North Dakota
South Dakota

PLIOCENE

Ogallala Fm.

MIOCENE
Arikaree Fm.

White River
Fm. Western
TERTIARY

Volcanic rocks

Volcanic rocks
North Dakota
White River Only
OLIGOCENE White River Fm. Fm.

EOCENE
Golden Valley
Wasatch Fm. Fm. Western
North Dakota
Only
Fort Union Fm.

Fort Union Fm.

Fort Union Fm.

Fort Union Fm.

Sentinel Butte Mbr.
Tongue River Mbr. Tongue River Mbr. Tongue River Mbr.
Tongue River Mbr.
Mbr.
PALEOCENE Lebo Shale Mbr. Lebo Shale Mbr. Cannonball Mbr. Shale annonballbr.
Lebo C M
Willow Creek
Fm. Tullock Mbr. Tullock Mbr. Ludlow Mbr. Ludlow Mbr.

Hell Creek Fm. Lance Fm. Hell Creek Fm. Hell Creek Fm.
MAESTRICHTIAN St. Mary River
Fm. Fox Hills Ss. Fox Hills Ss. Fox Hills Ss. Fox Hills Ss.
? Horsethief Ss. Lewis Shale
Bearpaw Sh. Bearpaw Shale Teapot Ss. Mbr. Pierre Shale
Verde
Mesa

Fm.

Unnamed Pierre Shale Pierre Shale

UPPER CRETACEOUS

CAMPANIAN Parkman Ss. Mbr.

Two Medicine Fm. Judith River Fm.
Cody Sh. or

Unnamed
Steele Sh.

Claggett Sh. Sussex Ss. Mbr.

Virgelle Ss. Eagle Ss. Shannon Ss. Mbr. Mitten Black Sh. Mbr. Pembina Mbr. Sharon Springs Mbr.

Telegraph Creek Fm. Telegraph Creek Fm. Fishtooth ss.*

SANTONIAN Niobrara Fm. Niobrara Fm. Niobrara Fm.
Niobrara Fm.
Cody Sh.

CONIACIAN Niobrara Mbr.

Marias River
Shale Carlile Carlile Sh. Carlile Sh.
*Bowdoin ss. Carlile Sh.
TURONIAN Sh.
Carlile equivalent
Greenhorn Fm. Greenhorn Fm. Greenhorn Fm.
Greenhorn Fm.
Mosby Ss. Mbr.
Frontier Fm.
CENOMANIAN Belle Fourche Sh. Belle Fourche Sh. Belle Fourche Sh. Belle Fourche Sh.

Bootlegger Mbr. Mowry Sh. Mowry Sh. Mowry Sh. Mowry Sh. Mowry Sh.
Blackleaf Fm.

kota .
CRETACEOUS

Vaughn *Bow Da Fm
Mbr. Island ss. Muddy Ss. Muddy Ss. Newcastle Ss. Muddy Ss. Newcastle Ss. Ss(./part)
Skull Creek Sh. Skull Creek or Skull Creek Sh. Skull Creek Sh. Skull Creek Sh.
Taft Hill Mbr.
ALBIAN *Basal silt Thermopolis Sh. *Basal silt *Basal silt *Basal silt
Flood Mbr. *First Cat Creek ss. Fall River equivalent Fall River Ss. Fall River Ss. Fall River Ss.
Inyan Kara Gp.
Kootenai Fm.

Kootenai

Fuson equivalent Fuson Mbr. Fuson Mbr. Fuson Mbr.

*Second Cat Creek ss.
LOWER CRETACEOUS

Fm.

Sunburst Mbr.
*Third Cat Creek ss. Lakota equivalent Lakota Mbr. Lakota Mbr. Lakota Mbr.
APTIAN
Cutbank Ss.
Mbr.

NECOMIAN
UPPER JURASSIC

TITHONIAN
? ? ? ? ?
KIMMERIDGIAN Morrison Fm. Morrison Fm.
Morrison Fm. Morrison Fm. Morrison Fm.

Swift Fm.
OXFORDIAN Swift Fm. Swift Fm.
Upper part Upper part Swift Fm.
JURASSIC

Sundance Fm.

Sundance Fm.

CALLOVIAN
MIDDLE JURASSIC

Lower part
Rierdon Fm. Lower part Rierdon Fm.
Rierdon Fm.
BATHONIAN Rierdon Fm.

Sawtooth Fm. Piper Fm. Piper Fm.

Piper Fm.
BAJOCIAN
Gypsum Spring Fm. Gypsum Spring Fm. Nesson Fm.
Nesson Fm.
* Of informal or subsurface usage

Figure 13. Generalized correlation chart for Mesozoic- and Cenozoic-age rocks in Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, and Wyoming (modified from Downey, 1986).
16 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
 104o 45' 103o30'
EXPLANATION
Indian Hydrogeologic Stratigraphic

Hors
o Belle Fourche
44 45' Reservoir
Cr
ee Units Units Map Units
Ow k

e
l Newell
Cre Unconsolidated QTac Alluvium and colluvium,
BE ek units
LL
E Cr undifferentiated
Nisland eek
O

F
BELLE FOURCHE UR White River aquifer Tw White River Group
CHE RIVER
k
Hay Cree Tertiary intrusive Tui Undifferentiated intrusive
BUTTE CO Vale units
igneous rocks
River MEADE CO
LAWRENCE CO

k
Redwat e r Cretaceous-

Cree
Kps Pierre Shale to Skull Creek Shale,
sequence
Cox Saint confining unit undifferentiated
Cr Lake Onge
ow
Inyan Kara aquifer Kik Inyan Kara Group

d
Be

Cree

woo
ee k
30'
a

Spearfish
Cr
r

White
k

Jurassic-sequence
k

Ju Morrison Formation to Sundance

Cree

Whitewood semiconfining unit

Formation, undifferentiated
tom

ek
Cre Spearfish confining
Bot
ek

unit TRPs Spearfish Formation

Cre
Gulc

tte
Sq Bu STURGIS Creek
h

Central
uaw

Tinton Minnekahta aquifer Pmk Minnekahta Limestone

ali
e

City
ls
er

Alk 15' 103o

Fa

DEADWOOD
v
Bea

Cr

Cr Opeche confining
Lead Po Opeche Shale
Cr

ar

i
Ann e Crx unit
Be
sh

il

Terry Tilford
eta

An
Spearfi

Peak
tel
El

Minnelusa aquifer PPm Minnelusa Formation

it

op
k
Wh

Cr

e
dow
ish

Mea
Roubaix Little
Cr
arf

El reek ee Madison aquifer MDme Madison (Pahasapa) Limestone

15' Creek
Little

k
C
Spe

k
N. F

Bo and Englewood Formation

xe Piedmont
lde
o rk R

r Ellsworth
Air Force Ordovician-sequence Ou Whitewood Formation and
S. F semiconfining unit
apid C

ork Nemo Base

Rap Winnipeg Formation
eek
Crooks
Cold Sp Tower id C Blackhawk Cr
r x r
r

Cree in Deadwood aquifer OCd Deadwood Formation

k Box Elder
gs

For Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU
k

s
ad Precambrian igneous
pCu
Rapid Undifferentiated igneous
o

and
Rh

Beav eek
A' metamorphic units and metamorphic rocks
Cr
Cr

Ca Pactola
ee

stl Ra
er

C
k

e Reservoir pid
reek

eek

Cre
Vi ek A A'
Cr

Deerfield ct o ria LINE OF GEOLOGIC SECTION

44o S. F Reservoir Sp
r

rin
e C

ork g FAULT--Dashed where approximated.

A C astl Sheridan Rockerville
ek Bar and ball on downthrown side
Cre Lake
Hill City ANTICLINE--Showing trace of axial
Cr
Sprin Mt. Rushmore Keystone ee plane and direction of plunge.
g National k
anyon Memorial Hayward Dashed where approximated
C
Canyon

Harney
PENNINGTON CO Peak x SYNCLINE--Showing trace of axial plane
Battle
C anyon

Spoka Hermosa and direction of plunge. Dashed

CUSTER CO n e C
reek Cr
ee
where approximated
es

Bea Cr k
Bol

bird

r Gulch MONOCLINE--Showing trace of axial

Gr

te Fre e
let nch CUSTER idg
Red

ac

l o l plane. Dashed where approximated

Gi Co
e

45' Jewel Cave CUSTER DOME--Symbol size approximately pro-

National
SOUTH DAKOTA

Monument portional to size of dome. Dome

STATE
Creek
Fairburn asymmetry indicated by arrow length
WYOMING

PARK
n
yo
on

Can
ny
Ca

Beaver La
Wind Cave
Pringle National Park me

Creek Wind
RIVER

Cave Jo
Cree hnn
Dewey k
d

y
Re
l

Cre
Hel

30' Buffalo Gap ek

FALL RIVER CO
Hay Canyon

H n
o t Brook nyo NN
E
Ca HOT SPRINGS
E YE
Minnekahta Fa CH
CH ll R Oral
ive
EY r
EN
NE
Cascade
Springs

Ho
Edgemont rse
head
k Angostura
ee
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' oo
d RIVER Cr
nw
tt o

k
ee

Igloo
Co

Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 14. Distribution of hydrogeologic units in the Black Hills area (modified from Strobel and others, 1999).

Geologic Framework 17
 The oldest stratigraphic units in the study area
are the Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks
(fig. 9), which underlie the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cenozoic rocks and sediments. These Precambrian
rocks range in age from 1.7 to about 2.5 billion years
and were eroded to a gentle undulating plain at the
beginning of the Paleozoic Era (Gries, 1996). The Pre-
cambrian rocks are highly variable in composition and
are composed mostly of metasediments, such as schists
and graywackes. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks
were deposited on the Precambrian rocks as nearly hor-
izontal beds. Subsequent uplift during the Laramide
orogeny and related erosion exposed the Precambrian
rocks in the central core of the Black Hills, with many
of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
exposed in roughly concentric rings around the core.
The exposed Precambrian rocks commonly are referred
to as the crystalline core.
The layered series of sedimentary rocks sur-
rounding the crystalline core includes outcrops of the
Madison Limestone (also locally known as the
Pahasapa Limestone) and the Minnelusa Formation.
The bedrock sedimentary formations typically dip
away from the uplifted Black Hills (fig. 15) at angles
that can approach or exceed 15 to 20 degrees near the
outcrops, and decrease with distance from the uplift to
less than 1 degree (Carter and Redden, 1999a, 1999b,
1999c, 1999d, 1999e). Following are descriptions for
the bedrock formations that contain major aquifers in
the Black Hills area.
The oldest sedimentary unit in the study area is
the Cambrian- and Ordovician-age Deadwood Forma-
tion, which is composed primarily of brown to light-
gray glauconitic sandstone, shale, limestone, and local
basal conglomerate (Strobel and others, 1999). These
sediments were deposited on top of a generally hori-
zontal plain of Precambrian rocks in a coastal- to near-
shore environment (Gries, 1975). The thickness of the
Deadwood Formation increases from south to north in
the study area and ranges from 0 to 500 ft (Carter and
Redden, 1999e). In the northern and central Black
Hills, the Deadwood Formation is disconformably
overlain by Ordovician rocks, which include the
Whitewood and Winnipeg Formations. The Winnipeg
Formation is absent in the southern Black Hills, and the
Whitewood Formation has eroded to the south and is
not present south of the approximate latitude of Nemo
(DeWitt and others, 1986). In the southern Black Hills,
the Deadwood Formation is unconformably overlain by
18 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
the Devonian- and Mississippian-age Englewood For-
mation because of the absence of the Ordovician
sequence. The Englewood Formation is overlain by the
Madison Limestone.
The Mississippian-age Madison Limestone is a
massive, gray to buff limestone that is locally dolomitic
(Strobel and others, 1999). The Madison Limestone,
which was deposited as a marine carbonate, was
exposed at land surface for approximately 50 million
years. During this period, significant erosion, soil
development, and karstification occurred (Gries, 1996).
There are numerous caves and fractures within the
upper part of the formation (Peter, 1985). The thickness
of the Madison Limestone increases from south to
north in the study area and ranges from almost zero in
the southeast corner of the study area (Rahn, 1985) to
1,000 ft east of Belle Fourche (Carter and Redden,
1999d). Because the Madison Limestone was exposed
to erosion and karstification for millions of years, its
contact with the overlying Minnelusa Formation is
unconformable.
The Pennsylvanian- and Permian-age Minnelusa
Formation consists mostly of yellow to red cross-
stratified sandstone, limestone, dolomite, and shale
(Strobel and others, 1999). In addition to sandstone and
dolomite, the middle part of the formation consists of
shale and anhydrite (DeWitt and others, 1986). The
upper part of the Minnelusa Formation also may con-
tain anhydrite, which generally has been removed by
dissolution in or near the outcrop areas, occasionally
forming collapse features filled with breccia (Brad-
dock, 1963). The Minnelusa Formation was deposited
in a coastal environment, and dune structures at the top
of the formation may represent beach sediments (Gries,
1996). The thickness of the Minnelusa Formation
increases from north to south and ranges from 375 ft
near Belle Fourche to 1,175 ft near Edgemont in the
study area (Carter and Redden, 1999c). In the north-
eastern part of the central Black Hills, little anhydrite
occurs in the subsurface due to a change in the deposi-
tional environment. On the south and southwest side of
the study area, the thickness of clastic units increases
and a thick section of anhydrite occurs. In the southern
Black Hills, the upper part of the Minnelusa Formation
thins due to leaching of anhydrite. The Minnelusa
Formation is disconformably overlain by the Permian-
age Opeche Shale, which is overlain by the Minnekahta
Limestone.
 WYOMING
SOUTH DAKOTA
South Fork Castle Creek

LIMESTONE PLATEAU
A A'

South Fork Castle Creek

FEET PPm FEET
OCd
7,000 7,000
MDme
6,000 Rapid Creek 6,000
MDme
Rapid Creek

5,000 Rapid Creek 5,000

Rapid Creek
Kik
Rapid City

OCd PPm Pmk

Rapid Creek

4,000 Po Ju
QTac QTac 4,000
3,000 pCu 3,000
pCu Kps
2,000 2,000
1,000 1,000
SEA TR Ps SEA
LEVEL VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X5 0 2 4 6 8 10 MILES LEVEL

0 2 4 6 8 10 KILOMETERS

Figure 15. Geologic cross section A-A′ (modified from Strobel and others, 1999). Location of section is shown in figure 14. Abbreviations for stratigraphic intervals
are explained in figure 9.

Geologic Framework
19
 The Permian-age Minnekahta Limestone is a
fine-grained, purple to gray laminated limestone
(Strobel and others, 1999), which ranges in thickness
from 25 to 65 ft in the study area. The Minnekahta
Limestone is overlain by the Triassic- and Permian-age
Spearfish Formation.
The Cretaceous-age Inyan Kara Group consists
of the Lakota Formation and overlying Fall River
Formation. The Lakota Formation consists of the
Chilson, Minnewaste Limestone, and Fuson Shale
members. The Lakota Formation consists of yellow,
brown, and reddish-brown massive to thinly bedded
sandstone, pebble conglomerate, siltstone, and clay-
stone of fluvial origin (Gott and others, 1974); locally
there are lenses of limestone and coal. The Fall River
Formation is a brown to reddish-brown, fine-grained
sandstone, thin bedded at the top and massive at the
bottom (Strobel and others, 1999). The thickness of the
Inyan Kara Group ranges from 135 to 900 ft in the
study area (Carter and Redden, 1999a).
Ground-Water Framework
The hydrogeologic setting of the Black Hills area
is schematically illustrated in figure 16, and the areal
distribution of the hydrogeologic units is shown in
figure 14. Four of the major aquifers in the Black Hills
area (Deadwood, Madison, Minnelusa, and Inyan Kara
aquifers) are regionally extensive and are discussed in
the following sections in the context of regional and
local hydrologic settings. A fifth major aquifer
(Minnekahta aquifer) generally is used only locally, as
are aquifers in the igneous and metamorphic rocks
within the crystalline core area and in alluvium. In
some local areas, wells are completed in strata that
generally are considered to be semiconfining and
confining units.
Regional Aquifers
The major aquifers underlie parts of Montana,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, and Canada.
The parts of the regional aquifers in Canada are not
described or shown in this report.
The Paleozoic aquifers include the Cambrian-
Ordovician aquifer (Deadwood aquifer in the Black
Hills), Mississippian aquifer (Madison aquifer in
the Black Hills), and the Pennsylvanian aquifer
(Minnelusa aquifer in the Black Hills). Recharge to the
20 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Paleozoic aquifers occurs in high-altitude outcrop areas
around the major uplifts such as the Black Hills uplift
(fig. 17).
The Cambrian-Ordovician (or Deadwood)
aquifer is contained within the sandstones of Cambrian
age (Deadwood Formation and equivalents) and lime-
stones of Ordovician age (Red River Formation and
equivalents) (fig. 12). Generally, flow in the Cambrian-
Ordovician aquifer is from the high-altitude recharge
areas to the northeast. Discharge (fig. 17) from the
Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer is to adjacent aquifers,
lakes and springs in eastern North Dakota, and springs
and seeps where the aquifer crops out in Canada
(Downey, 1984). Within the Great Plains region, the
Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer contains fresh water
(dissolved solids concentrations less than 1,000 mg/L
(milligrams per liter)) only in an area surrounding the
Black Hills and in a small area in north-central Wyo-
ming (Whitehead, 1996). The aquifer is a brine (dis-
solved solids concentration greater than 35,000 mg/L)
in eastern Montana and western and central North
Dakota (Whitehead, 1996).
The Mississippian (or Madison) aquifer is con-
tained within the limestones, siltstones, sandstones,
and dolomite of the Madison Limestone or Group.
Generally, water in the Mississippian aquifer is con-
fined except in outcrop areas. Flow in the Mississippian
aquifer generally is from the recharge areas to the
northeast. Discharge (fig. 17) from the Mississippian
aquifer occurs by upward leakage to the lower Creta-
ceous aquifer in central South Dakota and eastern flow
to the Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer in eastern North
Dakota (Downey, 1984). Water in the Mississippian
aquifer is fresh only in small areas near recharge areas
and becomes saline to slightly saline as it moves down-
gradient. The water is a brine with dissolved solids con-
centrations greater than 300,000 mg/L in the deep parts
of the Williston Basin (Whitehead, 1996).
The Pennsylvanian (or Minnelusa) aquifer is
contained within the sandstones and limestones of the
Minnelusa Formation, Tensleep Sandstone, Amsden
Formation, and equivalents of Pennsylvanian age
(fig. 12). Water in the Pennsylvanian aquifer moves
from recharge areas to the northeast to discharge areas
in eastern South Dakota (Downey and Dinwiddie,
1988). Some water discharges by upward leakage to the
lower Cretaceous aquifer (Swenson, 1968, Gott and
others, 1974).
 Minnelusa NE
Formation S TO U
E A
M TE
LI LA
P EXPLANATION
Limestone Headwater
ison springflow MAJOR AQUIFER
Mad
Formation CONFINING UNIT
ood
adw
De SPRING

Recharge

Precambrian igneous Alluvial

and metamorphic rocks aquifer
Artesian

D
Water springflow Potentiometric

ea
table surface of

d
Madison

wo
o
aquifer

d
Flowing well

Fo
Spring

rm
Inyan Ka
conduit ra

at
Group

ion
Cave M M in
in n ne ka
e lu hta L i m e st Leakage from/
sa one leakage to
M F orm
ad a ti o n
is o
Dip of sedimentary rocks exaggerated n
Limes
Relative thickness NOT TO SCALE tone
Lateral
ground-water
outflow
Lateral
ground-water
inflow

Ground-Water Framework
Figure 16. Schematic showing simplified hydrogeologic setting of the Black Hills area. Schematic generally corresponds with geologic cross section shown in
figure 15. Components considered for hydrologic budget of the Madison aquifer also are shown with inflow components shown in green and outflow components

21
shown in blue.
 115 o

22
110o o
105o 100

48 o

●
Grand Forks
Great Falls
●

NORTH DAKOTA Fargo ●

M O N T A N
Helena ★ A Bismarck ★

Ap
p
ro
xim
● Butte at

e
Bo
Billings

un
●

da
r
yo
f
W
i

Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

llis
to
DAKOTA

n
SOUTH ★

Ba
Pierre

sin
0 50 100 MILES ●
Rapid City
Sioux
0 50 100 KILOMETERS Falls ●

43 o W Y O M I N G
●
Casper

EXPLANATION
RECHARGE AREA
DISCHARGE AREA FOR MADISON AND MINNELUSA
AQUIFERS (via adjacent aquifers)
Cheyenne ★ DISCHARGE AREA FOR DEADWOOD AQUIFER
Base modified from U.S. Geological (via adjacent aquifers, springs, and seeps)
Survey digital data, 1:2,000,000, 1972
EXTENT OF GROUND WATER WITH DISSOLVED
SOLIDS CONCENTRATION GREATER THAN
100,000 MILLIGRAMS PER LITER
EASTERN LIMIT OF DEADWOOD AQUIFER--Dashed
where approximately located
DIRECTION OF GROUND-WATER FLOW

Figure 17. General direction of ground-water flow in regional aquifer system within Paleozoic aquifer units (modified from Downey and Dinwiddie, 1988;
Whitehead, 1996).
 Several sandstone units (fig. 13) compose the
lower Cretaceous aquifer, which is known as the Inyan
Kara aquifer in South Dakota. Generally, water in the
lower Cretaceous aquifer is confined by several thick
shale layers except in aquifer outcrop areas around
structural uplifts, such as the Black Hills. Water in the
lower Cretaceous aquifer generally moves northeast-
erly from high-altitude recharge areas to discharge
areas in eastern North Dakota and South Dakota
(Whitehead, 1996). Although the aquifer is wide-
spread, it contains little fresh water. Water is fresh only
in small areas in central and south-central Montana and
north and east of the Black Hills uplift (Whitehead,
1996). More than one-half of the water in the lower
Cretaceous aquifer is moderately saline, and the water
is very saline or a brine in the deep parts of the Will-
iston and Powder River Basins (Whitehead, 1996).
Much of the saline water is believed to be from upward
leakage of mineralized water from the Paleozoic
aquifers.
Local Aquifers
Many of the sedimentary units contain aquifers,
both within and beyond the study area. Within the
Paleozoic rock interval, aquifers in the Deadwood
Formation, Madison Limestone, Minnelusa Formation,
and Minnekahta Limestone are used extensively. These
aquifers are collectively confined by the underlying
Precambrian rocks and the overlying Spearfish Forma-
tion. Individually, these aquifers are separated by minor
confining layers or by low-permeability layers within
the individual units. In general, ground-water flow in
these aquifers is radially outward from the central core
of the Black Hills. Although the lateral component of
flow generally predominates, the vertical component of
flow, and thus leakage between these aquifers, can be
extremely variable (Peter, 1985; Greene, 1993).
Although the Precambrian basement rocks
generally have low permeability and form the lower
confining unit for the series of sedimentary aquifers
(fig. 16), localized aquifers occur in many locations in
the crystalline core of the Black Hills, where enhanced
secondary permeability has resulted from weathering
and fracturing. Where the Precambrian rocks are satu-
rated, unconfined (water-table) conditions generally
occur and topography can strongly control ground-
water flow directions.
The Deadwood Formation contains the Dead-
wood aquifer, which overlies the Precambrian rocks.
The Deadwood aquifer, which is used mainly by
domestic and municipal users near its outcrop area,
receives recharge primarily from precipitation on the
outcrop. There may be some hydraulic connection
between the Deadwood aquifer and the underlying
weathered Precambrian rocks, but regionally the
Precambrian rocks act as a lower confining unit to the
Deadwood aquifer. The Whitewood and Winnipeg For-
mations, where present, act as overlying semiconfining
units to the Deadwood aquifer (Strobel and others,
1999). The Whitewood and Winnipeg Formations
locally may transmit water and exchange water with
the Deadwood aquifer, but regionally are not consid-
ered aquifers. Where the Whitewood and Winnipeg
Formations are absent, the Deadwood aquifer is in con-
tact with the overlying Englewood Formation, which
was included as part of the Madison aquifer for this
study.
The Madison aquifer generally occurs within the
karstic upper part of the Madison Limestone, where
numerous fractures and solution openings have created
extensive secondary porosity and permeability. Strobel
and others (1999) included the entire Madison Lime-
stone and the Englewood Formation in their delineation
of the Madison aquifer. Thus, in this report, outcrops of
the Madison Limestone and Englewood Formation
(fig. 14) are referred to as the outcrop of the Madison
Limestone for simplicity. The Madison aquifer receives
significant recharge from streamflow losses and precip-
itation on the outcrop. Low-permeability layers in the
lower part of the Minnelusa Formation generally act as
an upper confining unit to the Minnelusa aquifer. How-
ever, karst features in the upper part of the Madison
Limestone may have reduced the effectiveness of the
overlying confining unit in some locations.
The Minnelusa aquifer occurs within layers of
sandstone, dolomite, and anhydrite in the lower portion
of the Minnelusa Formation and sandstone and anhy-
drite in the upper portion. The Minnelusa aquifer has
primary porosity in the sandstone units and secondary
porosity from collapse breccia associated with dissolu-
tion of interbedded evaporites and fracturing. The
Minnelusa aquifer receives significant recharge from
streamflow losses and precipitation on the outcrop.
Streamflow recharge to the Minnelusa aquifer gener-
ally is less than to the Madison aquifer (Carter,
Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001), which is preferentially
recharged because of its upslope location. The Min-
nelusa aquifer is confined by the overlying Opeche
Shale.
Both the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers are
potential sources for numerous large artesian springs in
Ground-Water Framework 23
the Black Hills area, and hydraulic connections
between the two aquifers are possible in other locations
(Naus and others, 2001). Ground-water flowpaths and
velocities in both aquifers are influenced by anisotropic
and heterogeneous hydraulic properties caused by
secondary porosity.
The Minnekahta aquifer, which overlies the
Opeche Shale, typically is very permeable, but well
yields can be limited by the small aquifer thickness.
The Minnekahta aquifer receives significant recharge
from precipitation on the outcrop and some additional
recharge from streamflow losses. The overlying
Spearfish Formation acts as a confining unit to the
aquifer and to other underlying Paleozoic aquifers.
Hence, most of the artesian springs occur near the
outcrop of the Spearfish Formation.
Within the Mesozoic rock interval, the Inyan
Kara Group comprises an aquifer that is used exten-
sively. Aquifers in various other units of the Mesozoic
rock interval are used locally to lesser degrees. The
Inyan Kara aquifer receives recharge primarily from
precipitation on the outcrop. The Inyan Kara aquifer
also may receive recharge from leakage from the
underlying Paleozoic aquifers (Swenson, 1968; Gott
and others, 1974). As much as 4,000 ft of Cretaceous
shales act as the upper confining unit to aquifers in the
Mesozoic rock interval.
Confined (artesian) conditions generally exist
within the sedimentary aquifers where an upper con-
fining layer is present. Under confined conditions,
water in a well will rise above the top of the aquifer in
which it is completed. Flowing wells will result when
drilled in areas where the water level, or potentiometric
surface, is above the land surface. Flowing wells and
artesian springs that originate from confined aquifers
are common around the periphery of the Black Hills.
Numerous headwater springs originating from
the Paleozoic units at high altitudes on the western side
of the study area provide base flow for many streams.
These streams flow across the crystalline core of the
Black Hills, and most streams generally lose all or part
of their flow as they cross the outcrops of the Madison
Limestone (Rahn and Gries, 1973; Hortness and
Driscoll, 1998). Karst features of the Madison Lime-
stone, including sinkholes, collapse features, solution
cavities, and caves, are responsible for the Madison
aquifer’s capacity to accept recharge from streamflow.
Large streamflow losses also occur in many locations
24 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
within the outcrop of the Minnelusa Formation
(Hortness and Driscoll, 1998). Large artesian springs,
originating primarily from the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers, occur in many locations downgradient from
these loss zones, most commonly within or near the
outcrop of the Spearfish Formation. These springs pro-
vide an important source of base flow in many streams
beyond the periphery of the Black Hills (Rahn and
Gries, 1973; Miller and Driscoll, 1998).
Characteristics and Properties of Major Aquifers
Aquifer characteristics and properties for the
major aquifers in the study area (Deadwood, Madison,
Minnelusa, Minnekahta, and Inyan Kara aquifers) are
presented in this section. Aquifer characteristics,
including areal extent, thickness, and storage volume,
are presented in table 1. Aquifer characteristics for the
Precambrian aquifer also are presented because
numerous wells are completed in this aquifer in the
crystalline core of the Black Hills. The areal extent of
the aquifers was determined using a geographic infor-
mation system (GIS) coverage by Williamson and
others (2000) of the hydrogeologic unit map by Strobel
and others (1999) for the study area.
Localized aquifers occur in the Precambrian
igneous and metamorphic rocks that make up the crys-
talline core of the Black Hills and are referred to collec-
tively as the Precambrian aquifer. The Precambrian
aquifer is not continuous, and ground-water flow is
mainly controlled by secondary permeability caused by
fracturing and weathering. The Precambrian aquifer is
considered to be contained in the area where the Pre-
cambrian rocks are exposed in the central core, which
has an area of approximately 825 mi2 in the study area.
The thickness of the aquifer has been estimated by
Rahn (1985) to be generally less than 500 ft, which was
considered the average thickness (table 1). Wells in the
Custer area have been completed at depths greater than
1,000 ft, indicating that the Precambrian aquifer is
thicker in some locations. The Precambrian aquifer is
mostly unconfined, but may have locally confined con-
ditions. The area of the sedimentary aquifers is smaller
than the area of the Precambrian rocks because erosion
has removed the sedimentary rocks in the central core
of the Black Hills.
 Table 1. Summary of the characteristics of major and Precambrian aquifers in the study area
[mi2, square miles; ft, feet; acre-ft, acre-feet]

Estimated
Maximum Average
Area amount of
formation saturated Effective
Aquifer extent recoverable
thickness thickness porosity1
(mi2) water in storage2
(ft) (ft)
(million acre-ft)
3 1
Precambrian 5,041 -- 500 0.01 2.6

Deadwood 4,216 500 226 .05 30.5

4 5
Madison 4,113 1,000 521 .05 62.7

Minnelusa 3,623 1,175 6736 .05 570.9

Minnekahta 3,082 65 50 .05 4.9

Inyan Kara 2,512 900 310 .17 84.7

Combined storage for major and Precambrian aquifers 256.3

1
From Rahn (1985).
2Storage estimated by multiplying area times average thicknesses times effective porosity.
3
The area used in storage calculation was the area of the exposed Precambrian rocks, which is 825 mi2.
4
Average saturated thickness of the confined area of the Madison aquifer. The unconfined area had an average saturated
thickness of 300 ft.
5Storage values are the summation of storage in the confined and unconfined areas.
6
Average saturated thickness of the confined area of the Minnelusa aquifer. The unconfined area had an average saturated
thickness of 142 ft.

Large amounts of water are stored within the
major aquifers, but not all of it is recoverable because
some of the water is contained in unconnected pore
spaces. Thus, effective porosity, which is the porosity
of a rock that consists of interconnected voids, was
used in estimating the amount of recoverable water in
storage (table 1). Where aquifer units are not fully
saturated (generally in and near outcrop areas), the
saturated thickness is less than the formation thickness
and the aquifer is unconfined. For the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers, it was possible to delineate the
saturated thickness of the unconfined portions of these
aquifers, as discussed later in this section. Average
saturated thicknesses of the unconfined and confined
portions of the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers were
used in storage estimates for these aquifers. For the
other major aquifers, full saturation was assumed
because more detailed information was not available.
The total volume of recoverable water stored in
the major aquifers (including the Precambrian aquifer)
within the study area is estimated as 256 million
acre-ft. The largest storage volume is for the Inyan
Kara aquifer because of the large effective porosity
(0.17). Storage in the Minnelusa aquifer is larger than
in the Madison aquifer, primarily because of larger
average saturated thickness.
Well yields (fig. 18) for the major aquifers were
obtained from the USGS Ground Water Site Inventory
(GWSI) database. The mean well yields for the aqui-
fers generally are much higher than the median well
yields because some well yields are very high. Well
yields generally are lower for wells completed in the
Precambrian rocks than the major aquifers because the
Precambrian aquifer is not continuous and most of the
available water is stored in fractures. The Madison
aquifer has the potential for high well yields, and the
mean and median well yields are higher in the Madison
aquifer than the other major aquifers. The Minnelusa
aquifer also has the potential for high well yields. Low
well yields are possible in some locations for all the
major aquifers.

Ground-Water Framework 25
 561 137 166 433 64 246
10,000
5,000

2,000
WELL YIELD, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE 1,000 EXPLANATION
500 561 Number of wells
with yield data
200
100 * Maximum
50 * * 90th percentile

20
* *
75th percentile

10 * * Mean
Median
5 25th percentile
2 10th percentile
1 Minimum
0.5

0.2
0.1
0.05

0.02
0.01
Precambrian Deadwood Madison Minnelusa Minnekahta Inyan
Kara
AQUIFER

Figure 18. Boxplots showing distribution of well yields from selected aquifers (data obtained from U.S.
Geological Survey Ground Water Site Inventory database).

Aquifer properties, including hydraulic conduc-
tivity, transmissivity, storage coefficient, and porosity,
are presented in table 2 for the major aquifers and the
Precambrian aquifer. The estimates presented for the
various aquifer properties are based on previous
studies. In general, the Madison aquifer has the highest
hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity estimates of
the major aquifers. Transmissivity and hydraulic con-
ductivity also may be high in the Minnelusa aquifer.
The Inyan Kara aquifer generally has the highest effec-
tive porosity of the major aquifers.
The potentiometric surfaces of the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers are shown in figures 19 and 20,
respectively. In many locations, ground-water flow in
these aquifers follows the bedding dip, which generally
is radially away from the central part of the uplift.
Structural features, such as folds and faults, may have
local influence on ground-water flowpaths. Ground-
water flowpaths and velocities also are heavily influ-
enced by anisotropic and heterogeneous hydraulic
properties of the Madison aquifer. Flowpaths are not
necessarily orthogonal to equipotential lines because of
highly variable directional transmissivities and may be
further influenced by vertical flow components
between the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers. Long
(2000) described anisotropy in the Madison aquifer in
the Rapid City area that causes ground-water flow to be
nearly parallel to mapped equipotential lines in some
cases. Regional ground-water flow from the west may
influence the potentiometric surface in both aquifers in
the northern and southwestern parts of the study area.
Locations of artesian springs that probably originate
from ground-water discharge from the Madison or
Minnelusa aquifers and have potential to influence
potentiometric surfaces also are shown in figures 19
and 20.

26 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Table 2. Estimates of hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, storage coefficient, and porosity from previous
investigations
[ft/d, feet per day; ft2/d, feet squared per day; --, no data; <, less than]

Total
Hydraulic
Transmissivity Storage porosity/
Source conductivity Area represented
(ft2/d) coefficient effective
(ft/d)
porosity

Precambrian aquifer

Rahn, 1985 -- -- -- 0.03/0.01 Western South Dakota

Galloway and Strobel, 2000 450 - 1,435 0.10/-- Black Hills area

Deadwood aquifer

Downey, 1984 -- 250 - 1,000 -- -- Montana, North Dakota, South

Dakota, Wyoming

Rahn, 1985 -- -- -- 0.10/0.05 Western South Dakota

Madison aquifer

Konikow, 1976 -- 860 - 2,200 -- -- Montana, North Dakota, South

Dakota, Wyoming

Miller, 1976 -- 0.01 - 5,400 -- -- Southeastern Montana

Blankennagel and others, 1977 2.4x10-5 - 1.9 -- -- -- Crook County, Wyoming

Woodward-Clyde Consultants, -- 3,000 2x10-4 - 3x10-4 -- Eastern Wyoming, western South

1980 Dakota

Blankennagel and others, 1981 -- 5,090 2x10-5 -- Yellowstone County, Montana

Downey, 1984 -- 250 - 3,500 -- -- Montana, North Dakota, South

Dakota, Wyoming

Plummer and others, 1990 -- -- 1.12x10-6 - 3x10-5 -- Montana, South Dakota, Wyo-
ming

Rahn, 1985 -- -- -- 0.10/0.05 Western South Dakota

Cooley and others, 1986 1.04 -- -- -- Montana, North Dakota, South

Dakota, Wyoming, Nebr.

Kyllonen and Peter, 1987 -- 4.3 - 8,600 -- -- Northern Black Hills

Imam, 1991 9.0x10-6 -- -- -- Black Hills area

Greene, 1993 -- 1,300 - 56,000 0.002 0.35/-- Rapid City area

Tan, 1994 5 - 1,300 -- -- 0.05 Rapid City area

Greene and others, 1999 -- 2,900 - 41,700 3x10-4 - 1x10-3 -- Spearfish area

Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and -- 100 - 7,400 -- -- Black Hills area

Jarrell, 2001

Minnelusa aquifer

Blankennagel and others, 1977 <2.4x10-5 - 1.4 -- -- -- Crook County, Wyoming

Pakkong, 1979 -- 880 -- -- Boulder Park area, South Dakota

Woodward-Clyde Consultants, -- 30 - 300 6.6x10-5 - 2.0x10-4 -- Eastern Wyoming, western South

1980 Dakota

Ground-Water Framework 27
Table 2. Estimates of hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, storage coefficient, and porosity from previous
investigations–Continued
[ft/d, feet per day; ft2/d, feet squared per day; --, no data; <, less than]

Total
Hydraulic
Transmissivity Storage porosity/
Source conductivity Area represented
(ft2/d) coefficient effective
(ft/d)
porosity

Minnelusa aquifer—Continued

Rahn, 1985 -- -- -- 0.10/0.05 Western South Dakota

Kyllonen and Peter, 1987 -- 0.86 - 8,600 -- -- Northern Black Hills

Greene, 1993 -- 12,000 0.003 0.1/-- Rapid City area

Tan, 1994 32 -- -- -- Rapid City area

Greene and others, 1999 -- 267 - 9,600 5.0x10-9 - 7.4x10-5 -- Spearfish area

Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and -- 100 - 7,400 -- -- Black Hills area

Jarrell, 2001

Minnekahta aquifer

Rahn, 1985 -- -- -- 0.08/0.05 Western South Dakota

Inyan Kara aquifer

Niven, 1967 0 - 100 -- -- -- Eastern Wyoming, western South

Dakota

Miller and Rahn, 1974 0.944 178 -- -- Black Hills area

Gries and others, 1976 1.26 250 - 580 2.1x10-5 - 2.5x10-5 -- Wall area, South Dakota

Boggs and Jenkins, 1980 -- 50 - 190 1.4x10-5 - 1.0x10-4 -- Northwestern Fall River County

Bredehoeft and others, 1983 8.3 -- 1.0x10-5 -- South Dakota

Rahn, 1985 -- -- -- 0.26/0.17 Western South Dakota

Kyllonen and Peter, 1987 -- 0.86 - 6,000 -- -- Northern Black Hills

28 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 104o 45' 103o30'
Indian EXPLANATION

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME-

e
Cr Newell
BE eek
LL
E
Cr
ee
STONE (from Strobel and
Nisland k
F
OU
others, 1999)
BELLE FOURCHE
RC
HE RIVER
ek 0 00
Hay Cre 0 50 3,4 MADISON LIMESTONE PRESENT,
3,

V ER
BUTTE CO
3,70
Vale
3,600 R I BUT OVERLAIN BY SURFICIAL
TER LAWRENCE CO MEADE CO
Mirror REDWA DEPOSITS (from Carter and

k
Old Spearfish

Cree
Lake Cox
and Lake Hatchery Saint Redden, 1999d)
Cr
McNenny ow Higgins Gulch Onge

3,200
Rearing Spring MADISON LIMESTONE ABSENT
Cree

lc h reek
Pond Gu Spearfish C
30' (from Carter and Redden, 1999d)
k
h

m
Gulc

Botto

3,8 Whitewood
ek

0
4,2 0
Cre

d
4,000 POTENTIOMETRIC CONTOUR--

3,000
oo
00 se eek 3,000
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
4,400 0
Fal

4,60 tte
fish

hit
4,800
Bu Shows altitude at which water
5,000 W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

5,200 Central would have stood in tightly cased,
Sp

Tinton
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o nonpumping wells (modified from

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead Strobel and others, 2000a).

Cr

5,600 h5,400 An
nie Cr
ail

Strawberry
s

4,
Little Spearfi

Contour interval 100, 200, or

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
80

5,800 ee
Wh

k k
El Elk Creek
4,6

2,8 500 feet, where appropriate.

k

Springs 00

2,
00
ee

4,4

Little

60
6,000
Cr

Roubaix Cree Dashed where inferred. Datum

0
reek
00

El Elk k
15' k C
N. F

Bo is sea level
0 ish xe
0 Piedmont
o rk
f

6,2 ld
Spear

er
4,20000

Ellsworth
FAULT--Dashed where approxi-
R api

4,4

S. F 3,4 0 Air Force

3,630,800
6,400 ork Nemo Base
4,000

00
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp 6,600 id C Blackhawk mated. Bar and ball on down-

Cr
r r
Cree in thrown side

eek
k Box Elder
For
gs

Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU
k

6,400
s
adN. Fo City ANTICLINE--Showing trace of axial
4,200

rk C Rap
o

Springs
Rh

a s tl e id RAPID CITY
Beav
Cr plane and direction of plunge.
Ca

Cleghorn/ Ra
stl

Creek
Pactola Dashed where approximated
er

C ree
k

pid
e

C Cr Jackson
stle

ee Reservoir
Cre
reek

eek

Springs
Ca

ek
3,60

Vi
k

SYNCLINE--Showing trace of axial

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
S. F Reservoir Spring
0
6,6 6, ,20 ,000

o 4,000
44 plane and direction of plunge.
r

ork
e C
00 40 0

C astl Rockerville 3,0 Dashed where approximated

ek Sheridan 00
6 6

Cr
Cre
6,400
0

Lake ee
k
6,6
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore MONOCLINE--Showing trace of
00 National Keystone
ing

5,0 Memorial axial plane. Dashed where

5,

Spr

00 anyon
50

Harney Hayward
approximated
0

Peak
C
Canyon

4,5 x
00 PENNINGTON CO Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
DOME--Symbol size approximately
re Battle Cr
ek ee proportional to size of dome.
es

Creek k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch Dome asymmetry indicated by

Gr

Cr

Fre G Spring
tte nch CUSTER
ac

lle Grace
Red

Gi ge arrow length
C o o li d Coolidge
45' Creek
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
Spring ARTESIAN SPRING
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

00

PARK k
3,400

ee
4,

3,6

Cr
00

on
0

00
ny

Highla
3,8

Ca

3,9

Lam
3,

nd

Creek
00
70

3,200

Wind Cave
0

Pringle
3,

National Park
90

0
80
0

Cr

3,
ee
k

Wind
Cave Beaver Joh
Beav Creek nny
Dewey erSpring
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO 00 H n
Hot Brook Spring
3,7 nyo Evans Plunge Spring
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
00

R
3,4 500
3,6

00
3,
CH

Cool Spring Cascade

EY

Springs
EN

Cascade
N
E

Springs
Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 19. Potentiometric surface of the Madison aquifer and locations of major artesian springs.

Ground-Water Framework 29
 104o 45' 103o30'
Indian EXPLANATION

Hors
2,8 e
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA

00
Owl Newell
BE Cr
LL eek Cr FORMATION (modified from
E ee
k
F
Nisland Strobel and others, 1999)
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC
HE RIVER
Hay Cre
ek MINNELUSA FORMATION

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
PRESENT, BUT OVERLAIN BY
Mirror ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO SURFICIAL DEPOSITS (from
Lake

k
Old Spearfish

Cree
Cox 3,600 Carter and Redden, 1999c)

3,2
and

3,0
Lake Hatchery Saint

00
McNenny Cr

00
Rearing ow Higgins Gulch Onge
Spring MINNELUSA FORMATION

3,
Cree

Pond lch eek

40
r
Gu Spearfish C
30'

0
4,2 3,600 ABSENT (from Carter and
k

4,000
h

00 m
Gulc

Botto
Redden, 1999c)
4,2

Whitewood
ek

3,800
Cre
00

d
4,00

oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

0 Cr

ew
4 3,000 POTENTIOMETRIC CONTOUR--
Fal

4 ,0400 tte

hit
5,

4,8,6 Bu
00

00 0

W
Shows altitude at which water
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Tinton Central
aw

Iron
Cr CityCr li would have stood in tightly
er

DEADWOOD lka 103o

4,
ood 15'
v

00
Bea

dw

A
3,8
Cr ar cased, nonpumping wells
Cr

0
a

Be
De

Lead

0
Cr

nie Cr

0
h

3,6
An
(modified from Strobel and
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

00
6,000
Cr Cr Tilford
ee

2,80
Wh

El
k k Elk Creek others, 2000b). Contour
fish

Springs

0
6,200 00 interval 200 feet. Dashed where
ea r

6,4 Little

3,
Roubaix Cree

20
Sp

6,400 El reek k
15' Elk inferred. Datum is sea level

0
k
C
N. F

Bo

3,0
xe Piedmont
o rk

ld

00
6,600S.
er FAULT--Dashed where approxi-
R api

3,4
Ellsworth
For Nemo Air Force mated. Bar and ball on down-
00
kR 0
3,80
d Cr

api Base
dC Blackhawk
thrown side

Cr
6,200 Cold Spri r

eek
Cree n k Box Elder
For
gs

Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

ANTICLINE--Showing trace of axial

k

s
adN. Fo City
rk C Rap
o

plane and direction of plunge.

Rh

a s tl e id Springs RAPID CITY

Cr
Beav
Ca

Cleghorn/ Ra Dashed where approximated

stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree
k

pid
e

C Cr Jackson
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek

0 Springs SYNCLINE--Showing trace of axial

6,400

Ca

0 Vi ek
6,8
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
Reservoir Spring plane and direction of plunge.
44o S. F
r

3,800
e C

ork
6,6 C astl
Cr
eek Dashed where approximated
00 ek Sheridan
Cre Lake Rockerville
6,2 Hill City MONOCLINE--Showing trace of
6,000 00 Mt. Rushmore
6,20
0 National Keystone axial plane. Dashed where
ing

Memorial
6,000
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward approximated
5,800
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt DOME--Symbol size approximately
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C Cr proportional to size of dome.
5,

reek Battle ee
60 5,4
es

k
k

Bea Creek Dome asymmetry indicated by

0 00
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

6,000 Fre Spring

5,80

e G
ett nch CUSTER
ac

Grace arrow length

Red

ll
e

Gi ge
C o o li d Coolidge
0

45' Jewel Cave CUSTER Creek

ARTESIAN SPRING
SOUTH DAKOTA

National Spring
5,4
4,2

Monument
STATE
Beaver
00 5,200 00

Fairburn
Canyon
00

4,

00

Creek
80
WYOMING

3,8
0

4,6 PARK
0
4,

00
40

3,40
on

00
0

ny

Highla
5,
3,

3,2
Ca
4,
80

Lam
00

nd

0
0

Creek
3,00
0

Wind Cave
e

Pringle
2,800

National Park
Cr
ee
k

Wind
2,600

Beaver Joh
4,8 4,60

Cave
0 Beav Creek nny
00 0

Dewey 0 erSpring
d

3,6
Re

4,2 R
VE
Hell

00 4,400 Cre RI
oo k

Buffalo Gap ek
30' 3,600
Br
Cold

Cre

FALL RIVER CO Hot Brook Spring

H n Evans Plunge Spring
nyo
ek

o t Brook
Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cool SpringCascade
EY

Springs
Cascade
EN
N

Springs
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
he
eek Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
3,400

eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 20. Potentiometric surface of the Minnelusa aquifer and locations of major artesian springs.

30 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Maps showing the saturated thickness of the
unconfined areas of the Madison and Minnelusa aqui-
fers are shown in figures 21 and 22, respectively. Both
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers are unconfined
near their outcrops and confined (fully saturated) at
some distance downdip from their outcrops. In general,
the saturated thickness is less than 200 ft for most of the
outcrop areas. These areas are especially susceptible to
drought conditions, and the formations may even be
dry in these areas regardless of precipitation condi-
tions. In most areas, the aquifers are fully saturated
within a short distance downdip of the outcrops. How-
ever, in the southwest part of the study area, neither
aquifer is fully saturated for a distance of about 6 mi
downdip of the respective outcrops.
Although the Limestone Plateau area is a large
recharge area for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers,
saturated thicknesses generally are small within these
aquifers in this area. Very few wells have been success-
fully completed in this area, especially within the
Madison Limestone, where saturated conditions gener-
ally occur only near the bottom of the formation. Satu-
rated thicknesses are limited by the discharge of
springs along the eastern edge of the Plateau and by
ground-water flow to the west. Fluctuations in ground-
water levels in this area generally are smaller than other
areas.
Overview of Other Aquifers
In addition to the major aquifers, many other
aquifers are used throughout the study area. The New-
castle Sandstone, White River Group, and the uncon-
solidated units are considered aquifers where saturated
(Strobel and others, 1999). In addition, many of the
semiconfining and confining units shown in figure 14
may contain local aquifers. This section provides a
brief overview from Strobel and others (1999) of other
aquifers in the study area that are contained in various
units from oldest to youngest.
The Whitewood Formation, where present, may
contain a local aquifer, but seldom is used because of
more reliable sources in the adjacent Madison or
Deadwood aquifers. Local aquifers may exist in the
Spearfish confining unit where gypsum and anhydrite
have been dissolved, increasing porosity and perme-
ability; these aquifers are referred to as the Spearfish
aquifer in this report. The Jurassic-sequence semicon-
fining unit consists of shales and sandstones. Overall,
this unit is semiconfining because of the low perme-
ability of the interbedded shales; however, local
aquifers exist in some formations such as the Sundance
and Morrison Formations. These aquifers are referred
to as the Sundance and Morrison aquifers in this report.
The Cretaceous-sequence confining unit mainly
includes shales of low permeability, such as the Pierre
Shale; local aquifers in the Pierre Shale are referred to
as the Pierre aquifer in this report. Within the Graneros
Group, the Newcastle Sandstone contains an important
minor aquifer referred to as the Newcastle aquifer.
Because water-quality characteristics (discussed in a
subsequent section of this report) are very different
between the Newcastle aquifer and the other units in
the Graneros Group, data are presented for the New-
castle aquifer separately from the other units in the
Graneros Group, known as the Graneros aquifer in this
report.
Tertiary intrusive units are present only in the
northern Black Hills, and generally are relatively
impermeable, although “perched” ground water often
is associated with intrusive sills. The White River
aquifer consists of various discontinuous units of sand-
stone and channel sands along the eastern flank of the
Black Hills and is considered a minor aquifer where
saturated. Unconsolidated deposits of Tertiary or
Quaternary age, including alluvium, colluvium, and
wind-blown deposits, all have the potential to be local
aquifers where they are saturated.
Surface-Water Framework
Streamflow within the study area is highly influ-
enced by climatic and geologic conditions. The base
flow of most streams in the Black Hills originates in the
higher altitudes, where relatively large precipitation
and small evapotranspiration result in more water being
available for springflow and streamflow. Many streams
have headwater springs originating from the Paleozoic
carbonate rocks on the western side of the study area.
Most of these streams flow in a generally eastward
direction across the Precambrian rocks of the crystal-
line core and subsequently lose all or part of their flow
where Paleozoic outcrops are crossed farther down-
stream (Rahn and Gries, 1973). Large artesian springs
occur in many locations downgradient from loss zones,
most commonly within or near the outcrop of the
Spearfish Formation. These springs provide an impor-
tant source of base flow in many streams beyond the
periphery of the Black Hills (Rahn and Gries, 1973;
Miller and Driscoll, 1998).
Surface-Water Framework 31
 104o 45' 103o30'
Indian EXPLANATION

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME-

e
Cr Newell
BE eek
LL
E
Cr
ee STONE (from Strobel and others,
Nisland k
F
OU
1999)
BELLE FOURCHE
RC
HE RIVER
Hay Cre
ek MADISON LIMESTONE ABSENT

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale (from Carter and Redden, 1999d)
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO

k
SATURATED THICKNESS OF

Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr
ow Onge MADISON LIMESTONE, IN
FEET (from Clawges, 2000a)
Cree

lch reek
Gu Spearfish C
30' Less than 200
k
h

m
Gulc

Botto
Whitewood
ek
Cre

200 to 400

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

te
fish

hit
t
Bu 400 to 600
W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103 o 600 to 800

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h An
nie Cr
Fully saturated
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

k k
El
ee k

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k
C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
gs

For Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU
k

ds
a N. Fo
rk Rap
o

Cas
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Creek
er

C ree Pactola
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
o Reservoir Spring
44 S. F
r
e C

ork
C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre G
tte nch CUSTER
ac
Red

e
ill
e

G ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
Cr
43o15' od
Reservoir Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 21. Saturated thickness of the Madison aquifer.

32 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 104o 45' 103o30'
Indian EXPLANATION

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION

e
Cr Newell
BE eek
LL
E
Cr
ee (from Strobel and others, 1999)
Nisland k
F
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC RIVER
MINNELUSA FORMATION ABSENT
HE
ek (from Carter and Redden, 1999c)
Hay Cre

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
ER RI MEADE CO SATURATED THICKNESS OF
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO

k
MINNELUSA FORMATION, IN FEET

Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr Onge (from Clawges, 2000b)
ow
Less than 200
Cree

lch reek
Gu Spearfish C
30'
k
h

m
Gulc

200 to 400
Botto

Whitewood
ek
Cre

d
oo
se k
ree
Bear

Higgins

ew
C 400 to 600
Fal

tte
fish

hit

Bu
W
ear
Cr

Creek
Squ
Central
STURGIS 600 to 800
Sp

Tinton
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v

800 to 1,000
Bea

dw
A
Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An
ail

Strawberry 1,000 to 1,200

s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

k k
El
Fully saturated
ee k

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k No data
C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
For
gs

Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU
k

s
adN. Fo
rk Rap
o

Cas
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
o Reservoir Spring
44
r

S. F
e C

ork
C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
reek Cr
ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

te Fre G
nch CUSTER
ac

let
Red

l
e

Gi ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
oo k

Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Br
Cold

Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
ek

o t Brook
Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ad
o C ree Angostura
Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
k
on

ee
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 22. Saturated thickness of the Minnelusa aquifer.

Surface-Water Framework 33
 Five hydrogeologic settings have been identified
for the Black Hills area that influence both stream-
flow (Driscoll and Carter, 2001) and water-quality
(Williamson and Carter, 2001) characteristics. These
settings are described in the following section, which is
followed by sections describing streamflow losses and
streamflow regulation, both of which have large influ-
ence on many area streams.
Hydrogeologic Settings
The five hydrogeologic settings identified for the
Black Hills area include the limestone headwater, crys-
talline core, loss zone, artesian spring, and exterior set-
tings, which are represented by four areas (fig. 23). The
loss zone and artesian spring settings have distinctly
different streamflow characteristics but share a
common area because many artesian springs are
located along stream channels that also are influenced
by streamflow losses. Locations of representative
streamflow-gaging stations for the five hydrogeologic
settings, which are used in subsequent descriptions of
streamflow and water-quality characteristics, also are
shown in figure 23.
The limestone headwater setting is considered to
be within or near the Limestone Plateau area (fig. 23),
where large outcrops of the Madison Limestone and
Minnelusa Formation occur in a high-altitude area of
generally low relief, along the South Dakota-Wyoming
border. Most of the limestone headwater springs occur
near the eastern edge of the Limestone Plateau in areas
where the contact between the Madison Limestone and
underlying geologic units (fig. 9) is exposed (fig. 14).
Various low-permeability layers in the underlying units
can act as confining layers, which result in lateral
movement of ground water prior to discharge as spring-
flow. Most recharge for these headwater springs is from
infiltration of precipitation on outcrops of the Madison
Limestone and Minnelusa Formation. Ground-water
discharge from the Deadwood aquifer also can con-
tribute to springflow. Sustained streamflow within the
Madison and Minnelusa outcrops is very uncommon
(Driscoll and Carter, 2001) and generally occurs only
in limited areas where low permeability “perching”
layers occur. Small perched springs are common espe-
cially within outcrops of the Minnelusa Formation
along the Limestone Plateau.
The crystalline core setting consists primarily of
igneous and metamorphic Precambrian rocks within
the central part of the Black Hills, but also includes
34 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
numerous Tertiary intrusives in the northern Black
Hills (fig. 14). Unconsolidated Quaternary and Tertiary
deposits also occur in various locations. Within this set-
ting, ground-water discharge contributes to base flow
of many streams; however, base flow can diminish
rather quickly during periods of minimal precipitation.
The loss-zone setting consists of areas that are
heavily influenced by streamflow losses that occur as
streams cross outcrops of the Madison Limestone and
Minnelusa Formation. The outer extent of this area is
represented by the outer extent of the outcrop of the
Inyan Kara Group (fig. 23). This same area is used to
represent the artesian spring setting because many arte-
sian springs are located along stream channels that also
are influenced by streamflow losses. Most artesian
springs are located downgradient from the outcrop of
the Minnelusa Formation (fig. 23). Complex interac-
tions between bedrock aquifers, alluvial aquifers, and
surface water can occur within this setting.
No artesian springs are known to be located
beyond the outcrop of the Inyan Kara Group; the area
beyond this outcrop is referred to as the exterior setting.
Within this setting, the influence of ground water on
streamflow generally is relatively minor or negligible,
with the exception of upstream influences from stream-
flow losses or artesian springs. Many streams also are
influenced by irrigation withdrawals or other forms of
regulation, as described in a subsequent section.
Streamflow Losses
Streamflow losses influence the flow of most
streams that cross Paleozoic outcrops, especially the
Madison Limestone and Minnelusa Formation. Most
streams lose all of their flow up to some loss threshold.
When streamflow exceeds this threshold, flow is main-
tained through the loss zones. Loss thresholds for most
large streams were quantified by Hortness and Driscoll
(1998) and are summarized in table 3. Individual loss
thresholds range from negligible (no loss) to as much as
50 ft3/s. Streamflow losses can occur along Iron Creek
and Higgins Gulch; however, loss thresholds are noted
as zero because these streams receive net ground-water
discharge from the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers.
Newton and Jenny (1880) observed losses in White-
wood Creek; however, loss zones apparently were
sealed by fine-grained mine tailings that have been dis-
charged to the stream (Hortness and Driscoll, 1998).
 06436700 o EXPLANATION
104o 45' 103 30'
CONNECTED OUTCROP OF
Indian

Hors
44o45' Belle Fourche
Reservoir Cr MADISON LIMESTONE--
Owl

e
BE Cr Newell Excludes erosional remnants
L eek Cr
LE
06433500 Nisland
ee
k
(modified from Strobel and
F 06436760 others, 1999)
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC
HE RIVER
ek
Hay Cre CONNECTED OUTCROP OF

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
06430532
Mirror RI MEADE CO
MINNELUSA FORMATION--
ER LAWRENCE CO
Lake W AT
R E D06430540 Excludes erosional remnants

k
Old Spearfish

Cree
and Cox
McNenny Lake Hatchery Saint (modified from Strobel and
Cr
Rearing ow Higgins Gulch Onge
Pond 06429905 ch Spring others, 1999)
Cree

eek l r
Gu Spearfish C 06437500
30'
k

HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTINGS
h

m
Gulc

Botto

Whitewood
Sand C

ek

Limestone headwater
Cre

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal
r

tte
fish

hit
Bu Crystalline core
W
Squ06430898
ear
Cr

STURGIS Creek
Central
Sp

Tinton
aw

Iron
Cr
06436156CityCr li Loss zone and artesian
er

od DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v

wo
Bea

A
06430850 Cr d
ar spring--Bounded by outer
Cr

Be
De

Lead 06437020
Cr
Cold

h nie Cr
An extent of Inyan Kara Group,
ail

Strawberry
06430800
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee which approximates outer
Wh

06430770 06424000Elk k
k

extent of the Black Hills area

ee

Little Elk Creek

Cr

Roubaix Springs Cree

El reek Elk k
15' k
Spr

C
N. F

ish
Bo
xe Exterior
ings

Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap ARTESIAN SPRING
d Cr

06429500 id C Blackhawk
06422500

Cr
Creek r
06408700

eek
ork
06423010 Box Elder
STREAMFLOW-GAGING
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

F Rochford
s
adN. Fo
06392900 rk C Rap City Springs STATION USED FOR
o
Rh

a s tl e id
Cr RAPID CITY
ANALYSIS OF STREAM-
Ca

06412810 Cleghorn/ Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
Creek

C ree
k

pid
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS--
e

06409000Cr Jackson
stle

ee Reservoir
Cre
eek

Springs
Ca

Vi ek Number is station
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
Reservoir
44 o S. F 06407500 Sprin identification number
r

g
e C

ork
C astl 06406920k Rockerville Limestone headwater
Cre
e Sheridan 06408500
Lake 06408700
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore Cr Crystalline core
Beaver

National Keystone ee
Battle
ing

Memorial k
06403300
Spr

anyon Harney Hayward Creek

Peak
C

06404000 Spring Loss zones

Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

CUSTER CO
Spoka
n
le Hermosa 06408500
06392950 06404800 ek
e C
re Cr Artesian spring
06405800 ee
es

k
k

Bea 06402470
Bol

ee
bird

06402995 r ulch
Gr

Cr

e Fre G
ett nch CUSTER
ac

Grace Exterior
Red

ll
06404998 C oolidge Coolidge
e

ek Gi
re 06400875
45' Creek
W ho o pup C

Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
06403300 Spring
Monument
STATE STREAMFLOW-GAGING
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

STATION USED FOR

Stockade

PARK k
ee
Cr
on

ANALYSIS OF WATER-
ny

Highla
Ca

QUALITY CHARACTER-
Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park ISTICS--Number is station

06402430
Cr

identification number
ee
k

Wind
Be Cave 06402470 Jo
av
er Dewey Beaver
hn
ny Limestone headwater
d
Re

Cr
eek Creek V ER 06408700
Hell

Spring Buffalo Cre RI

30' Gap
ek Crystalline core
Hot Brook Spring 06402995
FALL RIVER CO H on
o t Brook
C any
Evans Plunge Spring Artesian spring
Minnekahta 06402000 Fall
HOT SPRINGS 06412810
R
Oral Exterior
06395000
CH

Cool Spring
Cascade Springs
EY
EN

06400497 Cascade
N
E

06395000 Springs
Edgemont Ho
rse
he
eek Angostura ad
Cr
43o15' od 06400000
Reservoir Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo 06400875
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 23. Hydrogeologic settings for the Black Hills area. Locations of streamflow-gaging stations representative of the
settings also are shown (from Driscoll and Carter, 2001).
Surface-Water Framework 35
Table 3. Summary of loss thresholds from Black Hills Although most losses occur within outcrops of
streams to bedrock aquifers the Madison Limestone and Minnelusa Formation,
[From Hortness and Driscoll (1998). ft3/s, cubic feet per second] small losses may occur to other bedrock units. Losses
Approximate loss
to the Deadwood Formation are minimal. Losses to the
Stream name threshold Minnekahta Limestone generally are small, relative to
(ft3/s) losses to the Madison and Minnelusa Formations; how-
Beaver Creek1 5
ever, they are difficult to quantify because of potential
losses to extensive alluvial deposits that commonly are
Highland Creek 10 located near Minnekahta Limestone outcrops.
South Fork Lame Johnny Creek 1.4 Loss thresholds generally are relatively constant,
without measurable effects from flow rate or duration
North Fork Lame Johnny Creek 2.3
of flow through loss zones. Changes in loss thresholds
French Creek 15 resulting from changes in channel conditions have been
documented for Whitewood Creek (previously dis-
Battle Creek 12
cussed), Grace Coolidge Creek, and Spring Creek
Grace Coolidge Creek 21 (Hortness and Driscoll, 1998). The loss threshold for
Grace Coolidge Creek probably was reduced by
Bear Gulch1 .4
deposition of large quantities of fine-grained sediment
Spokane Creek 2.2 mobilized after the Galena Fire, which occurred during
Spring Creek 28
July 1988. Streamflow losses along Spring Creek
apparently were temporarily reduced as a result of
Rapid Creek 10 efforts to seal the channel with bentonite and rocks
Victoria Creek 1.0 during 1937-40 (Brown, 1944).

Boxelder Creek 50
Streamflow Regulation
Elk Creek 19
Many streams in the study area are affected by
Little Elk Creek 3.3 withdrawals, diversions, or reservoir regulation. The
Bear Gulch2 4 largest consumptive use of surface water within the
study area is withdrawals for irrigation supplies
Beaver Creek2 9 (Amundson, 1998). The largest withdrawals are associ-
Iron Creek 0 ated with irrigation projects along Rapid Creek and the
Cheyenne and Belle Fourche Rivers, where Bureau of
Spearfish Creek 23 Reclamation storage reservoirs provide reliable water
Higgins Gulch 0 supplies. Angostura Reservoir (fig. 1) supplies the
Angostura Unit; Deerfield and Pactola Reservoirs
False Bottom Creek 15
supply the Rapid Valley Project; and Keyhole (located
Whitewood Creek 0 in northeastern Wyoming) and Belle Fourche Reser-
voirs supply the Belle Fourche Project (Bureau of
Bear Butte Creek 12
Reclamation, 1999). Details about these reservoirs,
1
Located in southern Black Hills. along with storage records through 1993, were reported
2
Located in northern Black Hills.
by Miller and Driscoll (1998).
Large irrigation withdrawals also are made from
Beaver Creek near Buffalo Gap and from Spearfish
Creek and the Redwater River in the northern Black
Hills, where streamflow is sufficiently reliable to pro-
vide consistent supplies. Smaller irrigation with-
drawals are made from many other area streams.

36 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Streamflow in many area streams is influenced
by a variety of other generally non-consumptive diver-
sions and regulation mechanisms (such as smaller res-
ervoirs). Diversions from Rapid, Elk, and Spearfish
Creeks have historically provided water for mining
operations (Homestake Mining Company) and munic-
ipal supplies (Central City, Deadwood, and Lead) in the
Whitewood Creek Basin (Miller and Driscoll, 1998).
Homestake Mining Company also diverts water from
Spearfish Creek for two hydroelectric power plants;
these flows are returned to Spearfish Creek below the
loss zone. Substantial withdrawals for municipal
supplies also are made from Rapid Creek.
HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES AND
CHARACTERISTICS
This section describes the characteristics of the
ground-water and surface-water resources in the study
area, including the response of ground water and
streamflow to variations in hydrologic conditions and
water-quality characteristics. A brief discussion of
hydrologic processes relevant to the Black Hills area is
first presented.
Hydrologic Processes
A schematic diagram illustrating hydrologic pro-
cesses is presented in figure 24. Precipitation falling on
the earth’s surface generally infiltrates into the soil
horizon, unless the soil is saturated or the infiltration
capacity is exceeded, in which case overland flow or
direct runoff will occur. Some water may be returned
from the soil horizon to the land surface through inter-
flow, contributing to relatively short-term increases in
streamflow. In the Black Hills area, where potential
evaporation generally exceeds precipitation, most
water is eventually returned to the atmosphere through
evapotranspiration (ET). Water infiltrating beyond the
root zone may eventually recharge ground-water sys-
tems; however, ground-water discharge (in the form of
springflow or seepage) also may contribute to stream-
flow.

Evapotranspiration
Precipitation

Overland flow
Evaporation Transpiration
Interflow
Infiltration Depression
storage

Perched Interflow Soil horizon and

Unsaturated water tabl e colluvial deposits
zone Springflow

Ground- Water table Stream

water Bedrock channel Infiltration
Saturated zone
inflow aquifer Ground-water
discharge to Ground-
streams water
Alluvial outflow
Confining unit deposits

Total runoff

Figure 24. Schematic diagram illustrating hydrologic processes (modified from Driscoll and Carter, 2001).

Hydrologic Processes 37
 In this report, the term runoff is used to include
all means by which precipitation eventually contributes
to streamflow. Direct runoff includes overland flow
and that portion of interflow that arrives in stream
channels relatively quickly. Base flow generally
includes all ground water discharging to streams and
also includes some interflow. Springflow is generally
considered to be ground-water discharge that occurs in
somewhat discrete and identifiable locations, as
opposed to more general ground-water seepage.
Streamflow is inclusive of runoff and also may include
water from other sources such as diversions or well
discharges.
Within this report, streamflow is most commonly
expressed in units of cubic feet per second, but fre-
quently is expressed in acre-feet per year (1.0 ft3/s
= 724.46 acre-ft for a year consisting of 365.25 days).
Units of acre-feet (1.0 ft over an acre, which is equiva-
lent to 43,560 ft2) are especially convenient for calcu-
lating annual yield (annual runoff per unit of area),
which generally is expressed in inches.
Ground-Water Characteristics
Water-level trends and comparisons for the
major aquifers in the study area are described in this
section. In addition, water-quality characteristics for
the major aquifers are described, and a brief summary
for other aquifers is provided.
Water-Level Trends and Comparisons
Well hydrographs provide information regarding
temporal water-level trends, comparisons between
aquifers, and water-level response to climatic condi-
tions. Hydrographs (by calendar year) for 49 wells are
presented in this section; the location of these wells is
shown in figure 25. On these hydrographs, solid lines
indicate continuous records and dashed lines indicate
periods with discontinuous records, which may be
based only on periodic manual measurements in some
cases. Hydrographs for 22 additional wells were pre-
sented by Driscoll, Bradford, and Moran (2000).
Temporal Trends
Temporal trends in water levels are examined for
eight wells with relatively long-term records (fig. 26).
38 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Most of these wells are in locations that may be
affected by withdrawals from production wells. The
Hermosa South Inyan Kara well (fig. 26G), with a
steady decline in water level of about 4 ft from 1983 to
1998, is the only observation well in the Black Hills
area that shows a steadily declining trend throughout its
period of record. The Hermosa West Inyan Kara well
(fig. 26F), which is located several miles farther north
(fig. 25), does not show a similar decline.
The water level at the Redwater Minnelusa well
(fig. 26A) shows a seasonal response to withdrawals
for irrigation, but generally recovers each year. The
water level at the Boulder Canyon Minnelusa well
(fig. 26B) declined steadily during the 1980’s and early
1990’s, but recovered during subsequent years.
The Sioux Park Madison well (fig. 26E) shows
response to increased production by the city of Rapid
City from the Madison aquifer beginning in the late
1980’s. Recovery occurs during winter months when
production is reduced. An adjacent Minnelusa well
shows no influence from production from the Madison
aquifer; however, a decline during the 1990’s in the
Cement Plant Minnelusa well (fig. 26C) may be related
to the increased production from the Madison aquifer.
The Countryside Deadwood well (fig. 26D) is
located southwest of Rapid City in an area where sub-
stantial production from the Deadwood aquifer occurs.
Increasing demand in this area occasionally has caused
water-supply shortages during recent periods of peak
demand; however, long-term water-level declines are
not apparent.
Comparisons Between Madison and Minnelusa Aquifers
In many locations, two or more observation
wells are colocated. The most common colocated wells
are paired Madison and Minnelusa wells, which can
provide information regarding interactions between
these aquifers. A variety of factors have potential to
contribute to reduced competency of confining layers
between the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, which
can result in hydraulic connection. Interactions
between the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers were
investigated by Naus and others (2001) and are dis-
cussed in more detail in a subsequent section of this
report.
 104o 45' 103o30'
Indian EXPLANATION

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl

e
BE Cr Newell OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME-
LL eek Cr
E
Nisland
ee
k
STONE (from Strobel and
BELLE FOURCHE
F
OU others, 1999)
RC
HE RIVER
ek
Hay Cre OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
R
1 RI MEADE CO FORMATION (from Strobel
REDW ATE LAWRENCE CO
and others, 1999)

k
Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr
ow 11,12 Onge
OBSERVATION WELL--Symbol
Cree

reek indicates aquifer designation.

Spearfish C
30' 5,6
k

2,3,4 7,8
h

Number indicates map number

m
Gulc

lch

Botto

Whitewood
Gu

9,10 16

d
14,15

oo
se eek Deadwood
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

te

hit
t
Bu 2
eek

13
W
Madison
Cr

STURGIS Creek
Cr

Squ
Tinton Central
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

DEADWOOD lka 103o 3

ood 15' Minnelusa
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h An
nie Cr 4
Minnekahta
ail

Strawberry
s

16,17
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

k k 18,19,20
El 35
Inyan Kara
Roubaix Little Cree
El reek 21,22 Elk k
15' k
C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r 26,27
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
gs

For Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU
k

s
adN. Fo
rk Rap 24,25 23
o

Cas
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r 29,30
Ca

31,32 Ra
stl

Creek
er

C ree Pactola
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria 28
o S. F Reservoir 33,34
44
r

ork
e C

C astl Rockerville
ing Sheridan Cr
Spr Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
Memorial
anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re ek 35 Cr
ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

tt e Fre
nch CUSTER G 38
ac
Red

lle
e

i ge
36,37 G C o o li d
45' 39,40
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

41,42
Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
43,44,45 VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n 48,49

nyo
e

46,47 o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 25. Location of observation wells for which hydrographs are presented.

Ground-Water Characteristics 39
 3,540

A Redwater Minnelusa (site 1)

3,520

3,500

3,480

3,460

3,700

B Boulder Canyon Minnelusa (site 13)

3,680

3,660
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL

3,640

3,460

C Cement Plant Minnelusa (site 23)

3,440

3,420

3,400

3,380

3,500

D Countryside Deadwood (site 28)

3,480

3,460

3,440

3,420

3,460

3,440 E
3,420

3,400

3,380
Sioux Park Madison (site 31)
3,360
Sioux Park Minnelusa (site 32)
3,340
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 26. Hydrographs illustrating temporal trends in ground-water levels.

40 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 3,380

F Hermosa West Inyan Kara (site 35)

WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL

3,360

3,340

3,320

3,360

G Hermosa South Inyan Kara (site 38)

3,340

3,320

3,300
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 26. Hydrographs illustrating temporal trends in ground-water levels.—Continued

Hydrographs illustrating general similarities in hydraulic connection in the vicinity of these wells.
water levels for some colocated Madison and Min- Hydrographs for the Custer State Park (CSP) wells
nelusa wells are presented in figure 27. All of the wells (fig. 27F) are nearly identical, and other pairs shown
are located where confined conditions exist in both have general similarities. At most pairs of wells,
aquifers. Hydraulic connection between the aquifers hydraulic connection cannot be confirmed or refuted
has been confirmed through aquifer testing (Greene, because aquifer testing has not been performed.
1993) for the City Quarry wells (fig. 27D), which have Distinct hydraulic separation between the
hydrographs that are nearly identical. Hydraulic con- Madison and Minnelusa aquifers is apparent for two
nection in this area also has been confirmed by dye well pairs (fig. 28) where water-level altitudes differ by
testing (Greene, 1997), which identified a Madison about 500 to 600 ft in locations where unconfined
aquifer source for nearby City Springs (fig. 23) that (water-table) conditions occur. In both locations, the
discharges through the Minnelusa Formation. water table in the Minnelusa aquifer is much higher
Similarities in hydrographs do not necessarily than that in the Madison aquifer, which also is not fully
indicate hydraulic connection between the aquifers. saturated. Both well pairs are located within or near the
Hydrographs for the Spearfish Golf Course wells Minnelusa Formation outcrops (fig. 25) and measured
(fig. 27A) are very similar during 1995-98, but have water-level altitudes in the Minnelusa aquifer are
little similarity prior to that period. Aquifer testing higher than for most other observation wells in uncon-
(Greene and others, 1999) provided no indication of fined areas.

Ground-Water Characteristics 41
 3,700 3,500
A Spearfish Golf Course Madison (site 9) D City Quarry Madison (site 24)
3,680 Spearfish Golf Course Minnelusa (site 10) City Quarry Minnelusa (site 25)
3,480

3,660
3,460
3,640

3,440
3,620
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL

3,600 3,420

3,480 3,600

B Whitewood Madison (site 14) E Reptile Gardens Madison (site 33)

3,460 Whitewood Minnelusa (site 15) Reptile Gardens Minnelusa (site 34)

3,550
3,440

3,420
3,500
3,400

3,380 3,450

3,700 3,720
C Tilford Madison (site 18) F CSP Airport Madison (site 39)
Tilford Minnelusa (site 19) CSP Airport Minnelusa (site 40)
Tilford Minnekahta (site 20)
3,650 3,700

3,600 3,680

3,550 3,660
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
CALENDAR YEAR CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 27. Hydrographs illustrating general similarities in water levels for some colocated Madison/Minnelusa wells with
confined conditions.

4,400
IN FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL

A B
4,200
WATER LEVEL,

Tinton Road Madison (site 7) Boles Canyon Madison (site 36)

4,000 Tinton Road Minnelusa (site 8) Boles Canyon Minnelusa (site 37)

3,800

3,600
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
CALENDAR YEAR CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 28. Hydrographs illustrating distinct hydraulic separation for two Madison/Minnelusa well pairs with unconfined
conditions.

42 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Figure 29 shows hydrographs for other colocated
Madison and Minnelusa wells, most of which are in
locations with confined conditions (figs. 21 and 22).
Most of these well pairs show distinct hydraulic sepa-
ration between the aquifers, with hydraulic heads sepa-
rated by as much as 100 to 150 ft. Hydraulic separation
is consistently less than about 30 ft for three well pairs,
however—the Frawley Ranch, Hell Canyon, and
Minnekahta Junction wells (figs. 29B, 29E, and 29G,
respectively). Periods of record for these wells may be
insufficient to indicate similarity or dissimilarity of
hydrograph shapes.
Hydraulic connection between aquifers does not
necessarily mean hydrographs will be similar. The
Madison and Minnelusa aquifers probably are con-
nected hydraulically at Cleghorn and Jackson Springs
(fig. 23), which are located within the outcrop of the
Minnelusa Formation, but probably originate primarily
from the Madison aquifer (Naus and others, 2001).
Hydrographs for the Canyon Lake wells, which are
located about one-quarter mile from the spring com-
plex, show no indication of hydraulic connection, how-
ever (fig. 29D). Hydraulic head in the Minnelusa
aquifer is about 50 to 60 ft lower than in the Madison
aquifer in this area, indicating probable recharge from
the Madison aquifer (Driscoll and Carter, 2001). The
Minnelusa aquifer apparently is connected hydrauli-
cally to Rapid Creek at this location, as evidenced by a
sharp water-level decline during a period when Canyon
Lake was drained near the end of 1995.
Another observation that can be made from com-
parisons of hydrographs for paired wells is that the
hydraulic head in the Madison aquifer equals or
exceeds the hydraulic head in the Minnelusa aquifer in
most locations where confined conditions occur. The
Madison aquifer has the potential for higher hydraulic
head than the Minnelusa aquifer because of generally
higher altitude of recharge area for the Madison
aquifer. An exception to this generality occurs along
the northeastern flank of the Black Hills. The hydraulic
head in the Minnelusa aquifer generally equals or
exceeds that in the Madison aquifer for the Spearfish
Golf Course wells (fig. 27A), the Whitewood wells
(fig. 27B), and the Frawley Ranch wells (fig. 29B).
Comparisons for Other Aquifers
Hydrograph comparisons for colocated wells
completed in other aquifers are presented in figure 30.
Hydrographs for the Spearfish West Minnelusa and
Minnekahta wells are shown in figure 30A. Hydro-
graphs for the Minnekahta aquifer also are available for
the Tilford wells (fig. 27C), State Line wells (fig. 29A),
and 7-11 Ranch wells (fig. 29F). Many artesian springs
emerge through the Minnekahta Limestone; thus,
hydraulic connections with the underlying Madison
and Minnelusa aquifers are possible. Hydrographs for
the Minnekahta and Madison wells are very similar for
the State Line wells, which are located about 3 mi
south of a group of large artesian springs (fig. 23).
Hydraulic heads in the Minnelusa and Minnekahta
wells are quite similar in the 7-11 Ranch wells, which
are located 3 mi west of Beaver Creek Springs.
Hydrographs for colocated Deadwood and
Madison wells (fig. 30) are available for two locations.
For the Cheyenne Crossing wells (fig. 30B), the water
table in the Madison aquifer is about 250 ft higher than
the water table in the Deadwood aquifer. For the Doty
wells (fig. 30C), the Deadwood aquifer is confined, and
hydraulic head is about 200 ft higher than in the Mad-
ison aquifer.
Responses to Climatic Conditions
Ground-water levels are directly affected by
recharge rates that are influenced by annual precipita-
tion amounts; however, numerous other factors can
affect ground-water response. The timing and intensity
of precipitation, along with evaporative factors such as
temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation,
can have a large effect on annual recharge. Streamflow
losses (especially for the Madison and Minnelusa aqui-
fers) also contribute to recharge. Ground-water levels
also can be affected by well withdrawals, spring dis-
charges, and various hydraulic properties of aquifers.
Hydrographs for many wells in figures 26-30 show a
distinct response to annual precipitation patterns
(fig. 8); thus, other influences probably are relatively
minor for many wells. Many of these wells with suffi-
cient periods of record show short-term declines during
the late 1980’s, with generally increasing water levels
during the wetter conditions of the middle to late
1990’s.
Water-level records are not available for the
Black Hills area for the prolonged drought conditions
that occurred during the 1930’s and late 1950’s. Cumu-
lative precipitation deficits during these periods were
more severe than for the short-term drought conditions
that occurred during the late 1980’s (fig. 8). Recharge
estimates for 1931-98 for the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers (Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001) indicate
that recharge also was minimal during the 1930’s and
late 1950’s; thus, water-level declines exceeding those
of the late 1980’s probably occurred.
Ground-Water Characteristics 43
 3,800 3,740
A E Hell Canyon Madison (site 41)
Hell Canyon Minnelusa (site 42)
3,750 3,730

State Line Madison (site 2)

3,700 State Line Minnelusa (site 3) 3,720
State Line Minnekahta (site 4)

3,650 3,710

3,600 3,700

3,560 3,700

B Frawley Ranch Madison (site 5) F

3,550 Frawley Ranch Minnelusa (site 6)

3,600
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL

3,540 7-11 Ranch Madison (site 43)

7-11 Ranch Minnelusa (site 44)
7-11 Ranch Minnekahta (site 45)
3,530
3,500

3,520

3,510 3,400

3,650 3,655
C Piedmont Madison (site 21) G Minnekahta Junction Madison (site 46)
Piedmont Minnelusa (site 22) Minnekahta Junction Minnelusa (site 47)
3,600 3,650

3,550 3,645

3,500 3,640

3,450 3,635
3,440 3,700
D H
3,420 3,650

3,400 3,600
Canyon Lake Madison (site 29) Vets Home Madison (site 48)
Canyon Lake Minnelusa (site 30) Vets Home Minnelusa (site 49)
3,380 3,550

3,360 3,500

3,340 3,450
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
CALENDAR YEAR CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 29. Hydrographs illustrating generally separated water levels for some colocated Madison/Minnelusa wells.

44 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 3,620 Driscoll and Carter (2001) noted that for the
A Spearfish West Minnelusa (site 11)
Spearfish West Minnekahta (site 12)
Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, the smallest water-
3,600
level fluctuations occur in the extreme southern Black
3,580 Hills. Smaller recharge than in other areas probably is
a contributing factor. Another factor may be large
3,560 storage capacity in unconfined parts of the aquifers,
which are especially extensive in the southern Black
3,540
Hills (figs. 21 and 22). Caves, which are especially
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL

3,520 prevalent in the Madison aquifer, probably are more

5,900
B
5,800
Cheyenne Crossing Deadwood (site 16)
5,700 Cheyenne Crossing Madison (site 17)
5,600
5,500
4,100
C Hydrology Study and other studies from October 1,
4,000
Doty Deadwood (site 26)
Doty Madison (site 27)
3,900
3,800
1984 1986 1988 1990
CALENDAR YEAR
Figure 30. Hydrographs for colocated Minnelusa/Minnekahta
and Deadwood/Madison wells.
Hydrographs for the Inyan Kara wells (figs. 26F
and G) show minimal response to climatic conditions.
Hydrographs for other Inyan Kara wells that are not
shown also show minimal response to climatic condi-
tions (Driscoll, Bradford, and Moran, 2000).
All of the other aquifers show a wide range of
water-level responses to climatic conditions, ranging
from minimal response to several tens of feet. The
largest overall water-level change is for the Reptile
Gardens Madison well (fig. 27E), which increased by
about 110 ft during 1990-98. Increases of about 80 ft
have been recorded for the Tilford Madison and
Minnelusa wells (fig. 27C).
common in the southern Black Hills than in other areas
and can provide large storage capacity .
Water Quality
This section includes a summary of water-
quality characteristics for the major aquifers and
selected minor aquifers in the Black Hills area. More
detailed descriptions of ground-water quality are pre-
sented by Williamson and Carter (2001), who consid-
ered water-quality data collected for the Black Hills
1930, to September 30, 1998. A brief discussion of the
susceptibility of aquifers to contamination also is pre-
sented, as well as a summary of water quality relative
to water use. Table 4 describes the significance of
selected properties and constituents and any related
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
water-quality standards for drinking water.
1992 1994 1996 1998 Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL’s) are
established for contaminants that, if present in drinking
water, may cause adverse human health effects; MCL’s
are enforceable health-based standards (U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1994a). Secondary Max-
imum Contaminant Levels (SMCL’s) are established
for contaminants that can adversely affect the taste,
odor, or appearance of water and may result in discon-
tinuation of use of the water; SMCL’s are nonenforce-
able, generally non-health-based standards that are
related to the aesthetics of water use (U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1994a). Action levels,
which are concentrations that determine whether
treatment requirements may be necessary (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1997), have been
established for copper and lead.
Concentrations of constituents were compared
by Williamson and Carter (2001) to drinking-water
standards set by the USEPA. Although USEPA stan-
dards apply only to public-water supplies, individuals
using water from private wells should be aware of the
potential health risks associated with drinking water
that exceeds drinking-water standards.

Ground-Water Characteristics 45
Table 4. Water-quality criteria, standards, or recommended limits for selected properties and constituents
[All standards are from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994a) unless noted. MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; SMCL, Secondary Maximum
Contaminant Level; USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; mg/L, milligrams per liter; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius;
µg/L, micrograms per liter; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; --, no limit established]

Constituent
Standard Significance
or property

Specific conductance -- A measure of the ability of water to conduct an electrical current; varies with temperature.
Magnitude depends on concentration, kind, and degree of ionization of dissolved constit-
uents; can be used to determine the approximate concentration of dissolved solids. Values
are reported in microsiemens per centimeter at 25°Celsius.

pH 6.5-8.5 units A measure of the hydrogen ion concentration; pH of 7.0 indicates a neutral solution, pH
SMCL values smaller than 7.0 indicate acidity, pH values larger than 7.0 indicate alkalinity.
Water generally becomes more corrosive with decreasing pH; however, excessively
alkaline water also may be corrosive.

Temperature -- Affects the usefulness of water for many purposes. Generally, users prefer water of uni-
formly low temperature. Temperature of ground water tends to increase with increasing
depth to the aquifer.

Dissolved oxygen -- Required by higher forms of aquatic life for survival. Measurements of dissolved oxygen
are used widely in evaluations of the biochemistry of streams and lakes. Oxygen is sup-
plied to ground water through recharge and by movement of air through unsaturated
material above the water table (Hem, 1985).

Carbon dioxide -- Important in reactions that control the pH of natural waters.

Hardness and noncar-
bonate hardness (as
mg/L CaCO3)
-- Related to the soap-consuming characteristics of water; results in formation of scum when
soap is added. May cause deposition of scale in boilers, water heaters, and pipes. Hard-
ness contributed by calcium and magnesium, bicarbonate and carbonate mineral species
in water is called carbonate hardness; hardness in excess of this concentration is called
noncarbonate hardness. Water that has a hardness less than 61 mg/L is considered soft;
61-120 mg/L, moderately hard; 121-180 mg/L, hard; and more than 180 mg/L, very hard
(Heath, 1983).

Alkalinity -- A measure of the capacity of unfiltered water to neutralize acid. In almost all natural waters
alkalinity is produced by the dissolved carbon dioxide species, bicarbonate and carbon-
ate. Typically expressed as mg/L CaCO3.

Dissolved solids 500 mg/L The total of all dissolved mineral constituents, usually expressed in milligrams per liter. The
SMCL concentration of dissolved solids may affect the taste of water. Water that contains more
than 1,000 mg/L is unsuitable for many industrial uses. Some dissolved mineral matter is
desirable, otherwise the water would have no taste. The dissolved solids concentration
commonly is called the water’s salinity and is classified as follows: fresh, 0-1,000 mg/L;
slightly saline, 1,000-3,000 mg/L; moderately saline, 3,000-10,000 mg/L; very saline,
10,000-35,000 mg/L; and briny, more than 35,000 mg/L (Heath, 1983).

Calcium plus magne- -- Cause most of the hardness and scale-forming properties of water (see hardness).
sium

Sodium plus potassium -- Large concentrations may limit use of water for irrigation and industrial use and, in combi-
nation with chloride, give water a salty taste. Abnormally large concentrations may indi-
cate natural brines, industrial brines, or sewage.

Sodium-adsorption ratio -- A ratio used to express the relative activity of sodium ions in exchange reactions with soil.
(SAR) Important in irrigation water; the greater the SAR, the less suitable the water for irriga-
tion.

Bicarbonate -- In combination with calcium and magnesium forms carbonate hardness.

46 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Table 4. Water-quality criteria, standards, or recommended limits for selected properties and constituents–Continued
[All standards are from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994a) unless noted. MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; SMCL, Secondary Maximum
Contaminant Level; USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; mg/L, milligrams per liter; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius;
µg/L, micrograms per liter; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; --, no limit established]

Constituent
Standard Significance
or property

Sulfate 250 mg/L Sulfates of calcium and magnesium form hard scale. Large concentrations of sulfate have a
SMCL laxative effect on some people and, in combination with other ions, give water a bitter
taste.

Chloride 250 mg/L Large concentrations increase the corrosiveness of water and, in combination with sodium,
SMCL give water a salty taste.

Fluoride 4.0 mg/L Reduces incidence of tooth decay when optimum fluoride concentrations present in water
MCL consumed by children during the period of tooth calcification. Potential health effects of
2.0 mg/L long-term exposure to elevated fluoride concentrations include dental and skeletal fluo-
SMCL rosis (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1994b).

Nitrite (mg/L as N)
1.0 mg/L Commonly formed as an intermediate product in bacterially mediated nitrification and den-
MCL itrification of ammonia and other organic nitrogen compounds. An acute health concern
at certain levels of exposure. Nitrite typically occurs in water from fertilizers and is found
in sewage and wastes from humans and farm animals. Concentrations greater than
1.0 mg/L, as nitrogen, may be injurious to pregnant women, children, and the elderly.

Nitrite plus nitrate 10 mg/L Concentrations greater than local background levels may indicate pollution by feedlot run-
(mg/L as N) MCL off, sewage, or fertilizers. Concentrations greater than 10 mg/L, as nitrogen, may be
injurious to pregnant women, children, and the elderly.

Ammonia -- Plant nutrient that can cause unwanted algal blooms and excessive plant growth when
present at elevated levels in water bodies. Sources include decomposition of animal and
plant proteins, agricultural and urban runoff, and effluent from waste-water treatment
plants.

Phosphorus, orthophos- -- Dense algal blooms or rapid plant growth can occur in waters rich in phosphorus. A limiting
phate nutrient for eutrophication since it is typically in shortest supply. Sources are human and
animal wastes and fertilizers.
110
Arsenic µg/L No known necessary role in human or animal diet, but is toxic. A cumulative poison that is
MCL slowly excreted. Can cause nasal ulcers; damage to the kidneys, liver, and intestinal
walls; and death. Recently suspected to be a carcinogen (Garold Carlson, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, written commun., 1998).

Barium 2,000 µg/L Toxic; used in rat poison. In moderate to large concentrations can cause death; smaller con-
MCL centrations can cause damage to the heart, blood vessels, and nerves.

Boron -- Essential to plant growth, but may be toxic to crops when present in excessive concentra-
tions in irrigation water. Sensitive plants show damage when irrigation water contains
more than 670 µg/L and even tolerant plants may be damaged when boron exceeds
2,000 µg/L. The recommended limit is 750 µg/L for long-term irrigation on sensitive
crops (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986).

Cadmium 5 µg/L A cumulative poison; very toxic. Not known to be either biologically essential or beneficial.
MCL Believed to promote renal arterial hypertension. Elevated concentrations may cause liver
and kidney damage, or even anemia, retarded growth, and death.

Copper 1,300 µg/L Essential to metabolism; copper deficiency in infants and young animals results in nutri-
(action level) tional anemia. Large concentrations of copper are toxic and may cause liver damage.
Moderate levels of copper (near the action level) can cause gastro-intestinal distress. If
more than 10 percent of samples at the tap of a public water system exceed 1,300 µg/L,
the USEPA requires treatment to control corrosion of plumbing materials in the system.

Ground-Water Characteristics 47
Table 4. Water-quality criteria, standards, or recommended limits for selected properties and constituents–Continued
[All standards are from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994a) unless noted. MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; SMCL, Secondary Maximum
Contaminant Level; USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; mg/L, milligrams per liter; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius;
µg/L, micrograms per liter; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; --, no limit established]

Constituent
Standard Significance
or property

Iron 300 µg/L Forms rust-colored sediment; stains laundry, utensils, and fixtures reddish brown. Objec-
SMCL tionable for food and beverage processing. Can promote growth of certain kinds of
bacteria that clog pipes and well openings.

Lead 15 µg/L A cumulative poison; toxic in small concentrations. Can cause lethargy, loss of appetite,
(action level) constipation, anemia, abdominal pain, gradual paralysis in the muscles, and death. If 1 in
10 samples of a public supply exceed 15 µg/L, the USEPA recommends treatment to
remove lead and monitoring of the water supply for lead content (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1991).

Lithium -- Reported as probably beneficial in small concentrations (250-1,250 µg/L). Reportedly may
help strengthen the cell wall and improve resistance to genetic damage and to disease.
Lithium salts are used to treat certain types of psychosis.

Manganese 50 µg/L Causes gray or black stains on porcelain, enamel, and fabrics. Can promote growth of cer-
SMCL tain kinds of bacteria that clog pipes and wells.

Mercury (inorganic)
2 µg/L No known essential or beneficial role in human or animal nutrition. Liquid metallic mer-
MCL cury and elemental mercury dissolved in water are comparatively nontoxic, but some
mercury compounds, such as mercuric chloride and alkyl mercury, are very toxic.
Elemental mercury is readily alkylated, particularly to methyl mercury, and concentrated
by biological activity. Potential health effects of exposure to some mercury compounds
in water include severe kidney and nervous system disorders (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1994b).

Nickel -- Very toxic to some plants and animals. Toxicity for humans is believed to be very minimal.

Selenium 50 µg/L Essential to human and animal nutrition in minute concentrations, but even a moderate
MCL excess may be harmful or potentially toxic if ingested for a long time (Callahan and
others, 1979). Potential human health effects of exposure to elevated selenium concentra-
tions include liver damage (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1994b).

Silver 100 µg/L Causes permanent bluish darkening of the eyes and skin (argyria). Where found in water is
SMCL almost always from pollution or by intentional addition. Silver salts are used in some
countries to sterilize water supplies. Toxic in large concentrations.

Strontium -- Importance in human and animal nutrition is not known, but believed to be essential. Toxic-
ity believed very minimal—no more than that of calcium.

Zinc 5,000 µg/L Essential and beneficial in metabolism; its deficiency in young children or animals will
SMCL retard growth and may decrease general body resistance to disease. Seems to have no ill
effects even in fairly large concentrations (20,000-40,000 mg/L), but can impart a metal-
lic taste or milky appearance to water. Zinc in drinking water commonly is derived from
galvanized coatings of piping.

Gross alpha-particle 15 pCi/L The measure of alpha-particle radiation present in a sample. A limit is placed on gross
activity MCL alpha-particle activity because it is impractical at the present time to identify all alpha-
particle-emitting radionuclides due to analytical costs. Gross alpha-particle activity is a
radiological hazard. The 15 pCi/L standard also includes radium-226, a known carcino-
gen, but excludes any uranium or radon that may be present in the sample. Thorium-230
radiation contributes to gross alpha-particle activity.

Beta-particle and 4 millirem/yr The measure of beta-particle radiation present in a sample. Gross beta-particle activity is a
photon activity MCL radiological hazard. See strontium-90 and tritium.
(formerly manmade (under review)
radionuclides)

48 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Table 4. Water-quality criteria, standards, or recommended limits for selected properties and constituents–Continued
[All standards are from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994a) unless noted. MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; SMCL, Secondary Maximum
Contaminant Level; USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; mg/L, milligrams per liter; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius;
µg/L, micrograms per liter; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; --, no limit established]

Constituent
Standard Significance
or property

Radium-226 & 228 5 pCi/L Radium locates primarily in bone; however, inhalation or ingestion may result in lung
combined MCL cancer. Radium-226 is a highly radioactive alkaline-earth metal that emits alpha-particle
radiation. It is the longest lived of the four naturally occurring isotopes of radium and is a
disintegration product of uranium-238. Concentrations of radium in most natural waters
are usually less than 1.0 pCi/L (Hem, 1985).

Radon2 300 or 4,000 Inhaled radon is known to cause lung cancer (MCL for radon in indoor air is 4 pCi/L).
pCi/L Ingested radon also is believed to cause cancer. A radon concentration of 1,000 pCi/L in
proposed MCL water is approximately equal to 1 pCi/L in air. The ultimate source of radon is the radio-
active decay of uranium. Radon-222 has a half-life of 3.8 days and is the only radon iso-
tope of importance in the environment (Hem, 1985).

Strontium-90 Gross beta- Strontium-90 is one of 12 unstable isotopes of strontium known to exist. It is a product of
(contributes to beta- particle activity nuclear fallout and is known to cause adverse human health affects. Strontium-90 is a
particle and photon (4 millirem/yr) bone seeker and a relatively long-lived beta emitter with a half-life of 28 years. The
activity) MCL USEPA has calculated that an average annual concentration of 8 pCi/L will produce a
total body or organ dose of 4 millirem/yr (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997).

Thorium-230 15 pCi/L Thorium-230 is a product of natural radioactive decay when uranium-234 emits alpha-
(contributes to gross MCL particle radiation. Thorium-230 also is a radiological hazard because it is part of the
alpha-particle uranium-238 decay series and emits alpha-particle radiation through its own natural
activity) decay to become radium-226. The half-life of thorium-230 is about 80,000 years.

Tritium (3H) Gross beta- Tritium occurs naturally in small amounts in the atmosphere, but largely is the product of
(contributes to beta- particle activity nuclear weapons testing. Tritium can be incorporated into water molecules that reach the
particle and photon (4 millirem/yr) Earth’s surface as precipitation. Tritium emits low energy beta particles and is relatively
activity) MCL short-lived with a half-life of about 12.4 years. The USEPA has calculated that a concen-
tration of 20,000 pCi/L will produce a total body or organ dose of 4 millirem/yr (CFR 40
Subpart B 141.16, revised July 1997, p. 296).

Uranium 30 µg/L Uranium is a chemical and radiological hazard and carcinogen. It emits alpha-particle radi-
MCL ation through natural decay. It is a hard, heavy, malleable metal that can be present in
(under review) several oxidation states. Generally, the more oxidized states are more soluble. Uranium-
238 and uranium-235, which occur naturally, account for most of the radioactivity in
water. Uranium concentrations range between 0.1 and 10 µg/L in most natural waters.
1
USEPA currently is implementing a revised MCL for arsenic from 50 to 10 µg/L; public-water systems must meet the revised MCL by January
2006 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2001).
2
USEPA currently is working to set an MCL for radon in water. The proposed standards are 4,000 pCi/L for States that have an active indoor air pro-
gram and 300 pCi/L for States that do not have an active indoor air program (Garold Carlson, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, oral commun.,
1999). At this time, it is not known whether South Dakota will participate in an active indoor air program (Darron Busch, South Dakota Department of
Environment and Natural Resources, oral commun., 1999).

Ground-Water Characteristics 49
 General Characteristics for Major Aquifers
A summary of water-quality characteristics from
Williamson and Carter (2001) for the major aquifers in
the study area (Deadwood, Madison, Minnelusa,
Minnekahta, and Inyan Kara aquifers) is presented in
this section. Characteristics for the Precambrian
aquifer also are included in this section because
numerous wells are completed in this aquifer in the
crystalline core of the Black Hills.
Most pH values for the major aquifers are within
the specified range for the SMCL (6.5 to 8.5 standard
units). About 13 percent of the samples from wells
completed in Precambrian rocks had pH values less
than the lower limit specified for the SMCL, which
indicates acidity. In general, pH values are lower in
wells completed in Precambrian rocks than in the other
major aquifers, which is indicative of a unit containing
little carbonate material.
Water temperatures generally increase with well
depth. The deepest wells in the study area are com-
pleted in the Madison aquifer; thus, measured temper-
atures in the Madison aquifer generally are the warmest
of the major aquifers. The Madison aquifer is the
primary source of water to warm artesian springs in the
southern Black Hills, where water temperatures may be
influenced by factors other than aquifer depth (Whalen,
1994).
Williamson and Carter (2001) quantified rela-
tions between dissolved solids and specific conduc-
tance concentrations for the major aquifers. The r2
(coefficient of determination) values are high for all of
the major aquifers (fig. 31); thus, the equations pro-
vided could be used confidently for estimating dis-
solved solids concentrations from specific conductance
measurements.
Specific conductance generally is low in water
from the Precambrian, Deadwood, and Minnekahta
aquifers. Dissolved constituents tend to increase with
residence time as indicated by the general increase in
specific conductance in the Madison aquifer with dis-
tance from the outcrop (fig. 32). Generally, water from
the Inyan Kara aquifer is high in specific conductance
even in some outcrop areas and is higher in specific
conductance than the other major aquifers due to
greater amounts of shale within the Inyan Kara Group.
Water obtained from shales may contain rather high
concentrations of dissolved solids (Hem, 1985) and,
hence, high specific conductance.
50 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Geologic units that contain little carbonate
material, such as the Precambrian rocks, generally con-
tain water with lower carbonate hardness and alkalinity
than geologic units that are composed primarily of car-
bonate rocks. Water in the Madison, Minnelusa, and
Minnekahta aquifers generally is hard to very hard
because these units consist primarily of carbonate
rocks. Water in the Deadwood aquifer also is hard to
very hard because this unit consists primarily of sand-
stone with a calcium carbonate cement. The Inyan Kara
aquifer may yield soft water, with hardness generally
decreasing with increasing distance from the outcrop
(fig. 33). Although concentrations of dissolved solids
in the Inyan Kara aquifer actually increase with
increasing distance from the outcrop, hardness
decreases because calcium and bicarbonate are
replaced by sodium and sulfate as water moves down-
gradient.
In the Black Hills area, water from the major
aquifers generally is low in dissolved solids in and near
outcrop areas. The Madison, Minnelusa, and Inyan
Kara aquifers may yield slightly saline water (dis-
solved solids concentrations between 1,000 and
3,000 mg/L) at distance from the outcrops, especially
in the southern Black Hills. The water in these aquifers
generally is highly mineralized outside of the Black
Hills area, as previously described and shown in
figure 17 for aquifers in the Paleozoic units.
Many of the major aquifers yield a calcium
bicarbonate type water in and near outcrop areas, with
concentrations of sodium, chloride, and sulfate
increasing with distance from outcrops. High concen-
trations of sodium, chloride, and sulfate occur in the
Madison aquifer (fig. 34) in the southwestern part of
the study area relative to the rest of the study area.
These high concentrations could be due to long resi-
dence times, long flowpaths associated with regional
flow from the west (Wyoming), or greater amounts of
evaporite minerals, such as anhydrite and gypsum,
available for dissolution (Naus and others, 2001). In the
southern part of the study area, the common-ion chem-
istry of the water in the Minnelusa aquifer also is char-
acterized by higher concentrations of sodium and
chloride (fig. 35). The high chloride concentrations in
this area could reflect hydraulic connection between
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers (Naus and others,
2001). The dissolution of evaporite minerals and long
residence time also are possible explanations for the
occurrence of this water type in the Minnelusa aquifer
(Naus and others, 2001).
 Precambrian aquifer Deadwood aquifer
800 500

S = 0.6151K - 14.42 S = 0.5792K - 1.93

r2 = 0.91 r2 = 0.97
N = 39 400 N = 33
600

300

400

200

200
100

0 0
0 500 1,000 1,500 0 200 400 600 800 1,000
DISSOLVED SOLIDS (S), IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Madison aquifer Minnelusa aquifer

2,000 4,000

S = 0.6091K - 3.73 S = 1.0070K - 215.09

r2 = 0.98 r2 = 0.98
N = 91 N = 159
1,500 3,000

1,000 2,000

500 1,000

0 0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

Minnekahta aquifer Inyan Kara aquifer

2,500 4,000

S = 0.8860K - 177.62 S = 0.7842K - 98.49

r2 = 0.99 r2 = 0.95
2,000
N = 25 N = 85
3,000

1,500

2,000

1,000

1,000
500

0 0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE (K), SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE (K),
IN MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER IN MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER

Figure 31. Relations between dissolved solids and specific conductance for the major aquifers.

Ground-Water Characteristics 51
 104o 45' 103o30' EXPLANATION
Indian OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME-

Hors
o Belle Fourche
44 45' Reservoir Cr STONE (from Strobel and
Owl

e
Newell
BE
LL
Cr
eek Cr
others, 1999)
E ee
Nisland k
F
OU
MADISON LIMESTONE ABSENT
BELLE FOURCHE
RC
HE RIVER (from Carter and Redden,
ek
Hay Cre
1999d)

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE OF

k
Cree
Cox
Lake
Saint SAMPLE, IN MICROSIEMENS
Cr Onge
ow PER CENTIMETER AT 25
Cree

lch reek DEGREES CELSIUS--Circle

Gu Spearfish C
30'
k

size increases with increasing

h

m
Gulc

Botto

Whitewood
ek

concentrations
Cre

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

tte Less than 500

fish

hit
Bu
W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton 500 to 1,000

aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

1,000 to 1,500
a

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee Greater than 1,500
Wh

k k
El
ee k

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k
C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

id C Blackhawk

Cr
Cold Sp r
r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
For
gs

Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU
k

s
adN. Fo
rk Rap
o

Cas
Rh

tl id
eC
r RAPID CITY
Beav
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree
k

pid
e

C Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
Cre
reek

eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
S. F Reservoir Spring
44o
r

ork
e C

C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
reek Cr
ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

te Fre G
nch CUSTER
ac

let
Red

l
e

Gi ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Pringle Wind Cave
e

National Park
Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH
EY
EN

Cascade
N
E

Springs
Edgemont Ho
rse
he
eek Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
k
on

ee
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 32. Distribution of specific conductance in the Madison aquifer (modified from Williamson and Carter, 2001).

52 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 104o 45' 103o30' EXPLANATION
OUTCROP OF INYAN KARA
Indian

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr GROUP (from Strobel and
Owl

e
BE Cr
eek
Newell others, 1999)
LL Cr
E ee
F
Nisland k INYAN KARA GROUP ABSENT
OU
BELLE FOURCHE
RC
HE RIVER (from Carter and Redden,
ek
Hay Cre 1999a)

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
ER RI MEADE CO WATER HARDNESS, IN
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO

k
MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr Onge
ow Very hard (greater than 180)
Cree

lch reek
Gu Spearfish C Hard (121 to 180)
30'
k
h

m
Gulc

Botto
Whitewood
ek

Moderately hard (61 to 121)

Cre

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

te Soft (less than 61)

fish

hit
t
Bu
W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton
WELL COMPLETED IN INYAN
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar KARA AQUIFER FOR WHICH
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An THERE IS A HARDNESS
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee ANALYSIS
Wh

k k
El
ee k

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k
C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
For
gs

Rochford
k

s
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

d
a N. Fo
rk Rap
o

Cas
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
o Reservoir Spring
44 S. F
r
e C

ork
C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre G
tte nch CUSTER
ac
Red

e
ill
e

G ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
ek

o t Brook
Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 33. Distribution of hardness in the Inyan Kara aquifer (modified from Williamson and Carter, 2001).

Ground-Water Characteristics 53
 104o 45' 103o30'
EXPLANATION
Indian
OUTCROP OF THE MADISON LIME-

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl STONE (from Strobel and others,

e
Cr Newell
BE eek
LL
E
Cr
ee
k
1999)
Nisland
F
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC
HE RIVER MADISON LIMESTONE ABSENT
ek
Hay Cre (from Carter and Redden, 1999d)

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO STIFF DIAGRAM--

k
Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Sodium + Potassium Chloride + Fluoride
Cr Onge
ow
Calcium Bicarbonate + Carbonate
Cree

h eek
G ulc Spearfish Cr Magnesium Sulfate
30'
k
h

m
10 0 10
Gulc

Botto
Whitewood
ek

CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Cre

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

te WELL COMPLETED IN THE

fish

hit
t
Bu

W
ear
Cr

STURGIS Creek
Squ
Central MADISON AQUIFER
Sp

Tinton
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v

LIMESTONE HEADWATER SPRING

Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An
ail

Strawberry
s

ARTESIAN SPRING
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

k k
El
ee k

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k

C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
gs

For Rochford
k

LIMESTONE PLATEAU

ds
a N. Fo
rk Rap
o

Cas
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Creek
er

C ree Pactola
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
o S. F Reservoir Spring
44
r

ork
e C

C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre G
tte nch CUSTER
ac
Red

e
ill
e

G ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
ek

o t Brook
Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
Cr
43o15' od
Reservoir Cr
ee
k
wo
k
on

ee
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 34. Stiff diagrams (Stiff, 1951) showing the distribution of common-ion chemistry in the Madison aquifer (from
Naus and others, 2001).

54 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 104o 45' 103o30'
EXPLANATION
Indian

Hors
o
44 45' Belle Fourche
Reservoir Cr OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA
Owl

e
BE Cr Newell FORMATION (from Strobel and
eek Cr
LL
E ee
k
others, 1999)
Nisland
F
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC
HE RIVER MINNELUSA FORMATION ABSENT
ek
Hay Cre (from Carter and Redden, 1999c)

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO ESTIMATED SULFATE CONCEN-

k
Cree
Cox Saint
TRATIONS IN MINNELUSA
Lake Cr
ow Onge AQUIFER, IN MILLIGRAMS PER
LITER
Cree

lch reek
Gu Spearfish C
30'
k

Less than 250

h

m
Gulc

Botto

Whitewood
ek
Cre

250 to 1,000

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

tte
fish

hit
Bu
Greater than 1,000
W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar STIFF DIAGRAM--
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An
ail

Strawberry Sodium + Potassium Chloride + Fluoride

s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

k k Calcium Bicarbonate + Carbonate

El
k

Magnesium Sulfate
ee

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k 10 0 10
15' k
C
N. F

Bo
ish xe CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER
Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork
Rap
Nemo Base
WELL COMPLETED IN THE
d Cr

id C Blackhawk
Cold Sp MINNELUSA AQUIFER

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
gs

For Rochford
k

s LIMESTONE HEADWATER SPRING

LIMESTONE PLATEAU

adN. Fo
rk C Rap
o
Rh

a s tl e id RAPID CITY
Cr
Beav ARTESIAN SPRING
Ca

Ra
stl

Creek
er

C ree Pactola
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
o S. F Reservoir Spring
44
r

ork
e C

C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre G
tte nch CUSTER
ac
Red

e
ill
e

G ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,

Provo
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 MILES
t
Ha

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 35. Stiff diagrams (Stiff, 1951) showing the distribution of common-ion chemistry in the Minnelusa aquifer.
Approximation location of anhydrite dissolution front showing transition between low and high sulfate concentrations
also is shown (from Naus and others, 2001).

Ground-Water Characteristics 55
 Sulfate concentrations in the Minnelusa aquifer
are dependent on the amount of anhydrite present in the
Minnelusa Formation. Near the outcrop, sulfate con-
centrations generally are low (less than 250 mg/L)
because anhydrite has been removed by dissolution. An
abrupt increase in sulfate concentrations occurs down-
gradient, where a transition zone surrounds the core of
the Black Hills. This transition zone is the area within
which the sulfate concentrations range from 250 to
1,000 mg/L (fig. 35) and marks an area of active
removal of anhydrite by dissolution. Downgradient
from the transition zone, sulfate concentrations are
greater than 1,000 mg/L, which delineates a zone in
which thick anhydrite beds remain in the formation.
The transition zone probably is shifting downgradient
over geologic time as the anhydrite in the formation is
dissolved (Kyllonen and Peter, 1987).
Figures 34 and 35 also show Stiff diagrams
(Stiff, 1951) for artesian springs in the Black Hills area,
most of which probably originate from the Madison
and/or Minnelusa aquifers (Naus and others, 2001).
Artesian springs with high sulfate concentrations prob-
ably are influenced by anhydrite in the Minnelusa
Formation. Artesian springs with low sulfate concen-
trations occur only upgradient from the transition zone
(fig. 35). Additional discussions regarding potential
sources of artesian springs are presented in subsequent
sections of the report.
Concentrations and variability of many trace
elements are small in the major aquifers. Strontium
generally has higher concentrations than other trace
elements, but is not harmful. Similarly, barium, boron,
iron, manganese, lithium, and zinc concentrations also
may be high in comparison to other trace elements.
Most naturally occurring radionuclides in water
are the result of radioactive decay of uranium-238,
thorium-232, and uranium-235, with uranium-238 pro-
ducing the greatest part of the radioactivity observed
(Hem, 1985). In general, gross alpha-particle activity,
gross-beta activity, and radium-226 concentrations, are
higher in the Deadwood and Inyan Kara aquifers than
in the Madison, Minnelusa, and Minnekahta aquifers.
In the Deadwood aquifer, more than 30 percent
of the samples analyzed for radium-226 or radium-226
and radium-228 exceeded the MCL of 5 pCi/L for the
combined radium-226 and radium-228 standard.
Almost 90 percent of the samples from the Deadwood
aquifer exceeded the proposed MCL of 300 pCi/L for
radon in States without an active indoor air program;
several of these samples (fig. 36) also exceeded the
56 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
proposed MCL of 4,000 pCi/L for radon in States with
an active indoor air program. Samples from the Dead-
wood aquifer have lower uranium concentrations rela-
tive to the other major aquifers, which may be due to
the reducing conditions of the Deadwood aquifer
(Rounds, 1991).
Uranium deposits have been mined in the Inyan
Kara Group in the southern Black Hills. Uranium may
be introduced into the Inyan Kara Group through
upward leakage of water from the Minnelusa aquifer
(Gott and others, 1974). As water in the Inyan Kara
aquifer migrates downgradient, geochemical condi-
tions favor the precipitation of uranium (Gott and
others, 1974). Some water from the Inyan Kara aquifer,
especially in the southern Black Hills, contains rela-
tively high concentrations of radionuclides. Almost
20 percent of the samples collected from the Inyan
Kara aquifer exceeded the MCL for the combined
radium-226 and radium-228 standard; all but one of
these samples exceeding the MCL were from wells in
the southern Black Hills. About 4 percent of the
samples exceeded the MCL for uranium; all these
samples exceeding the MCL were from wells located in
the southern Black Hills.
General Characteristics for Minor Aquifers
Water-quality characteristics were summarized
by Williamson and Carter (2001) for various minor
aquifers. The minor aquifers in the study area include
the Newcastle aquifer and alluvial aquifers. Local aqui-
fers do exist in the various semiconfining and confining
units. Water-quality data also were summarized for
several of these local aquifers, which included the
Spearfish, Sundance, Morrison, Graneros, and Pierre
aquifers.
Relations between dissolved solids and specific
conductance concentrations are presented in figure 37
for the minor aquifers with sufficient data, which
include the Sundance, Morrison, Newcastle, and
alluvial aquifers. The r2 values are consistently high,
indicating strong correlations for these aquifers.
Water in many of the minor aquifers can be very
hard and high in dissolved solids concentrations. Most
samples from the Sundance aquifer indicate slightly
saline water. Sulfate concentrations also can be high in
the minor aquifers, such as the Spearfish aquifer where
high sulfate concentrations can result from dissolution
of gypsum. Both dissolved solids and sulfate concen-
trations are low in the Newcastle aquifer. A variety of
water types can occur within and among the minor
 104o 45' 103o30' EXPLANATION
Indian

Hors
o
44 45' Belle Fourche
Reservoir Cr OUTCROP OF DEADWOOD
Owl

e
BE Cr Newell FORMATION (from Strobel
LL eek Cr
E ee
k
and others, 1999)
Nisland
F
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC RIVER
DEADWOOD FORMATION
HE
ek ABSENT (from Carter and
Hay Cre

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
Redden, 1999e)
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO

k
RADON CONCENTRATION--

Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr
ow Onge Number is radon concentration
in picocuries per liter. Circle
Cree

lch reek
Gu Spearfish C
30' size increases with increasing
k
h

m
Gulc

Botto
Whitewood concentrations
ek
Cre

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr Less than 300

ew
Fal

tte
fish

hit
u 80

W
1,600 B
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton 300 to 3,000

aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v

500
Bea

dw

A
920Cr ar
Cr

800 Be
De

Lead 5,300
Cr

h nie Cr
An Greater than 3,000
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

6,600 Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

k k
El 5,300
ee k

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k
C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth
R api

S. F Air Force
ork Nemo Base
Rap
d Cr

Cold Sp id C 560 Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
gs

For Rochford
k

s
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

d
a N. Fo
rk Rap
o

Cas 80
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Creek
er

C ree Pactola
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir 900 5,800

reek

Cre
eek
Ca

1,300
Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria 1,500

o Reservoir 690 Spring
44 S. F
r

220
e C

ork
C astl 1,400 1,100
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake
Rockerville ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C

2,700
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre G
tte nch CUSTER
ac
Red

e
ill
e

G ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 36. Distribution of radon concentrations in the Deadwood aquifer (from Williamson and Carter, 2001).

Ground-Water Characteristics 57
 Sundance aquifer Morrison aquifer
2,000 1,000

S = 0.7986K - 129.34 S = 0.7601K - 66.71

r2 = 0.98 r2 = 0.98
N = 10 800 N=7
1,500

600

1,000
DISSOLVED SOLIDS (S), IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

400

500
200

0 0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 0 500 1,000 1,500

Newcastle aquifer Alluvial aquifers

1,000 2,500

S = 0.7105K - 67.20 S = 0.8302K - 105.62

r2 = 0.98 r2 = 0.96
800 N=8 2,000 N = 64

600 1,500

400 1,000

200 500

0 0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE (K), SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE (K),

IN MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER IN MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER

Figure 37. Relations between dissolved solids and specific conductance for the minor aquifers.

aquifers. In general, the dominance of sodium and sul-
fate increases with increasing amounts of shale present
in the formations due to the large cation-exchange
capabilities of clay minerals (generally sodium concen-
trations increase) and due to the reduced circulation of
water through the shale (Hem, 1985). The dominance
of calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate increases with
increasing amounts of sandstone (where calcium car-
bonate commonly is the cementing material) and
carbonate rocks present in the geologic units. The
Sundance aquifer has the highest selenium concentra-
tions of all aquifers considered in this report.
Concentrations of common ions in alluvial
aquifers generally increase with increasing distance
from the core of the Black Hills, which is largely due to
contact of the water with underlying geologic units and
to the composition of alluvial deposits. Wells com-
pleted in alluvial deposits that do not overlie Creta-
ceous shales generally yield fresh water of a calcium
bicarbonate or calcium magnesium bicarbonate type.
Wells that are completed in alluvial deposits that
overlie the Cretaceous shales generally yield slightly
saline water in which sodium and/or sulfate is domi-
nant. Water from alluvial aquifers may be high in ura-
nium concentrations, especially in the southern Black
Hills. About 17 percent of the samples exceeded the
proposed MCL for uranium, and all samples exceeding
this MCL were from wells in the southern Black Hills.

58 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Susceptibility to Contamination and sewage, on the land surface or in the soil zone.
The Black Hills Hydrology Study focused pri- Nitrite plus nitrate concentrations for most samples in
marily on determination of natural water-quality char- the Black Hills area generally are low (fig. 38); how-
acteristics, and investigation of contamination ever, samples approaching or exceeding the national
potential was not an objective of the study. The suscep- nitrate background concentration of 2.0 mg/L (U.S.
tibility of the aquifers to contamination in the study Geological Survey, 1999) may provide indications of
area is an important issue, however, and can be possible human influence in a variety of land-use set-
addressed to some extent. tings. The extreme values for nitrite plus nitrate in
Nitrite plus nitrate concentrations for various figure 38 are unusually high and may reflect poor well
aquifers (fig. 38) can provide a general indication of construction and surface contamination as opposed to
possible human influence. Although nitrogen is essen- aquifer conditions.
tial for plant growth, high concentrations of nitrite plus The potential for contamination of ground water
nitrate can cause excessive plant growth and can be in the Black Hills area can be large because many
harmful to livestock and humans. Excessive concentra- aquifer outcrops can be subject to various forms of land
tions of nitrite plus nitrate in drinking water are a health development. Rapid ground-water velocities also are
concern for pregnant women, children, and the elderly possible in many aquifers because of high secondary
(may cause methemoglobinemia (blue-baby syn- permeability. Contamination of ground water by septic
drome) in small children). Nitrite plus nitrate in ground tanks has been documented for wells in the Blackhawk,
water can originate from natural processes or as con- Piedmont, and Sturgis areas (Bartlett and West
tamination from nitrogen sources, such as fertilizers Engineers, Inc., 1998).

40/8 8/4 74/14 157/29 23/4 81/29 9/0 6/4 70/9 EXPLANATION
65
114/15 Number of samples/Number of
samples with concentrations
below the laboratory reporting
limit
NITRITE PLUS NITRATE, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

60 Outlier data value more than 3

times the interquartile range
outside the quartile

Outlier data value less than or

equal to 3 and more than 1.5
20
times the interquartile range
outside the quartile
Data value less than or equal to
1.5 times the interquartile range
15
outside the quartile

75th percentile

10 Median

25th percentile

Highest reporting limit

5
Maximum Contaminant Level
(U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 1994a)

0
Precambrian Madison Minnekahta Sundance Alluvial
Deadwood Minnelusa Inyan Kara Newcastle
AQUIFER

Figure 38. Boxplots of concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate for selected aquifers (modified from Williamson and
Carter, 2001).

Ground-Water Characteristics 59
 Maps showing sensitivity of ground water to
contamination were produced by Putnam (2000) for
Lawrence County and by Davis and others (1994) for
the Rapid Creek Basin. The most sensitive hydrogeo-
logic units are limestones, unconsolidated sands and
gravels, and sandstones (Putnam, 2000). The least sen-
sitive units include shales or units with interbedded
shales. The Madison, Minnelusa, and Minnekahta
aquifers are especially sensitive to contamination
because of high secondary permeability and potential
for streamflow recharge.
Summary Relative to Water Use
Concentrations of various constituents
exceeding SMCL’s and MCL’s affect the use of water
in some areas for many aquifers within the study area.
Most concentrations exceeding standards are for var-
ious SMCL’s and generally affect the water only aes-
thetically. Radionuclide concentrations can be high in
some of the major aquifers, especially in the Deadwood
and Inyan Kara aquifers, and may preclude the use of
water in some areas. Hard water may require special
treatment for certain uses. Other factors, such as the
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and specific conduc-
tance, affect irrigation use.
The general suitability of ground water for irri-
gation in the study area can be determined by using the
South Dakota irrigation-water diagram (fig. 39). The
diagram is based on South Dakota irrigation-water
standards (revised January 7, 1982) and shows the
State’s water-quality and soil-texture requirements for
the issuance of an irrigation permit. The adjusted SAR
for each aquifer was calculated according to Koch
(1983) from the mean concentrations of calcium, mag-
nesium, sodium, and bicarbonate for each aquifer.
Water from all aquifers, with the exceptions of the
Pierre and Sundance aquifers, generally is suitable for
irrigation, but may not be in specific instances if either
the specific conductance or the SAR is high.
High concentrations of iron and manganese
occasionally can hamper the use of water from the
Precambrian aquifer. None of the reported samples
from the Precambrian aquifer exceeded drinking-water
standards for radionuclides.
The principal deterrents to use of water from the
Deadwood aquifer are high concentrations of radionu-
clides, including radium-226 and radon. In addition,
concentrations of iron and manganese can be high.
Water from the Madison aquifer can contain high
concentrations of iron and manganese that may deter its
60 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
use. Water from the Madison aquifer is hard to very
hard and may require special treatment for certain uses.
In downgradient wells (generally deeper than 2,000 ft),
concentrations of dissolved solids and sulfate also may
deter use from this aquifer. Hot water from deep wells
and in the Hot Springs area, may not be desirable for
some uses. Radionuclide concentrations in the
Madison aquifer generally are acceptable.
The principal properties or constituents that may
hamper the use of water from the Minnelusa aquifer
include hardness and high concentrations of iron and
manganese. Generally, downgradient wells (generally
deeper than 1,000 ft) also have high concentrations of
dissolved solids and sulfate. Hot water, from deep
wells, may not be desirable for some uses. Arsenic con-
centrations in the Minnelusa aquifer exceed the revised
MCL of 10 µg/L in some locations. Only a few samples
exceeded the MCL’s for various radionuclides.
Samples from the Minnekahta aquifer are avail-
able only from shallow wells near the outcrop. Water
from the Minnekahta aquifer is harder than that from
any of the other major aquifers in the study area, and
may require special treatment for certain uses. Water
generally is suitable for all water uses; few samples
exceeded SMCL’s and no samples available for this
study from the Minnekahta aquifer exceeded drinking-
water standards for any radionuclides.
The use of water from the Inyan Kara aquifer
may be hampered by high concentrations of dissolved
solids, iron, sulfate, and manganese. In the southern
Black Hills, radium-226 and uranium concentrations
also may preclude its use. Hard water from wells
located on or near the outcrop of the Inyan Kara Group
may require special treatment.
The use of water from the minor aquifers
(Spearfish, Sundance, Morrison, Pierre, Graneros,
Newcastle, and alluvial aquifers) may be hampered by
hardness and concentrations of dissolved solids and
sulfate. Concentrations of radionuclides, with the
exception of uranium, generally are at acceptable levels
in samples from the minor aquifers. Selenium concen-
trations in some places are an additional deterrent to the
use of water from the Sundance aquifer.
Water from alluvial aquifers generally is very
hard and may require special treatment for certain uses.
High concentrations of dissolved solids, sulfate, iron,
and manganese may limit the use of water from alluvial
aquifers that overlie the Cretaceous shales. In the
southern Black Hills, uranium concentrations in
alluvial aquifers can be high in many locations.
 3,100 EXPLANATION
SOIL TEXTURE
3,000 A1 A2 A1 A2 A1 A2 A Sand
B Loamy sands, sandy loams
2,900 C Loams, silts, silt loams
D Sandy clay loams, silty clay
SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER AT 25o CELSIUS

2,800 B1 loams, clay loams

E Silty clays, sandy clays, clays
(ECx106 AT 25o C) ADJUSTED FOR CALCIUM, SULFATE, AND RAINFALL

2,700
DEPTH BELOW LAND SURFACE
2,600 C1 TO A MORE-PERMEABLE OR
LESS-PERMEABLE MATERIAL
2,500 B2 B1 1 40 inches or less to a more-
permeable material
2,400 2 40 to 72 inches to a more-
permeable material
2,300 C1 B2 3 20 to 60 inches to a less-
permeable material
2,200 C2 B1
SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE
D1 Maximum values are based on
2,100
12 inches or less average
B3 B2 rainfall during the frost-free
2,000
season. For each additonal
1,900 D2 E1 C2 C1 inch of rainfall, the maximum
values of conductance may be
1,800 C3 D1 increased by 100 microsiemens
per centimeter at 25ºC. Average
1,700 D3 E2 E1 B3 growing season rainfall for the
# Black Hills area is 14 inches, so
1,600 D2 the conductance of each plotted
value has been reduced by 200
1,500 E3 E2 C2 microsiemens per centimeter at
25ºC.
1,400 B3 For water having more than
200 milligrams per liter of
1,300 C3 calcium and more than 960
milligrams per liter of sulfate,
1,200 D3 the maximum conductance
# value may be increased by 400
1,100 E3 C3 microsiemens per centimeter at
25ºC.
1,000
AVERAGE CHEMICAL QUALITY OF
900 MAJOR AQUIFERS

800
** Precambrian
Deadwood
700 x Madison
x Minnelusa
600 x Minnekahta
Inyan Kara
500
x AVERAGE CHEMICAL QUALITY OF
400 MINOR AQUIFERS
Spearfish
300
# Sundance
200 * # Morrison
100 * Graneros
Pierre
0 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
ADJUSTED SODIUM-ADSORPTION RATIO (SAR) Newcastle
Alluvial
MULTIPLIED BY 0.7

Figure 39. South Dakota irrigation-water classification diagram for selected aquifers (from Williamson and Carter,
2001). This diagram is based on South Dakota standards (revised Jan. 7, 1982) for maximum allowable specific
conductance and adjusted sodium-adsorption-ratio values for which an irrigation permit can be issued for applying
water under various soil-texture conditions. Water can be applied under all conditions at or above the plotted point,
but not below it, provided other conditions as defined by the State Conservation Commission are met (from Koch,
1983).
Ground-Water Characteristics 61
Surface-Water Characteristics
Within this section, surface-water characteris-
tics, including both streamflow and water-quality char-
acteristics, are described. Surface-water characteristics
can be affected by numerous physical variables such as
topography, land cover, soil conditions, mineralogy,
and ground-water conditions, all of which may be
affected by geologic conditions. In addition, stream-
flow is affected by numerous climatic variables
including timing, intensity, and amount of precipita-
tion, as well as other variables affecting evaporative
processes.
Streamflow Characteristics
Streamflow characteristics in the Black Hills
area are highly affected by the hydrogeologic settings
previously described (fig. 23). Streamflow characteris-
tics described in this section include variability of
streamflow, the response of streamflow to precipita-
tion, and annual yield characteristics. More detailed
discussions of these topics were presented by Driscoll
and Carter (2001).
Streamflow Variability
A distinctive effect of hydrogeologic setting is
on the timing and variability of streamflow, which
results primarily from interactions between surface
water and ground water. Locations of streamflow-
gaging stations for basins representative of the five
hydrogeologic settings were presented in figure 23.
Site information and selected flow characteristics are
summarized (by hydrogeologic setting) in table 5. One
of the flow characteristics summarized is the “base
flow index” (BFI), which represents the estimated per-
centage of average streamflow contributed by base
flow, for any given gage. BFI’s were determined with a
computer program described by Wahl and Wahl (1995).
Table 5 also includes mean flow values for rep-
resentative gages (for the periods of record shown) in
cubic feet per second and mean values of annual basin
yield, expressed in inches per unit area. Because basin
yields are normalized, relative to surface drainage area,
values are directly comparable among different gages.
For example, the mean flow of 11.73 ft3/s for Castle
Creek (station 06409000) is about 2.7 times larger than
the mean flow of 4.33 ft3/s for Cold Springs Creek
(station 06429500); however, the mean annual basin
yield for Castle Creek (2.01 inches) is smaller than for
Cold Springs Creek (3.10 inches).
62 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
The last flow characteristic summarized in
table 5 is the coefficient of variation (standard devia-
tion divided by mean) for annual basin yield, which
provides a useful measure of annual flow variability.
This statistic is directly comparable among different
gages because the standard deviations are normalized
relative to means. For example, standard deviations for
Beaver Creek at Mallo Camp (06392900) and Rhoads
Fork (06408700) are very different; however, coeffi-
cients of variation are nearly identical. A notable
example is provided by two gages representative of
artesian spring basins—Cascade Springs (06400497)
and Cox Lake (06430540), which have anomalously
large values for annual basin yield (orders of magni-
tude higher than annual precipitation) because of
extremely large artesian springflow that occurs in very
small drainages. Standard deviations for these sites are
the largest in table 5; however, the coefficients of
variation are the smallest, which is consistent with the
BFI’s, which are the largest in the table and are indica-
tive of extremely large contributions from base flow.
Duration curves showing variability in daily
flow are presented in figure 40 for selected basins.
Streamflow variability is small for limestone head-
water and artesian spring basins because streamflow
consists almost entirely of base flow from spring dis-
charge. For the individual limestone headwater basins,
measured daily flows generally vary by less than an
order of magnitude, indicating that direct runoff is very
uncommon from outcrops of the Madison Limestone
and Minnelusa Formation, which are the predominant
outcrops for this setting. Streams in the crystalline core
setting have large variability in daily flow. Loss zone
and exterior settings have large flow variability and
low-flow and zero-flow periods are common.
Relative variability of monthly and annual flow
also is much smaller for basins representative of lime-
stone headwater and artesian spring settings than for
the other settings (figs. 41 and 42). Annual flow values
are expressed as annual yield (fig. 42) for all hydrogeo-
logic settings except the artesian spring setting, for
which annual yield values can be unrealistically large
(table 5), as previously discussed. Coefficients of vari-
ation for these settings are consistently smaller than for
the other settings (table 5). BFI’s are consistently
larger, indicating large proportions of base flow for
these settings. All measures considered indicate much
higher flow variability for the other three settings.
 Table 5. Summary of selected site information and flow characteristics for streamflow-gaging stations representative of hydrogeologic settings
[Modified from Driscoll and Carter (2001). --, not determined]

Annual basin yield

Drainage Base Mean flow
Period of record Coefficient of
Station area flow (cubic
Station name used Mean Standard variation
number (square index feet per
(water years) (inches) deviation (standard devi-
miles) (percent) second)
ation/mean)
Limestone Headwater Basins

06392900 Beaver Creek at Mallo Camp, near Four Corners, 10.3 1975-82, 88.6 1.88 2.48 0.63 0.25
WY1 1992-98
06408700 Rhoads Fork near Rochford 7.95 1983-98 98.7 5.47 9.34 2.48 .27
06409000 Castle Creek above Deerfield Reservoir, 79.2 1949-98 87.1 11.73 2.01 .75 .37
near Hill City
06429500 Cold Springs Creek at Buckhorn, WY1 19.0 1975-82, 91.4 4.33 3.10 .68 .22
1992-98
06430770 Spearfish Creek near Lead 63.5 1989-98 291.0 225.43 25.44 22.59 2.48

06430850 Little Spearfish Creek near Lead 25.8 1989-98 97.0 16.59 8.74 2.31 .26
Crystalline Core Basins
06402430 Beaver Creek near Pringle 45.8 1991-98 73.1 2.86 .85 .76 .89
3
06402995 French Creek above Stockade Lake, near Custer 68.7 -- -- -- -- -- --
06403300 French Creek above Fairburn 105 1983-98 55.5 10.94 1.42 1.19 .84
06404000 Battle Creek near Keystone 58.0 1962-98 45.4 9.39 2.20 1.59 .72
3
06404800 Grace Coolidge Creek near Hayward 7.48 -- -- -- -- -- --
06404998 Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near Custer 25.2 1977-98 58.9 5.07 2.73 2.36 .86
06405800 Bear Gulch near Hayward 4.23 1990-98 41.1 1.48 4.75 2.76 .58
06406920 Spring Creek above Sheridan Lake, near Keystone3 127 -- -- -- -- -- --
06407500 Spring Creek near Keystone 163 1987-98 54.1 25.06 2.09 1.73 .83
06422500 Boxelder Creek near Nemo 96.0 1967-98 64.9 19.53 2.76 2.19 .79
06424000 Elk Creek near Roubaix 21.5 1992-98 61.1 13.42 8.48 4.08 .48
06430800 Annie Creek near Lead 3.55 1989-98 51.1 1.72 6.55 4.42 .67
06430898 Squaw Creek near Spearfish 6.95 1989-98 52.5 3.76 7.34 4.44 .60
06436156 Whitetail Creek at Lead 6.15 1989-98 63.0 4.79 10.57 6.01 .57

Surface-Water Characteristics
1
06437020 Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood 16.6 1989-98 58.3 8.35 6.84 4.07 .60

63
 Table 5. Summary of selected site information and flow characteristics for streamflow-gaging stations representative of hydrogeologic settings–Continued

64
[Modified from Driscoll and Carter (2001). --, not determined]

Annual basin yield

Drainage Base Mean flow
Period of record Coefficient of
Station area flow (cubic
Station name used Mean Standard variation
number (square index feet per
(water years) (inches) deviation (standard devi-
miles) (percent) second)
ation/mean)
Loss Zones Basins
06408500 Spring Creek near Hermosa 199 1950-98 44.1 7.15 .49 .73 1.49
06423010 Boxelder Creek near Rapid City 128 1979-98 14.4 5.88 .62 1.23 1.98
Artesian Spring Basins
1
06392950 Stockade Beaver Creek near Newcastle, WY 107 1975-82, 93.5 12.15 1.54 0.23 0.15
1992-98
06400497 Cascade Springs near Hot Springs .47 1977-95 99.2 19.53 564 40.34 .07
06402000 Fall River at Hot Springs 137 1939-46, 96.0 23.61 2.34 .25 .11

Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

1948-98
06402470 Beaver Creek above Buffalo Gap 111 1991-97 97.4 10.21 1.25 .25 .20
3
06412810 Cleghorn Springs at Rapid City -- -- -- -- -- -- --
1
06429905 Sand Creek near Ranch A, near Beulah, WY 267 1977-83, 95.1 22.58 1.15 .22 .19
1992-98
06430532 Crow Creek near Beulah, WY 40.8 1993-98 92.6 40.68 13.5 1.13 .08
06430540 Cox Lake outlet near Beulah, WY .07 1991-95 99.3 4.22 819 9.16 .01
Exterior Basins
3
06395000 Cheyenne River at Edgemont 7,143 -- -- -- -- -- --
06400000 Hat Creek near Edgemont 1,044 1951-98 15.5 16.61 .22 .26 1.18
1
06400875 Horsehead Creek at Oelrichs 187 1984-98 12.6 6.75 .49 .70 1.43
06433500 Hay Creek at Belle Fourche 121 1954-96 17.5 1.74 .20 .23 1.15
1
06436700 Indian Creek near Arpan 315 1962-81 6.6 19.98 .86 .92 1.07
3
06436760 Horse Creek above Vale 464 -- -- -- -- -- --
1
06437500 Bear Butte Creek near Sturgis 192 1946-72 32.3 13.93 .99 1.04 1.05
1Site used only for analysis of streamflow characteristics.
2
Flow characteristics affected by relatively consistent diversions of about 10 cubic feet per second.
3Site used only for analysis of water-quality characteristics.
 10,000
Limestone headwater basins 10,000
Loss zone basins
5,000 5,000
Spring Creek (06408500)
2,000 2,000 Boxelder Creek (06423010)
1,000 1,000
500 500
200 200
100 100
50 50
20 20
10 10
5 5
2 2
1 1
Beaver Creek (06392900)
0.5 0.5
Rhoads Fork (06408700)
0.2 Castle Creek (06409000) 0.2
0.1 Cold Springs Creek (06429500) 0.1
0.05 Spearfish Creek (06430770) 0.05
Little Spearfish Creek (06430850)
0.02 0.02
0.01 0.01
0.1 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.9 0.1 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.9
DAILY MEAN STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

Crystalline core basins Artesian spring basins

10,000 10,000
5,000 5,000
Beaver Creek (06402430)
2,000 French Creek (06403300) 2,000
1,000 Battle Creek (06404000) 1,000
500 Grace Coolidge (06404998) 500
200 Bear Gulch (06405800) 200
Spring Creek (06407500)
100 100
50 50
20 20
10 10
5 5
2 2
1 1 Stockade Beaver Creek (06392950)
0.5 0.5 Cascade Springs (06400497)
Fall River (06402000)
0.2 0.2 Beaver Creek (06402470)
0.1 0.1 Sand Creek (06429905)
0.05 0.05 Crow Creek (06430532)
Cox Lake (06430540)
0.02 0.02
0.01 0.01
0.1 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.9 0.1 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.9

Crystalline core basins--Continued Exterior basins

10,000 10,000
5,000 5,000
Boxelder Creek (06422500) Hat Creek (06400000)
2,000 Elk Creek (06424000) 2,000 Horsehead Creek (06400875)
1,000 Annie Creek (06430800) 1,000 Hay Creek (06433500)
500 Squaw Creek (06430898) 500 Indian Creek (06436700)
200 Whitetail Creek (06436156) 200 Bear Butte Creek (06437500)
Bear Butte Creek (06437020)
100 100
50 50
20 20
10 10
5 5
2 2
1 1
0.5 0.5
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0.02 0.02
0.01 0.01
0.1 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.9 0.1 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.9

PERCENT OF TIME INDICATED VALUE PERCENT OF TIME INDICATED VALUE

WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED

Figure 40. Duration curves of daily mean streamflow for basins representative of hydrogeologic settings (from
Driscoll and Carter, 2001).

Surface-Water Characteristics 65
 Limestone headwater basins
100
Beaver Creek (06392900)
Rhoads Fork (06408700)
50 Castle Creek (06409000)
Cold Springs Creek (06429500)
Spearfish Creek (06430770)
Little Spearfish Creek (06430850)

20

10

1
MEAN MONTHLY STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

Crystalline core basins

100
50

20
10
5

2
1
0.5

0.2
0.1
Beaver Creek (06402430) Bear Gulch (06405800) Annie Creek (06430800)
0.05 French Creek (06403300) Spring Creek (06407500) Squaw Creek (06430898)
Battle Creek (06404000) Boxelder Creek (06422500) Whitetail Creek (06436156)
0.02 Grace Coolidge Creek (06404998) Elk Creek (06424000) Bear Butte Creek (06437020)
0.01

Loss zone basins

100

50 Spring Creek (06408500)

Boxelder Creek (06423010)

20

10

0.5

0.2

0.1
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
MONTH

Figure 41. Mean monthly streamflow for basins representative of hydrogeologic settings (from Driscoll
and Carter, 2001).

66 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Artesian spring basins
100

50

20
MEAN MONTHLY STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

10

Stockade Beaver Creek (06392950) Sand Creek (06429905)

Cascade Springs (06400497) Crow Creek (06430532)
2 Fall River (06402000) Cox Lake (06430540)
Beaver Creek (06402470)

Exterior basins
100
50

20
10
5

2
1
0.5

0.2
0.1
0.05

0.02 Hat Creek (06400000)

Horsehead Creek (06400875)
0.01 Hay Creek (06433500)
0.005 Indian Creek (06436700)
Bear Butte Creek (06437500)
0.002
0.001
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
MONTH

Figure 41. Mean monthly streamflow for basins representative of hydrogeologic settings (from Driscoll
and Carter, 2001).—Continued

Surface-Water Characteristics 67
 Limestone headwater basins
15 16 50 15 10 10
16

15 Number of observations
Maximum
14 90th percentile
75th percentile
Median
12 25th percentile
10th percentile
ANNUAL YIELD, IN INCHES

Minimum

10

0
Beaver Creek at Rhoads Fork Castle Creek above Cold Springs Creek Spearfish Creek Little Spearfish
Mallo Camp, WY near Rochford Deerfield Reservoir at Buckhorn, WY near Lead Creek near Lead
(06392900) (06408700) (06409000) (06429500) (06430770) (06430850)

Crystalline core basins

8 16 37 22 9 12 32 7 10 10 10 10
20

8 Number of observations
18
Single value
Maximum
16 90th percentile
75th percentile
Median
14
ANNUAL YIELD, IN INCHES

25th percentile
10th percentile
Minimum
12

10

0
Beaver French Battle Grace Bear Gulch Spring Boxelder Elk Annie Squaw Whitetail Bear Butte
Creek near Creek Creek near Coolidge near Creek Creek Creek Creek Creek Creek Creek
Pringle above Keystone Creek near Hayward near near Nemo near near Lead near at Lead near
(06402430) Fairburn (06404000) Game (06405800) Keystone (06422500) Roubaix (06430800) Spearfish (06436156) Deadwood
(06403300) Lodge (06407500) (06424000) (06430898) (06437020)
(06404998)
STREAM

Figure 42. Distribution of annual yield for basins representative of hydrogeologic settings (from Driscoll and Carter,
2001).
68 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
 Artesian spring basins
15 19 59 7 14 6 5
50
ANNUAL STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 15 Number of observations NOTE: Y-axis is plotted as flow, rather than yield
Single value
Maximum
90th percentile
40 75th percentile
Median
25th percentile
10th percentile
Minimum
30

20

10

0
Stockade Beaver Cascade Springs Fall River at Beaver Creek above Sand Creek Crow Creek Cox Lake outlet
Creek near near Hot Springs Buffalo Gap near Ranch A, near Beulah, WY near Beulah, WY
Newcastle, WY Hot Springs (06402000) (06402470) near Beulah, WY (06430532) (06430540)
(06392950) (06400497) (06429905)

Loss zone basins Exterior basins

49 20 48 15 43 20 27
5

20 Number of observations
Maximum
90th percentile
75th percentile
4 Median
25th percentile
10th percentile
ANNUAL YIELD, IN INCHES

Minimum

0
Spring Creek Boxelder Hat Creek Horsehead Hay Creek at Indian Creek Bear Butte
near Hermosa Creek near near Creek at Belle Fourche near Arpan Creek near
(06408500) Rapid City Edgemont Oelrichs (06433500) (06436700) Sturgis
(06423010) (06400000) (06400875) (06437500)

STREAM

Figure 42. Distribution of annual yield for basins representative of hydrogeologic settings (from Driscoll and Carter,
2001).—Continued

Surface-Water Characteristics 69
 BFI’s for the crystalline core basins generally
approach or slightly exceed 50 percent (table 5).
Monthly flow characteristics (fig. 41), however, indi-
cate a short-term response to precipitation patterns
(fig. 8), which probably indicates a relatively large
component of interflow contributing to base flow. This
interpretation is supported by the general physical
characteristics of the crystalline core basins, where
large relief and steep planar surfaces provide condi-
tions amenable to non-vertical flow components in the
unsaturated zone. Ground-water discharge also con-
tributes to streamflow; however, ground-water storage
available for contribution to streamflow apparently is
quickly depleted, as evidenced by the lower end of the
range of annual yield values for the crystalline core
basins (fig. 42). Daily flow values span two or more
orders of magnitude for all crystalline core basins
(fig. 40).
Few gages representative of the loss zone setting
exist because sustained flow is uncommon downstream
from outcrop areas where large streamflow losses pro-
vide recharge to the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers
(Hortness and Driscoll, 1998). The only two represen-
tative loss zone gages (fig. 23) are located on Spring
Creek (06408500) and Boxelder Creek (06423010).
Annual basin yields for these gages are much smaller
than for gages located upstream (stations 06407500 on
Spring Creek and 06422500 on Boxelder Creek) and
relative variability in flow is larger (table 5,
figs. 40-42). Spring Creek does have relatively consis-
tent base flow (table 5, BFI = 44 percent) from alluvial
springs that occur a short distance upstream from the
gage.
Seven representative gages for the artesian
spring setting are considered (fig. 23), of which two
(Cascade Springs and Cox Lake) are located in
extremely small drainages with no influence from
streamflow losses. Four of the gages are located in
larger drainages downstream from loss zones, and one
basin (Fall River, 06402000) heads predominantly
within the loss zone setting (fig. 23). Monthly means
(fig. 41) for Fall River show no apparent influence of
flows through loss zones, in spite of storm flows that
occasionally increase daily flows (fig. 40). Minor
influence of flows through loss zones is apparent in
both monthly and daily flow characteristics for the
other four gages (figs. 40 and 41). The influence of
minor irrigation diversions along Stockade Beaver
Creek (06392950) during late spring and summer
months also is apparent.
70 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
For the exterior setting, daily flows for represen-
tative gages vary by more than four orders of magni-
tude (fig. 40) and zero-flow conditions are common,
which is consistent with BFI’s that typically are small
(table 5). Large variability in monthly and annual flows
also is characteristic for the exterior setting (figs. 41
and 42). Annual basin yields also are smaller than for
most other settings, which is consistent with smaller
precipitation and larger evaporation rates at lower
altitudes. Many of these sites also are affected by minor
irrigation withdrawals.
Response to Precipitation
Streams representative of the various hydrogeo-
logic settings generally have distinctive characteristics
relative to responsiveness to precipitation, as described
within this section. Methods used for determination of
precipitation over drainage areas were described by
Driscoll and Carter (2001), who provided detailed dis-
cussions regarding relations between streamflow and
precipitation.
The limestone headwater basins generally have
weak correlations between annual streamflow and pre-
cipitation, as summarized in table 6. The r2 values are
low and p-values indicate that the correlations are not
statistically significant (>0.05) for most of the repre-
sentative basins, which is consistent with minimal vari-
ability in daily (fig. 40) and monthly (fig. 41) flow.
Correlations with annual streamflow improve when
“moving-average” precipitation (annual precipitation
averaged over multiple years) is considered as the
explanatory variable. Regression information is sum-
marized in table 6 for the number of years of moving-
average precipitation for which r2 values are maxi-
mized for each basin.
The regression equation (table 6) for Castle
Creek (station 06409000) probably is the most reliable,
in spite of an associated r2 value that is relatively low,
primarily because the length of record is the longest
(table 5). High r2 values for several basins probably
result primarily from relatively short periods of record;
thus, associated regression equations for these stations
may not be representative of long-term conditions. The
p-values generally indicate strong statistical signifi-
cance, however, which provides confidence that long-
term precipitation patterns are much more important
than short-term patterns for explaining streamflow
variability in the limestone headwater setting. This
concept is consistent with the hydrogeologic setting,
where streamflow is dominated by headwater spring-
flow.
Table 6. Summary of regression information for limestone headwater basins
[Regression information (from Driscoll and Carter, 2001) is provided for streamflow as a function of annual precipitation and as a function of moving aver-
age precipitation over a specified number of years. Int, intercept; <, less than]

Annual precipitation Moving average precipitation

Station
Station name Number
number
r2 p-value r2 p-value Slope Int
of years

06392900 Beaver Creek at Mallo Camp 0.01 0.668 11 0.24 0.063 0.211 -2.78

06408700 Rhoads Fork .16 .123 9 .93 <.010 .658 -9.12

06409000 Castle Creek .31 <.010 3 .58 <.010 1.043 -10.70

06429500 Cold Springs Creek .01 .800 11 .70 <.010 .722 11.65

06430770 Spearfish Creek near Lead .72 <.010 7 .99 <.010 3.858 -68.63

06430850 Little Spearfish Creek .53 .017 7 .93 <.010 1.450 -19.32

Graphs showing relations between annual
streamflow and precipitation for crystalline core basins
are presented in figure 43. Each graph includes a linear
regression line, along with the corresponding equation
and r2 value. All of the slopes are highly significant;
thus, p-values are not shown. The r2 values range from
0.52 for Beaver Creek (06402430) to 0.87 for Bear
Gulch (06405800), and are much higher as a group than
for the limestone headwater basins (table 6), which is
consistent with larger variability in flow characteristics
(figs. 40-42).
An exponential regression curve, along with the
corresponding equation and r2 value, also is shown on
each graph in figure 43. All of the exponential equa-
tions would predict small, positive streamflow for zero
precipitation (which is not realistic), but avoid predic-
tion of negative streamflow in the lower range of typ-
ical annual precipitation, which is indicated for many
of the linear regression equations.
Each graph in figure 43 also includes a curve
labeled “runoff efficiency prediction,” which is derived
from linear regression equations of runoff efficiency as
a function of precipitation. Runoff efficiency (the ratio
of annual basin yield to precipitation) represents the
percentage of annual precipitation returned as stream-
flow. Runoff efficiency regression lines for the 12
representative crystalline core basins are shown in
figure 44; regression equations were presented by
Driscoll and Carter (2001). Figure 44 indicates that
within each basin, runoff efficiency increases with
increasing annual precipitation, and that basins with
higher precipitation generally have higher efficiencies.
The runoff efficiency predictions (fig. 43) are
derived by substituting values for annual precipitation
into the runoff efficiency regression equations. Runoff
efficiency predictions are unrealistic (slightly negative)
for very low precipitation values, but are consistently
positive for the measured ranges of precipitation and
also closely resemble the linear regression equations
(streamflow versus precipitation) through this range.
Relations between streamflow and precipitation
for the two loss-zone basins are presented in figure 45.
It is apparent that low-flow and zero-flow years are
common, with substantial flows occurring only when
upstream flows are sufficiently large to sustain flow
through loss zones. A power equation and associated r2
value are shown for each basin, which provide reason-
able fits for the nonlinear data.
Regression statistics (annual streamflow versus
precipitation) for artesian spring basins are summa-
rized in table 7. Regression equations, which are not
meaningful because of low r2 values and p-values
greater than 0.05, are not provided. Weak correlations
are consistent with small variability in flow character-
istics (figs. 40-42) associated with ground-water dis-
charge and with long ground-water residence times.
Naus and others (2001) concluded that large propor-
tions of springflow for several of the representative
artesian springs have residence times exceeding
50 years.

Surface-Water Characteristics 71
 Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near
Beaver Creek near Pringle (06402430) Custer (06404998)
8 25
Linear regression Linear regression
y = 0.346x - 5.51 y = 0.694x - 9.77
r2 = 0.52 20 r2 = 0.73
6 Exponential regression Exponential regression
y = 0.052e0.142x y = 0.179e0.140x
r2 = 0.34 r2 = 0.73
15
Runoff efficiency prediction Runoff efficiency prediction
4

10

2
5

0
0

-2 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
French Creek above Fairburn (06403300) Bear Gulch near Hayward (06405800)
40 4
STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

Linear regression Linear regression

y = 1.443x - 19.29 y = 0.168x - 2.779
r2 = 0.65 r2 = 0.87
30 3 Exponential regression
Exponential regression
y = 0.5183e0.129x y = 0.029e0.147x
r2 = 0.53 r2 = 0.91
Runoff efficiency prediction Runoff efficiency prediction
20 2

10 1

0 0

-10 -1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000) Spring Creek near Keystone (06407500)
40 80
Linear regression Linear regression
y = 1.091x - 14.12 y = 3.616x - 53.67
r2 = 0.76 r2 = 0.80
30 60
Exponential regression Exponential regression
y = 0.3274e0.141x y = 0.174e0.203x
r2 = 0.72 r2 = 0.62
Runoff efficiency prediction Runoff efficiency prediction
20 40

10 20

0 0

-10 -20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Figure 43. Relations between annual streamflow and precipitation for crystalline core basins (from Driscoll and Carter,
2001).

72 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Boxelder Creek near Nemo (06422500) Squaw Creek near Spearfish (06430898)
80 10
Linear regression Linear regression
y = 2.415x - 35.97 y = 0.307x - 5.15
r2 = 0.60 8 r2 = 0.80
60 Exponential regression Exponential regression
y = 0.805e0.126x y = 0.304e0.081x
r2 = 0.62 r2 = 0.71
6
Runoff efficiency prediction Runoff efficiency prediction
40

20
2

0
0

-20 -2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Elk Creek near Roubaix (06424000) Whitetail Creek at Lead (06436156)

25 12
STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

Linear regression Linear regression

y = 0.880x - 13.90 y = 0.363x - 6.52
10
20 r2 = 0.70 r2 = 0.82
Exponential regression Exponential regression
y = 0.818e0.085x 8 y = 0.344e0.080x
r2 = 0.61 r2 = 0.81
15
Runoff efficiency prediction Runoff efficiency prediction
6
10
4

5
2

0
0

-5 -2
0 10 20 30 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Annie Creek near Lead (06430800) Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood (06437020)
5 25
Linear regression Linear regression
y = 0.181x - 3.63 y = 0.674x - 11.61
4 r2 = 0.82 20 r2 = 0.79
Exponential regression Exponential regression
y = 0.056e0.109x y = 0.472e0.091x
r2 = 0.75 r2 = 0.72
3 15
Runoff efficiency prediction Runoff efficiency prediction

2 10

1 5

0 0

-1 -5
0 10 20 30 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Figure 43. Relations between annual streamflow and precipitation for crystalline core basins (from Driscoll and Carter,
2001).—Continued

Surface-Water Characteristics 73
 60

Beaver Creek (06402430)

French Creek (06403300)
Battle Creek (06404000)
50
Grace Coolidge Creek (06404998)
Bear Gulch (06405800)
Spring Creek (06407500)
RUNOFF EFFICIENCY, IN PERCENT

Boxelder Creek (06422500)

40
Elk Creek (06424000)
Annie Creek (06430800)
Squaw Creek (06430898)
Whitetail Creek (06436156)
30 Bear Butte Creek (06437020)

20

10

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Figure 44. Relations between annual runoff efficiency and precipitation for crystalline core basins (from Driscoll and
Carter, 2001).

Spring Creek near Hermosa (06408500) Boxelder Creek near Rapid City (06423010)
50 50
STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

y = 1.013E-7*x5.892 y = 9.782E-15*x10.469
r2 = 0.68 r2 = 0.84

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Figure 45. Relations between annual streamflow and precipitation for loss zone basins (from Driscoll and Carter, 2001).

74 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Table 7. Summary of regression information for artesian spring basins
[Regression information (from Driscoll and Carter, 2001) is provided for streamflow as a function of annual precipitation]

Annual precipitation
Station number Station name
r2 p-value

06392950 Stockade Beaver Creek 0.16 0.135

06400497 Cascade Springs .07 .289
06402000 Fall River .003 .660
06402470 Beaver Creek above Buffalo Gap .49 .079
06429905 Sand Creek .04 .481
06430532 Crow Creek .39 .185
06430540 Cox Lake .55 .152

Driscoll and Carter (2001) identified a distinc-
tive temporal trend in streamflow for the Fall River,
which is composed almost entirely of artesian spring-
flow. Peterlin (1990) investigated possible causes for
declining streamflow that occurred during about
1940-70 (fig. 46), but did not conclusively determine
causes. Wet climatic conditions during the 1990’s have
resulted in increased streamflow.
Relations between annual flow and precipitation
for representative exterior basins are presented in
figure 47. The p-values indicate that all correlations are
statistically significant; however, the r2 values gener-
ally are weak, relative to r2 values for linear regressions
for the crystalline core basins (fig. 43). A probable
explanation is that crystalline core basins generally
have larger base-flow components than exterior basins
(table 5), which apparently are strongly influenced by
annual precipitation amounts. In contrast, exterior
basins are dominated by direct runoff, which is more
responsive to event-oriented factors such as precipita-
tion intensity.
Relations between annual runoff efficiency and
precipitation for exterior basins are shown in figure 48.
Runoff efficiencies generally increase with increasing
precipitation, but efficiencies generally are lower than
for the crystalline core basins (fig. 44) because of gen-
erally lower precipitation, increased evaporation
potential, and minor irrigation withdrawals.

40 40
IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

30 30
STREAMFLOW,

20 20

10 10

Streamflow
Precipitation
0 0
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
WATER YEAR

Figure 46. Long-term trends in annual streamflow for station 06402000 (Fall River near Hot Springs),
relative to annual precipitation.

Surface-Water Characteristics 75
 Hat Creek near Edgemont (06400000) Indian Creek near Arpan (06436700)
120 100

y = 2.657x - 25.89 y = 3.923x - 39.65

r2 = 0.21 r2 = 0.30
100 p-value = 0.001 p-value = 0.012
80

80
60

60

40
40

20
20

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25

Horsehead Creek at Oelrichs (06400875) Bear Butte Creek near Sturgis (06437500)
30 80
STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

y = 1.649x - 21.80 y = 2.324x - 41.09

r2 = 0.49 r2 = 0.69
25 p-value = 0.004 p-value = 9.16E-8
60

20

15 40

10

20

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 10 20 30 40
PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Hay Creek at Belle Fourche (06433500)

10

y = 0.306x - 3.85
r2 = 0.49
p-value = 1.51E-7
8

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES
Figure 47. Relations between annual streamflow and precipitation for exterior basins (from Driscoll and Carter, 2001).

76 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 12

Hat Creek (06400000)

Horsehead Creek (06400875)
Hay Creek (06433500)
10 Indian Creek (06436700)
Bear Butte Creek (06437500)
RUNOFF EFFICIENCY, IN PERCENT

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Figure 48. Relations between annual runoff efficiency and precipitation for exterior basins (from Driscoll and Carter,
2001).

Annual Yield
Annual yield characteristics are highly variable
throughout the study area, primarily because of oro-
graphic effects, which influence both precipitation and
evapotranspiration. Selected information for gages
used for analysis of basin yield is presented in table 8.
With the exception of site 2 (station 06395000,
Cheyenne River), all of the sites considered are repre-
sentative gages for either the limestone headwater,
crystalline core, or exterior hydrogeologic settings
(table 5). Two of the representative gages from these
settings (stations 06405800, Bear Gulch and
06436700, Indian Creek) are excluded because annual
yields may not be representative of areal conditions
(Driscoll and Carter, 2001). All of the loss zone and
artesian spring gages also are excluded.
Mean annual basin yields that are based on sur-
face drainage areas for periods of measured record for
selected gages are shown in figure 49. The largest
yields occur in high-altitude areas of the northern Black
Hills that receive large annual precipitation (fig. 4).
Large differences in annual yields are apparent
for several of the limestone headwater basins, which
results from incongruences between contributing
ground- and surface-water areas. Mean annual yields
for the four limestone headwater basins in South
Dakota (sites 10, 11, 15, and 17; fig. 49) were esti-
mated by Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001)
based on contributing ground-water areas. The contrib-
uting ground-water areas (fig. 50) were delineated by
Jarrell (2000), based primarily on the structural orien-
tation of the underlying Ordovician and Cambrian
rocks. For the two limestone headwater basins in
Wyoming (sites 1 and 14), relatively low yields indi-
cate that contributing ground-water areas probably are
smaller than the associated surface-water areas; how-
ever, estimates of contributing areas are not available.

Surface-Water Characteristics 77
 Table 8. Summary of information used in analysis of yield characteristics

78
[From Driscoll and Carter (2001). --, not applicable]

Mean annual yield

Mean annual yield for
Contributing area (square efficiency3
Site period of record
Station Period of record miles) 1950-98
number Station name (inches)
number (water years) (percent)
(fig. 49)
Surface Ground Surface Ground Surface Ground
water water1 water water2 water water2
1 06392900 Beaver Creek at Mallo Camp 1975-82, 10.3 (4) 2.48 -- 510.6 --
1992-98
2 06395000 Cheyenne River 1947-98 7,143 -- .15 -- 6.9
--
3 06400000 Hat Creek 1951-98 1,044 -- .22 -- 1.3 --
4 06400875 Horsehead Creek 1984-98 187 -- .49 -- 2.1 --
5 06402430 Beaver Creek near Pringle 1991-98 45.8 -- .85 -- 1.8 --
6 06403300 French Creek 1983-98 105 -- 1.42 -- 5.4 --
7 06404000 Battle Creek 1962-98 58.0 -- 2.20 -- 8.3 --

Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

8 06404998 Grace Coolidge 1977-98 25.2 -- 2.73 -- 9.9 --
9 06407500 Spring Creek 1987-98 163 -- 2.09 -- 6.7 --
10 06408700 Rhoads Fork 1983-98 7.95 13.1 9.34 5.67 541.8 525.4

11 06409000 Castle Creek 1948-98 79.2 41.7 2.01 3.82 69.3 617.7

12 06422500 Boxelder Creek 1967-98 96.0 -- 2.76 -- 10.8 --

13 06424000 Elk Creek 1992-98 21.5 -- 8.48 -- 21.5 --
14 06429500 Cold Springs Creek 1975-82, 19.0 (4) 3.10 -- 513.1
--
1992-98
15 06430770 Spearfish Creek 1989-98 63.5 50.8 77.58 9.48 5,725.1 5,731.4

16 06430800 Annie Creek 1989-98 3.55 -- 6.55 -- 16.4 --

17 06430850 Little Spearfish Creek 1989-98 25.8 25.4 8.74 8.88 531.8 532.3

18 06430898 Squaw Creek 1989-98 6.95 -- 7.34 -- 21.5 --

19 06433500 Hay Creek 1954-96 121 -- .20 -- 1.0 --
20 06436156 Whitetail Creek 1989-98 6.15 -- 10.57 -- 27.2 --
21 06437020 Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood 1989-98 16.6 -- 6.84 -- 18.7 --
22 06437500 Bear Butte Creek near Sturgis 1946-72 8120 -- 1.58 -- 6.0 --
1
Estimate of contributing ground-water area from Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001).
2
Yield estimates, where applicable, adjusted based on contributing ground-water area.
3
Estimated using relations between runoff efficiency and precipitation from Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade (2001), unless otherwise noted.
4Contributing areas for surface water and ground water probably not congruent; however, no estimates available.
5
Estimated using average runoff efficiency for the available period of record.
6
Period of record sufficient for computation of yield efficiency.
7A flow of 10 cubic feet per second has been added to the measured streamflow to account for diverted flow.
8
Approximate drainage area below loss zone. Actual drainage area is 192 square miles.
 104o 45' 103o30'
Indian EXPLANATION

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME-

e
Cr Newell
BE eek
LL
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Cr
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Nisland k
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BELLE FOURCHE
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ek OUTCROP OF THE MINNELUSA
Hay Cre

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
FORMATION (from Strobel
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO and others, 1999)

k
Cree
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Cr Lake
Saint
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11 STREAMFLOW-GAGING
ow
2.01 STATION--Number indicates
Cree

h eek
G ulc Spearfish Cr
30' 22 3.82 site number from table 8. Red
k
h

m
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Whitewood
number indicates mean annual
Sand C

1.58
ek
Cre

d
oo
se eek basin yield, in inches, based on
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Cr

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estimated contributing ground-
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FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
ek

o t Brook
Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,

CH

Cascade
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
EY

Springs
EN

Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996

N

2
E

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Edgemont Ho
0.15 rse
he
eek Angostura ad
Cr
43 15' o
od
3 0.22 Reservoir Cr
ee
wo k
eek
on

4
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
0.49
0 10 20 MILES
t
Ha

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 49. Basin yields for selected streamflow-gaging stations. For some stations, basin yields that are based on
contributing ground-water areas estimated by Jarrell (2000) also are shown. Basin yields are for periods of record, which
are not the same for all stations.

Surface-Water Characteristics 79
 104o EXPLANATION
Squ OUTCROP OF DEADWOOD CONTRIBUTING GROUND-
FORMATION, ENGLEWOOD WATER AREAS

aw
FORMATION, MADISON Rhoads Fork near Rochford

ek

Creek
LIMESTONE, AND MINNELUSA (06408700)

Cre
FORMATION (modified from Castle Creek above Deerfield
06430850 Lead Strobel and others, 1999) Reservoir (06409000)
k
ee
Cr i
Ann e Cr SURFACE-AREA DRAINAGE Spearfish Creek near Lead
AREA (06430770)
Little Spearfish Creek near
06430770 ESTIMATED GROUND-WATER
fish

Lead (06430850)
Cheyenne DIVIDE FOR THE MADISON
Spear

AQUIFER (modified from STREAMFLOW-GAGING

Crossing

sh
Jarrell, 2000) 06408700 STATION—Number is
rfi
ea
103o45' station number
Little

Sp

44o15' SOUTH DAKOTA

N. For
Area
shown

k
Study
area

Rapi
S.
For 103o30'

d Cree
k R
ap
Cold Sprin id
gs Cr
LAWRENCE COUNTY
k
Cr
06408700
eek

rk
Fo

Rap
id
ds

N. F Rochford
oa

ork
Rh

Cas
LI M EST O N E PLAT EAU

tle Cr Creek
ee
Bea
k
ve

Ca

Creek Pactola
r

C
stl

tle
e

Reservoir
ree

Cas
k

Cr
eek

Deerfield
S. Reservoir
Fo 06409000
44o rk
ee k

Cas Sheridan
tle
Cr

Lake

ek
Cre
Hill City
ing

yon
an
Spr
C

PENNINGTON COUNTY
Canyon

CUSTER COUNTY
yon
Can
les

ird
Bo

Redb

Fre
nch
CUSTER
e tte
G ill Re
Stockade
d C Lake
o
43 45' any
Cre
on

ek

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,

1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
0 1 2 3 4 5 MILES
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13 0 1 2 3 4 5 KILOMETERS

Figure 50. Comparison between surface-drainage areas and contributing ground-water areas for streamflow-gaging
stations in Limestone Plateau area (modified from Jarrell, 2000). Streamflow in the basins shown generally is dominated
by ground-water discharge of headwater springs. Recharge occurring in areas west of the ground-water divide does not
contribute to headwater springflow east of the divide.

80 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 The approximate location of a ground-water
divide that was identified by Jarrell (2000) also is
shown in figure 50. This divide coincides with the
western extent of the contributing ground-water areas
for the four gaging stations that are shown. West of the
ground-water divide, infiltration of precipitation
results in ground-water recharge that is assumed to
flow to the west, contributing to regional flowpaths in
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers that wrap around
the northern or southern flanks of the uplift (fig. 17).
East of the divide, recharge is assumed to contribute to
headwater springflow along the eastern flank of the
Limestone Plateau.
The ground-water divide extends about 10 mi
south of the Castle Creek Basin and approximately
coincides with the western extent of the Spring and
French Creek drainage areas in this vicinity. The
ground-water divide is not defined south of this point
because the surface drainages contribute to Red
Canyon, which flows to the south and provides stream-
flow recharge to the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers
along the western flank of the uplift. Westerly ground-
water flow directions are not possible immediately
north of the ground-water divide because the Madison
and Minnelusa aquifers are absent in the vicinity of
Tertiary intrusive units (fig. 14).
PRECIPITATION
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
STREAMFLOW = 0
MADISON
AND
MINNELUSA
OUTCROPS
RECHARGE
TO REGIONAL FLOW SYSTEM
Figure 51. Schematic diagram illustrating recharge and streamflow characteristics for selected outcrop types
(from Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001).
After adjusting for contributing ground-water
areas, annual yields for the limestone headwater basins
(table 8; fig. 49) generally are consistent with a pattern
of increasing yields corresponding with increasing
annual precipitation (fig. 4). Adjusted yields for lime-
stone headwater basins, which are dominated by
ground-water discharge, also are generally similar to
yields for nearby streams that are dominated by surface
influences. These similarities were used by Carter,
Driscoll, and Hamade (2001) in developing a method
for estimating precipitation recharge to the Madison
and Minnelusa aquifers. An important initial assump-
tion was that in areas of comparable precipitation,
evapotranspiration in outcrops of the Madison and
Minnelusa Formations is similar to evapotranspiration
for crystalline core settings, where recharge to regional
flow systems is considered negligible. A further
assumption was made that direct runoff is negligible
for Madison and Minnelusa outcrops, which is sup-
ported by the daily flow characteristics for the lime-
stone headwater setting. These assumptions resulted in
a concept that streamflow yield in the crystalline core
setting can be used as a surrogate for the efficiency of
precipitation recharge to the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers. This concept is schematically illustrated in
figure 51.
PRECIPITATION
STREAMFLOW
CRYSTALLINE
CORE
RECHARGE
TO REGIONAL FLOW SYSTEM = 0
Surface-Water Characteristics 81
 Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade (2001) used esti-
mates of average runoff efficiencies for 1950-98 to
develop a map of generalized yield efficiency for the
study area (fig. 52). Where applicable, estimated yield
efficiencies shown in figure 52 are representative of
estimated yield efficiencies for the contributing
ground-water areas. For basins where contributing
surface- and ground-water areas are assumed to be con-
gruent, yield efficiency is considered equivalent to
runoff efficiency. For areas where direct runoff is neg-
ligible, yield efficiency is considered equivalent to the
efficiency of precipitation recharge. For many gages,
estimation of average yield efficiencies for this period
required extrapolation of incomplete streamflow
records (table 5) using precipitation records. Records
were extrapolated to compensate for bias resulting
from short-term records for many gages that are
skewed towards wet climatic conditions during the
1990’s. Yield efficiencies for most of the limestone
headwater gages are simply averages for the available
periods of record, because relations between stream-
flow and precipitation for this setting generally are very
weak or unrealistic.
Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade (2001) also consid-
ered precipitation patterns and topography in con-
touring yield efficiencies, which provide a reasonable
fit with calculated efficiencies (fig. 52). Estimates of
contributing areas are not available for the two lime-
stone headwater gages in Wyoming (sites 1 and 14);
thus, yield efficiencies could not be adjusted. For
Annie Creek (site 16), the calculated yield efficiency
(16.4 percent) is lower than for other nearby streams,
which may result from extensive mining operations
that utilize substantial quantities of water through
evaporation for heap-leach processes. For Hay Creek
(site 19), the calculated yield efficiency (1.0 percent) is
notably lower than the mapped contours, which prob-
ably results from precipitation recharge to outcrops of
the Inyan Kara Group (fig. 14).
Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade (2001) used rela-
tions between yield efficiency and precipitation in
developing a GIS algorithm for systematically esti-
mating annual recharge from infiltration of precipita-
tion, based on annual precipitation on outcrop areas.
Linear regression and best-fit exponential equations
were determined for 11 basins, which include all of the
representative crystalline basins (table 5) except Bear
Gulch. Exponential equations were in the form of:
P annual n
YE annual = ------------------- × YE average
P average
82 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
where
YEannual = annual yield efficiency, in percent;
Pannual = annual precipitation, in inches;
Paverage = average annual precipitation for
1950-98, in inches;
YEaverage = average annual yield efficiency for
1950-98, in percent; and
n = exponent.
Best-fit exponents ranged from 1.1 for Elk Creek
to 2.5 for Spring Creek. An exponent of 1.6 was chosen
as best representing the range of best-fit exponents
(Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001), which allowed a
systematic approach to estimation of annual recharge.
Scatter plots with the linear regression lines, best-fit
exponential curves, and exponential curves using an
exponent of 1.6 are shown in figure 53. The three
methods provide very similar results through the mid-
range of measured precipitation values, with the largest
differences occurring for the upper part of the range.
The spatial distribution of average annual yield
potential for the Black Hills area is shown in figure 54.
Average annual recharge from infiltration of precipita-
tion on outcrops of the Madison Limestone and
Minnelusa Formation is shown as an example. Esti-
mates were derived by Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade
(2001) using a GIS algorithm that compared digital
grids (1,000-by-1,000 meters, including outcrop areas
in Wyoming) for annual precipitation, average annual
precipitation (fig. 4), and average annual yield effi-
ciency (fig. 53). Annual recharge rates for individual
grid cells ranged from 0.4 inch at the southern
extremity of the outcrops to 8.7 inches in the northern
Black Hills. Although this “yield-efficiency algorithm”
was developed initially for estimating precipitation
recharge for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers,
applications for estimating streamflow yield and
recharge for other aquifers also are appropriate and are
used later in this report.
Water Quality
This section summarizes water-quality charac-
teristics for surface water within the study area. More
detailed discussions are presented by Williamson and
Carter (2001). Standards and criteria that apply to sur-
face waters are presented in the following section, after
which common-ion characteristics, anthropogenic
(1) effects on water quality, and additional factors relative
to in-stream standards are discussed.
 104o 45' 103o30'
Belle Fourche Indian EXPLANATION

Hors
44o45' 4 Reservoir Cr
OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME-
Owl

e
Cr Newell
BE
LL eek Cr STONE (from Strobel and
E ee
Nisland k others, 1999)
19 F
OU
BELLE FOURCHE
ek
1.0 RC
HE RIVER
OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA
Hay Cre

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale FORMATION (from Strobel
ER RI MEADE CO and others, 1999)
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO

k
Cree
Cox
Lake
Saint 15 LINE OF EQUAL AVERAGE
Cr
ow 6 Onge
22 ANNUAL YIELD EFFICIENCY--
Cree

lch reek
Gu Spearfish C 6.0 Interval 1, 2, or 5 percent
30'
k
h

m
Gulc

Botto Whitewood
Sand C

ek

3 STREAMFLOW-GAGING
Cre

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
1.3 STATION--Numbers indicate
Fal

18
r

te
fish

hit
t
Bu

W
ear

S21.5 site number from table 6 and

Cr

qu STURGIS Creek
Central
Sp

Tinton
17
aw

Cr li
Iron CityCr estimated yield efficiency, in
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v

32.3Cr
Bea

dw

A
ar
Cr

21 percent, for water years

a

20 Be
De

Lead
Cr
Cold

h nie Cr
An
18.7 C 1950-98. (Yield efficiencies
ail

16 27.2
Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr
re Tilford
Wh

16.4 15 13
El
k ek for contributing ground-water
k

31.4 21.5
ee

Little areas shown where applicable)

Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk
20
k
15' k
Spr

C
N. F

Bo
ish xe
ings

Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er
30

25

14
R api

6
S. F Ellsworth
ork Nemo Air Force
13.1 Rap
d Cr

Base
id C
10
Blackhawk

Cr
12
15

Creek r

eek
k 10.8 Box Elder
For10 Rochford
1 s
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

d
a N. Fo
8

25.4 s
rk C
o

10.6
Rh

a tl e C Rapid RAPID CITY

Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
er
Creek

C C r e ek pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield
Reservoir
ct o ria 9 Spring
o
44 S. F 11 6.7
r
e C

ork
C astl 17.7 ek Sheridan Rockerville
Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
7
Beaver

National Keystone
ing

Memorial
8

8.3
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
6
es

k
k

10 Bea
Bol

8
ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre G
tte nch CUSTER
ac

9.9
Red

e
ill
e

ek G ge
re C o o li d
45'
4

4
Cr
W ho o pup C

Jewel Cave CUSTER

6
eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE 5.4Fre
Beaver

Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING
Stockade

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr

5
ee
k

Be 1.8 Wind
Cave
Jo
hn
av ny
er Dewey Beav
er
d
Re

Cr R
eek VE
Hell

Cre RI
30' 2 Buffalo Gap ek
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n 2
nyo
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont 2 Ho
rse
he
ee k 0.9 3 Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od 1.3
Cr
ee
k
wo 4
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
2.1
Cr

Provo
t

1
Ha

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 0 10 20 MILES

1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 52. Generalized average annual yield efficiency (in percent of annual precipitation), water years 1950-98 (from
Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001).
Surface-Water Characteristics 83
 Grace Coolidge Creek near Game Lodge, near Custer
Beaver Creek near Pringle (06402430) (06404998)
8 40
YIELD EFFICIENCY, IN PERCENT

Best-fit exponent = 2.2

6 30

Best-fit exponent = 1.9

4 20

2 10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

French Creek above Fairburn (06403300) Spring Creek near Keystone (06407500)
20 20
YIELD EFFICIENCY, IN PERCENT

15 15
Best-fit exponent = 2.5
Best-fit exponent = 1.9

10 10

5 05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Battle Creek near Keystone (06404000) Boxelder Creek near Nemo (06422500)
25 30
YIELD EFFICIENCY, IN PERCENT

20

Best-fit exponent = 1.6 20

Best-fit exponent = 2.1
15

10
10

05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Figure 53. Relations between yield efficiency and precipitation for selected streamflow-gaging stations (modified from
Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001).

84 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Elk Creek near Roubaix (06424000) Whitetail Creek at Lead (06436156)
40 60
YIELD EFFICIENCY, IN PERCENT

50

30

40

20 30
Best-fit exponent = 1.1 Best-fit exponent = 1.4

20

10

10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Annie Creek near Lead (06430800) Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood (06437020)
50 50
YIELD EFFICIENCY, IN PERCENT

40 40

30 30

20 Best-fit exponent = 2.1 20

Best-fit exponent = 1.4

10 10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES
Squaw Creek near Spearfish (06430898)
50
YIELD EFFICIENCY, IN PERCENT

40

EXPLANATION
30 LINEAR REGRESSION
EXPONENTIAL REGRESSION USING AN
EXPONENT OF 1.6
20
BEST FIT EXPONENTIAL REGRESSION
Best-fit exponent = 1.3

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

Figure 53. Relations between yield efficiency and precipitation for selected streamflow-gaging stations (modified from
Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001).—Continued

Surface-Water Characteristics 85
 104o30' 104o 103o30'
Indian

Hors
Belle Fourche
Reservoir Cr
SOUTH DAKOTA
Owl

e
Cr Newell
BE eek
LL
E
Cr
ee
WYOMING
Nisland k
BELLE FOURCHE
F
OU Area
RC RIVER Black
ek 1 HE shown
Hay Cre Hills

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO
ter

k
dwa

Cree
Re Creek Cox Saint
Beulah Cr Lake Onge
ow

Cree
lch reek
Gu Spearfish C
44o30'

k
Gulch

m
Botto
Whitewood

Sand C

ek
Cre

d
oo
se eek

Bear

Higgins
Cr

ew
Fal
r
tte

fish

hit
Sundance Bu

W
ear
Cr
Squ STURGIS Creek
4 Central

Sp
Tinton

aw
Cr li
5 Iron CityCr
103o

er
ood DEADWOOD lka

v
Bea
dw

A
Cr 7 ar

Cr
6

a
Be
3

De
Lead

r
2

il C
Cold

h nie Cr
An 8 Strawberry

iteta
Little Spearfi
Cr Cr Tilford
ee

Wh
k k
El

eek
Iny Little

Cr
an Roubaix
ra
Cre 7 El
k reek Elk
Cree
k
6
Spr

C
ek

N. F
Ka Bo
ish xe
ings

Piedmont

o rk
f
ld
Spear

er Ellsworth

R api
S. F Air Force
CROOK CO ork
Rap
5 Nemo Base

d Cr
WESTON CO id C Blackhawk

Cr
Creek r
4

eek
k Box Elder
For Rochford
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

s
adN. Fo
rk C
3 Rap
o
Rh

a s tl id RAPID CITY

2
eC
r
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
Creek

C ree

k
pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
Cre

eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr
Deerfield ct o ria
o Reservoir Spring
44
r

S. F
e C

ork
C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
2 1
Beaver

National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
C anyon

Newcastle Batt
Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
es

k
Bea
bird
Bol

ee
r
Gr

Cr
e Fre Gulch
tt
Red

nch CUSTER
ac

lle
e

eek Gi ge
C o o li d
1
W ho o pup Cr

Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Be

Monument
av

STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon
er

nch
WYOMING
Stockade

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cr Cave hn
ee ny
k Dewey Beave
d

r
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
43o30' NIOBRARA CO
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
ek

o t Brook
R Ca HOT SPRINGS
VE
Fa
RI

Minnekahta ll Oral
CHE R
YEN
NE
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E
k
ee
Cr

Edgemont Ho
rse
he
La eek Angostura ad
nc Cr Reservoir Cr
e
od ee
wo k
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo 0 10 20 MILES
t
Ha

0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996; Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

EXPLANATION
CONNECTED OUTCROP OF MADISON LIMESTONE FOR WHICH AVERAGE ANNUAL RECHARGE, IN INCHES
PRECIPITATION RECHARGE IS PRESCRIBED (modified from Less than 1 5 to 6
Strobel and others, 1999; DeWitt and others, 1989)
1 to 2 6 to 7
CONNECTED OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION FOR WHICH
PRECIPITATION RECHARGE IS PRESCRIBED (modified from 2 to 3 7 to 8
Strobel and others, 1999; DeWitt and others, 1989) 3 to 4 8 to 9
2 LINE OF EQUAL YIELD POTENTIAL--Number indicates 4 to 5
average annual yield potential. Interval 1 inch

Figure 54. Estimated annual yield potential for the Black Hills area, water years 1950-98 (from Carter, Driscoll, and
Hamade, 2001). Average annual recharge from precipitation on outcrops of the Madison Limestone and Minnelusa
Formation is shown as an example.

86 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Standards and Criteria
Most water-quality standards for surface water
are determined by the applicable beneficial-use criteria
(table 9) established for individual stream reaches. All
streams in South Dakota are designated for the benefi-
cial uses of irrigation and of wildlife propagation and
stock watering. Additional beneficial uses are assigned
to stream segments as applicable. Designated benefi-
cial uses for specific stream segments are indicated by
South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (2001a). Aquatic-life criteria are estimates
of the highest constituent concentrations that aquatic
life can be exposed to without adverse effects. The
chronic criteria are based on extended exposures, and
acute criteria are based on very short-term exposures.
The aquatic criteria for several trace elements vary with
stream hardness, as shown in figure 55. Drinking-water
standards apply only to finished waters that are used for
public consumption. These standards do provide
another useful basis for comparison, however, and
were presented previously in table 4.
Common-ion Chemistry
Common-ion chemistry of surface water in the
study area is highly influenced by geology. Within this
section, distinctive water-quality characteristics are
described for the hydrogeologic settings (limestone
headwater, crystalline core, artesian spring, and exte-
rior settings) that were discussed previously (fig. 23).
The loss zone setting is not characterized because the
primary hydrologic influence is on streamflow, not
water quality. Site information for sampling sites repre-
sentative of the hydrogeologic settings was presented
previously in table 5.
Specific conductance can provide an excellent
indication of dissolved solids concentrations in surface
water (fig. 56). Results of regression analyses (dis-
solved solids versus specific conductance) for samples
available for sites representative of hydrogeologic set-
tings are presented in table 10. Correlations between
dissolved solids and specific conductance are strong
for all of the hydrogeologic settings except the lime-
stone headwater setting, for which variability in dis-
solved solids concentrations is small. Table 10 also
includes regression information for all available
samples for surface-water sites within the study area
considered by Williamson and Carter (2001), which
include numerous sites in addition to those that are rep-
resentative of the hydrogeologic settings. The equation
provided for all samples generally should provide rea-
sonable estimates of dissolved solids concentrations
(based on specific conductance) for surface water
within the study area, regardless of hydrogeologic con-
ditions. This equation would be most appropriate for
locations where water quality is influenced by multiple
hydrogeologic settings, which is a common circum-
stance within the study area.
Relations between specific conductance and
streamflow for the hydrogeologic settings are shown in
figure 57. Because of the large number of sites repre-
sentative of the crystalline core setting, only five sites
are shown for this setting. Measurements of specific
conductance are abundant because measurements typi-
cally are obtained at USGS streamflow-gaging stations
when streamflow is measured.
Sites representative of the crystalline core and
exterior settings have large variability in streamflow
and exhibit generally inverse relations between specific
conductance and streamflow (fig. 57). Specific con-
ductance values (and dissolved solids concentrations)
generally decrease with increasing streamflow, prima-
rily because of dilution by direct runoff.
Streamflow variability generally is small for the
limestone headwater and artesian spring settings
(fig. 57) because of dominance by ground-water dis-
charge. Specific conductance values are nearly iden-
tical for all of the limestone headwater sites, where the
primary geologic influences are outcrops of the
Madison Limestone or outcrops of the Minnelusa
Formation in areas where anhydrite beds have been
removed by dissolution over geologic time.
Specific conductance characteristics are fairly
distinct for each of the artesian spring sites (fig. 57).
The lowest specific conductance values generally are
for Cleghorn Springs, which is located within an out-
crop of the Minnelusa Formation (fig. 35). The other
artesian spring sites reflect larger influence from anhy-
drite beds within the Minnelusa Formation or possibly
from dissolution of sulfate within other overlying geo-
logic units. Minor influences (reduced specific conduc-
tance values) from occasional runoff events are
apparent for several sites.
Surface-Water Characteristics 87
 Table 9. Surface-water-quality standards for selected physical properties and constituents

88
[All constituents in milligrams per liter unless otherwise noted. µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; µg/L, micrograms per liter; oF, degrees Fahrenheit; oC, degrees Celsius; >, greater
than or equal to; --, no data available]

Beneficial-use criteria1 Aquatic-life

Wildlife criteria for
Property or Domestic Warmwater fisheries1
Coldwater Coldwater Warmwater Warmwater Limited propagation
constituent water supply semi- Immersion Irrigation (acute/
permanent marginal permanent marginal contact and stock-
(mean/daily permanent waters waters chronic)
fisheries fisheries fisheries fisheries waters watering
maximum) fisheries (µg/L)
waters
Specific conductance -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 24,000/7,000 22,500/4,375
--
(µS/cm)
pH range (standard 6.5-9.0 6.6-8.6 6.5-8.8 6.5-9 6.5-9 6.5-9 -- -- 6.0-9.5 -- --
units)
Temperature oF/oC -- 65/18.3 75/24 80/27 90/32 90/32 -- -- -- -- --
(maximum)
Dissolved oxygen -- >6.0 >5.0 >5.0 >5.0 >4.0 >5.0 >5.0 -- -- --
(minimum) >7 during
spawning

Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Total dissolved solids 21,000/1,750 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 22,500/4,375 -- --
Total suspended solids -- 2 2 2 2 2
30/53 90/158 90/158 90/158 150/263 -- -- -- -- --
Sodium-adsorption ratio -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 10 --
Chloride 2250/438 2100/175 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Fluoride 4.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Sulfate 2500/875
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Nitrate (as N) 10 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 250/88
-- --
Un-ionized ammonia -- 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.05 -- -- -- -- --
(as N)
Cyanide (free) -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 22/5.2
Dissolved arsenic -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 360/190
Dissolved barium 1.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Dissolved cadmium -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33.7/31.0

Dissolved copper -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3
17/ 311
Dissolved lead -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 365/ 32.5

Dissolved mercury -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2.1/ 40.012

Dissolved selenium -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 20/5
Dissolved zinc -- -- -- -- -- -- --- -- -- -- 3110/ 3100
1South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources (2001a).
2
30-day average/daily maximum.
3
Hardness-dependent criteria; value given is an example based on hardness of 100 milligrams per liter as CaCO3.
4
Chronic criteria based on total recoverable concentration.
 Acute criterion
10,000
7,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000

1,000
700
500
400
300
200
DISSOLVED TRACE-ELEMENT CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

100
70
50
40
30
20

10
7
5
4
3
2

1
Chronic criterion
10,000
7,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000

1,000
700
500
400
300
200

100
70
50
40
30
20

10
7
5
4
3
2

1
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200
HARDNESS, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

EXPLANATION
CADMIUM NICKEL
COPPER SILVER
LEAD ZINC

Figure 55. Relations between hardness and freshwater aquatic-life standards for acute and chronic
toxicity of selected trace elements (South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
1998).

Surface-Water Characteristics 89
 7,500

Limestone headwater
7,000
Crystalline core

6,500 Artesian spring

Exterior

DISSOLVED SOLIDS, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

6,000

5,500

5,000

4,500

4,000

3,500

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE,
IN MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER

Figure 56. Relations between dissolved solids and specific conductance by hydrogeologic
settings (from Williamson and Carter, 2001).

Table 10. Summary of regression information (dissolved solids versus specific conductance), by
hydrogeologic setting
[S = dissolved solids, in milligrams per liter; K = specific conductance, in microsiemens per centimeter]

Hydrogeologic setting Equation of line r2 Number of samples

Headwater spring S = 0.21K + 158.16 0.2437 261

Crystalline core S = 0.55K + 15.83 .8914 136

Artesian spring S = 0.93K - 194.22 .9614 13

Exterior S = 0.85K - 249.50 .9676 174

All1 S = 0.86K - 131.14 .9692 12,355

1
Includes numerous surface-water samples in addition to those available for sites representative of hydrogeologic
settings.

90 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 10,000 10,000
7,000 7,000
5,000 5,000
4,000 4,000
3,000 3,000
2,000 2,000

1,000 1,000
700 700
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200

100 100
70 LIMESTONE HEADWATER 70
50 Rhoads Fork (06408700) 50 CRYSTALLINE CORE (subset of 14 sites)
40 Castle Creek (06049000) 40
Battle Creek (06404000)
30 30
Spearfish Creek (06430770) Grace Coolidge Creek (06404998) Boxelder Creek (06422500)
20 20
Little Spearfish Creek (06430850) Spring Creek (06407500) Squaw Creek (06430898)
10 10
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000
10,000 10,000
7,000 7,000
5,000 5,000
4,000 4,000
3,000 3,000
2,000 2,000

1,000 1,000
700 700
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 ARTESIAN SPRING 200

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER

Cascade Springs (06400497)
100 Fall River (06402000) 100 EXTERIOR
70 70 Cheyenne River (06395000)
Beaver Creek (06402470)
50 50
40 Cleghorn Springs (06412810) 40 Hat Creek (06400000)
30 30 Hay Creek (06433500)
Crow Creek (06430532)
20 20 Horse Creek (06436760)
Cox Lake (06430540)

10 10
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000
STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

Surface-Water Characteristics
Figure 57. Relations between specific conductance and streamflow for selected sampling sites by hydrogeologic setting (from Williamson and Carter, 2001).

91
 Trilinear diagrams showing ionic proportions bicarbonate and larger proportions of chloride than
(by hydrogeologic setting) for available samples for limestone headwater sites. The limestone headwater
representative sites are shown in figure 58. Median and crystalline core settings have the lowest median
concentrations for each setting are shown in figure 59. concentrations of common ions (fig. 59), which is con-
Proportions of common ions are similar for some sites sistent with low concentrations of dissolved solids,
representative of the limestone headwater and crystal- relative to the artesian spring and exterior settings
line core settings (fig. 58); however, many of the crys- (fig. 56).
talline core sites have smaller proportions of

LIMESTONE HEADWATER CRYSTALLINE CORE

te

te
lfa

lfa
Su

Su
Ca

Ca
e+

e+
lciu

lciu
80

80
80

80
rat

rat
m

m
Nit

Nit
+M

+M
60

60
60

60
e+

e+
ag

ag
rid

rid
ne

ne
40

40
40

40
luo

luo
siu

siu
+F

+F
m

m
20

20
20

20
ide

ide
lor

lor
Ch

Ch

ate
ate
So

So

on
on
20

20
20

20
diu

diu

arb
80 80 80 80
arb
m

m
ium

ium

+C
+C
+P

+P
40

40
40

40
Su

Su
60 60 60 60
es

es

ate
lfa

lfa
ota

ota
ate
gn

gn
te

te
on
ssi

ssi
60

60
on
Ma

Ma
60

60
40 40 40 40

arb
arb
um

um

Bic
Bic
80

80
80

80
20 20 20 20
80

60

40

20

80

60

40

20
20

40

60

80

20

40

60

80
Calcium Chloride + Fluoride + Nitrate Calcium Chloride + Fluoride + Nitrate
PERCENT OF REACTING VALUES PERCENT OF REACTING VALUES

ARTESIAN SPRING EXTERIOR

te

te
lfa

lfa
Su

Su
Ca

Ca
e+

e+
lciu

lciu
80

80
80

80
rat

rat
m

m
Nit

Nit
+M

+M
60

60
60

60
e+

e+
ag

ag
rid

rid
ne

ne
40

40
40

40
luo

luo
siu

siu
+F

+F
m

m
20

20
20

20
ide

ide
lor

lor
Ch

Ch
te

ate
a
So

So
on

on
20

20
20

20
diu

diu
arb

arb

80 80 80 80
m

m
m

m
+C

+C
+P

+P
iu

siu
40

40
40

40
Su

Su

60 60 60 60
es

ate

te
e
lf

lf
ota

ota
gn

gn
ate

ate
a
on

on
ssi

ssi
60

60
Ma

Ma
60

60

40 40 40 40
arb

arb
um

um
Bic

Bic
80

80
80

80

20 20 20 20
80

60

40

20

80

60

40

20
20

40

60

80

20

40

60

80

Calcium Chloride + Fluoride + Nitrate Calcium Chloride + Fluoride + Nitrate

PERCENT OF REACTING VALUES PERCENT OF REACTING VALUES

Figure 58. Trilinear diagrams showing proportional concentrations of common ions by hydrogeologic setting (from
Williamson and Carter, 2001).

92 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 LIMESTONE HEADWATER CRYSTALLINE CORE
Sodium + Potassium Chloride + Fluoride Sodium + Potassium Chloride + Fluoride

Calcium Bicarbonate Calcium Bicarbonate

Magnesium Sulfate Magnesium Sulfate

50 0 50 50 0 50
MILLIEQUIVALENTS, PER LITER MILLIEQUIVALENTS, PER LITER

ARTESIAN SPRING EXTERIOR

Sodium + Potassium Chloride + Fluoride Sodium + Potassium Chloride + Fluoride

Calcium Bicarbonate Calcium Bicarbonate

Magnesium Sulfate Magnesium Sulfate

50 0 50 50 0 50
MILLIEQUIVALENTS, PER LITER MILLIEQUIVALENTS, PER LITER

Figure 59. Stiff diagrams (Stiff, 1951) showing median concentrations by hydrogeologic setting
(from Williamson and Carter, 2001).

Concentrations of dissolved solids for most sites
representative of the artesian spring setting are higher
than for the limestone headwater and crystalline core
sites (fig. 56). The representative artesian spring sites
generally have calcium sulfate water types (figs. 58
and 59), resulting from increased sulfate concentra-
tions. Most water discharged by artesian springs prob-
ably originates primarily from the Madison and/or
Minnelusa aquifers (Naus and others, 2001); however,
high sulfate concentrations probably result primarily
from rock/water interactions in the Minnelusa Forma-
tion. Other potential sulfate sources may be in contact
with shale confining units such as the Spearfish Forma-
tion. Several artesian springs with low sulfate concen-
trations are located upgradient from the anhydrite
transition zone in the Minnelusa aquifer (fig. 35).
Exterior sites generally have sodium calcium
magnesium sulfate type waters (figs. 58 and 59), with
high concentrations of dissolved solids (fig. 56), rela-
tive to other sites. Although no stream reaches within
the exterior setting are classified for domestic water
supply, most samples for exterior sites have dissolved
solids concentrations that exceed the 30-day average
and maximum criteria of 1,000 and 1,750 mg/L,
respectively (table 9). The criteria for wildlife propaga-
tion and stock watering also are exceeded for many
samples.
Median concentrations of sodium, chloride,
magnesium, and sulfate are much higher for the exte-
rior sites than for sites representative of the other set-
tings (fig. 59). Specific conductance values for many of
the exterior samples (fig. 56) exceed the criteria for
irrigation waters (table 10); however, no samples for
this setting exceed the criterion for sodium-adsorption
ratio (Williamson and Carter, 2001). The highest chlo-
ride concentrations occur in the Cheyenne River at
Edgemont, where numerous samples exceed the SMCL
of 250 mg/L. Figure 60 presents a spatial distribution
of median sulfate concentrations for the study area,
including numerous sites in addition to those that are
representative of the hydrogeologic settings. The
highest sulfate concentrations are for sites within the
exterior hydrogeologic setting, which results from con-
tact with outcrops of Cretaceous shales within this area
(figs. 9 and 14). Several streams with large influence
from artesian springs also have relatively high sulfate
concentrations.

Surface-Water Characteristics 93
 104o 45' 103o30' EXPLANATION
Indian OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME-

Hors
o Belle Fourche
44 45' Reservoir Cr
Owl STONE (from Strobel and

e
Cr Newell
BE
LL eek Cr
ee
others, 1999)
E
Nisland k
BELLE FOURCHE
F
OU OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA
RC RIVER
Hay Cre
ek
HE FORMATION (from Strobel

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale and others, 1999)
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO
HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTINGS

k
Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr
ow Onge Limestone headwater
Cree

h reek
G ulc Spearfish C Crystalline core
30'
k
h

m
Gulc

Botto

Whitewood
Loss zone and artesian
ek
Cre

d
oo
se eek spring--Outer extent approxi-
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

tte
fish

hit
Bu mates the outer extent of the
W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton Black Hills area

aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Exterior
a

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Tilford
Wh

k
El MEDIAN SULFATE CONCEN-
ee k

Little TRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS

Cr

Roubaix
El reek Creek
15' k
C
N. F

ish
Bo
xe
PER LITER
Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth Less than 331

R api

S. F Air Force
ork
Rap
Nemo Base 331 to 660
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in 661 to 990

eek
k Box Elder
gs

For Rochford
k

LIMESTONE PLATEAU

s
adN. Fo
rk Rap 991 to 1,320
o

Cas
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Creek
er

C ree Pactola
k

pid
C Greater than 1,320
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
Reservoir Spring
44o S. F
r
e C

ork
C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
reek Cr
ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

te Fre G
nch CUSTER
ac

let
Red

l
e

Gi ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
ek

o t Brook
Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
he
eek Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 60. Spatial distribution of median sulfate concentrations in surface water (from Williamson and Carter, 2001).

94 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Anthropogenic Effects
Various human activities, including agriculture,
mining, and urban/suburban development, have poten-
tial to influence the water quality of streams within the
study area. In many cases, anthropogenic influences on
water quality cannot necessarily be distinguished from
naturally occurring influences. Water-quality sampling
for the Black Hills Hydrology Study was performed
primarily for the purpose of identifying baseline water-
quality conditions; extensive investigations to evaluate
effects of anthropogenic influences were not performed
as part of the study. Much of the information summa-
rized in this section was obtained from results of site-
specific studies by previous investigators. A detailed
summary of previous investigations is provided in
Williamson and Carter (2001).
Extensive studies of potential effects of irriga-
tion drainage were performed under the National Irri-
gation Water Quality Program (NIWQP) during the late
1980’s by Greene and others (1990) for the Angostura
Reclamation Unit and by Roddy and others (1991) for
the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project. Concentrations
of pesticides in water, bottom sediment, and biota were
less than laboratory reporting limits for most samples
collected by these investigators. Results of follow-up
sampling efforts were presented by Sando and others
(2001), who concluded that for both irrigation projects,
available data were insufficient to confidently quantify
potential increases in dissolved solids loading resulting
from irrigation operations.
Selenium, which can be concentrated by irriga-
tion operations, was a special concern of NIWQP
because of toxicity and prevalence in irrigation areas in
the western United States. Selenium is abundant in the
Cretaceous shales surrounding the Black Hills area
(figs. 9 and 14), which is reflected in the maximum
selenium concentrations measured at selected sites
within the study area (fig. 61). Selenium concentra-
tions below the laboratory reporting limit of 1 µg/L
have been reported for numerous additional sites (not
shown in fig. 61), most of which are located within the
limestone headwater, crystalline core, or artesian
spring settings. Sando and others (2001) concluded that
selenium routinely occurs in concentrations that could
be problematic, both upstream and downstream from
both irrigation projects. Increased selenium loading
resulting from irrigation operations was not discernible
for the Angostura Reclamation Unit; however,
increased loading probably occurs from return flows in
Horse Creek, within the Belle Fourche Reclamation
Project.
Effects of mining activity on water quality can be
difficult to quantify because natural influences in min-
eralized areas may have similar effects on water
quality. Mining activities generally have been most
extensive in the northern Black Hills, primarily in the
vicinity of Tertiary intrusive units (fig. 14) where the
largest deposits of gold ores tend to be located.
One potential effect of mining is acid-mine
drainage, which can result from weathering and oxida-
tion of sulfide minerals that occur in some locations.
Torve (1991) examined pH conditions and metals con-
centrations near abandoned mines along Deadwood
Creek and False Bottom Creek. Measured pH values
for sites (fig. 62) upstream, immediately downstream,
and farther downstream of the mines are presented in
figure 63. The pH values are depressed in the imme-
diate vicinity of the mines, but increase farther down-
stream as a result of the buffering effect of carbonate
minerals. Similar areas of low pH also exist in naturally
occurring bog-iron areas, which can be found in var-
ious locations in the Black Hills area (Luza, 1969;
Rice, 1970).
Low pH conditions can cause increased solu-
bility of various metals, which can be abundant in
mineralized areas where mining has occurred. Torve
(1991) documented elevated concentrations of dis-
solved cadmium, copper, and zinc that approached or
exceeded aquatic-life criteria near mines along Dead-
wood Creek and False Bottom Creek. Decreased con-
centrations of dissolved metals were documented
farther downstream, where pH levels increased.
Approximately 900 abandoned or inactive mines exist
throughout the Black Hills area (South Dakota Depart-
ment of Environment and Natural Resources, 2001b);
similar pH and trace-metal conditions occur at a limited
number of these locations (Rahn and others, 1996).
Acid-mine drainage has been a problem at the
Gilt Edge mine (a large, open-pit, heap-leach-recovery
gold mine that was operated during 1986-98), which
was listed as a Superfund site by USEPA in 2000
(South Dakota Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, 2001b). The mine area is drained by
Strawberry Creek, which is a tributary to Bear Butte
Creek. Copper concentrations have frequently
exceeded aquatic standards in Bear Butte Creek
(fig. 64). In addition, dissolved solids concentrations
have increased since 1994 in Bear Butte Creek down-
stream of the confluence with Strawberry Creek,
primarily from increases in sodium and sulfate concen-
trations (Williamson and Carter, 2001).
Surface-Water Characteristics 95
 104o 45' 103o30' EXPLANATION
Indian OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME-

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl STONE (from Strobel and

e
Cr Newell
BE
LL eek Cr
ee
others, 1999)
E
Nisland k
BELLE FOURCHE
F
OU OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA
RC RIVER
Hay Cre
ek
HE FORMATION (from Strobel

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale and others, 1999)
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO
HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTINGS

k
Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr Onge Limestone headwater
ow
Cree

lc h reek
30' Gu Spearfish C Crystalline core
k
h

m
Gulc

Botto

Whitewood
Loss zone and artesian
ek
Cre

d
oo
se eek spring--Outer extent approxi-
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

tte
fish

hit
Bu mates the outer extent of the
W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton Black Hills area

aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Exterior
a

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

k k
El MAXIMUM SELENIUM CONCEN-
ee k

Little TRATION, IN MICROGRAMS

Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k
C
N. F

ish
Bo
xe
PER LITER
Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth Less than 6

R api

S. F Air Force
ork
Rap
Nemo Base
6 to 20
d Cr

Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r 21 to 35
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
gs

For Rochford
k

LIMESTONE PLATEAU

ds
a N. Fo
rk Rap 36 to 50
o

Cas
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Creek
er

C ree Pactola
k

C pid
51 to 70
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
S. F Reservoir Spring
44o
r

ork
e C

C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre G
tte nch CUSTER
ac
Red

e
ill
e

G ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 61. Spatial distribution of maximum selenium concentrations in surface water (from Williamson and Carter, 2001).

96 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

A 50' 103o40'
o RIVER
104
RE
DWAT E R SOUTH DAKOTA
Lawrence
Cr County
ow
C
Rapid Creek

Beav
Be

ree
Creek

eek
a
Basin

k
r
o
er
44 30' om

Cr
Spearfish

t
Bot
Black Hills
Whitewood
study area

ls e
Creek

Fa

d
oo
Gulc

lch
Gu

ew
on

hit
h

bis

W
Ro eek
442246103490300 06432172
Cr

Squ
Central
aw
442252103493800
Creek C City Cr DEADWOOD reek
442250103485700 dwood 442213103443900
n
Iro

a Lead

eek
sh
442125103483000
De
r fi 442131103482000

Cr
ea
k
Sp Annie C re ek ree
20' tte
l C

Bu
Little

tai
ite
Wh

k
Cr

r
awberry ee

Bea
Str Cr
sh

Cr
rfi

Elk
ea

Roubaix
Sp

is h

N
a rf

orth

Bo
xe EXPLANATION
pe

East S ld
er
WATER-QUALITY AND BED-SEDIMENT
Fork

Nemo
06432172 SAMPLING SITE--Number is station
Rapid

Cr
identification number

ee
k
44o10'
Cree
k

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital line graph, 1:100,000: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 MILES
Belle Fourche, 1983; Rapid City, 1977
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 KILOMETERS
North American Horizontal Datum 1927

B
104o 103o30' 103o
44o LAWRENCE COUNTY MEADE COUNTY
15'
North
SOUTH DAKOTA
WYOMING

Ellsworth
For k

Crooks ou
S

Tower th Air Force Base

For
k
Fk Rochford PENNINGTON COUNTY
ds
Ra
oa

pi
06414000
Rh

d Silver City
06410500
Creek Cree Big Bend Canyon
k

Pactola Dam Lake

le

and Reservoir06411500
Cast

Victori 06412500
r 06418900
a

Deerfield Dam C Rap

Deerfield RAPID id
o and Reservoir
44 06409000 CITY Caputa

Farmingdale
06421500
Creek
Creston

R
RIVE

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey CUSTER COUNTY

0 10 20 MILES
1:500,000 Hydrologic Unit Map, 1978
0 10 20 KILOMETERS
E
NN
YE

EXPLANATION E
RAPID CREEK BASIN BOUNDARY CH
SURFACE-WATER SAMPLING SITE--
06409000 Number is station identification number

Figure 62. Locations of selected water-quality sampling sites used for analysis of anthropogenic effects in
(A) Lawrence County and (B) Rapid Creek Basin.

Surface-Water Characteristics 97
 8.5
Southeast False Bottom Deadwood Creek below Broken
Creek near Lead Boot Mine at Deadwood
8.0 442250103485700 442213103443900

South Deadwood Creek above

7.5 Hidden Treasure Mine near Lead
False Bottom Creek
442125103483000
near Central City
06432172
7.0
pH, IN STANDARD UNITS

6.5

6.0

5.5 False Bottom Creek above

Columbia Mine near Lead
442251103493800
5.0

4.5

4.0
Deadwood Creek below Hidden
Treasure Mine near Lead
442131103482000
3.5
Upstream from mining Immediately downstream Downstream from mining
from mining

EXPLANATION
FALSE BOTTOM CREEK
DEADWOOD CREEK

Figure 63. Downstream progression of pH for selected streams influenced by acid-mine drainage (from
Williamson and Carter, 2001).

98 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 35

30
CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

25

20

15

10

0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994

CALENDAR YEAR

EXPLANATION
HARDNESS-DEPENDENT CHRONIC AQUATIC-LIFE CRITERIA
HARDNESS-DEPENDENT ACUTE AQUATIC-LIFE CRITERIA
DISSOLVED COPPER CONCENTRATION

Figure 64. Comparison of dissolved copper concentrations to hardness-dependent chronic and acute aquatic-life
criteria for Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood (06437020) (from Williamson and Carter, 2001).

Surface-Water Characteristics 99
 Acid-mine drainage from the Richmond Hill
Mine resulted in depressed pH levels in headwater
reaches of Squaw Creek (Durkin, 1996). This condition
resulted in a need for substantial reclamation efforts in
closing the mine, which consisted of capping large
deposits of sulfide minerals to prevent exposure to air
and water.
The spatial distribution of maximum arsenic
concentrations for the study area is shown in figure 65.
None of the samples have exceeded the aquatic-life cri-
teria (table 9); however, concentrations exceeding the
revised MCL of 10 µg/L (table 4) have been measured
at seven sites. One concentration exceeding 50 µg/L
has been measured. Concentrations below the labora-
tory reporting limit of 1 µg/L have been reported for
numerous additional sites (not shown in fig. 65).
Arsenic commonly is associated with gold ores, with
most of the elevated concentrations occurring within
the crystalline core setting in locations where mining
activities have occurred. Arsenic also is relatively
abundant in the Cretaceous shales surrounding the
Black Hills area, with concentrations above 5 µg/L
measured at upstream locations on the Cheyenne and
Belle Fourche Rivers.
Potential effects of mining operations on arsenic
concentrations generally cannot be quantified because
background samples (prior to mining activities) are not
available. Elevated arsenic concentrations in White-
wood Creek and downstream reaches of the Belle
Fourche River have been attributed to long-term dis-
charge of mine tailings, which resulted in designation
of an 18-mi reach as a Superfund site by USEPA in
1983 (Goddard, 1989). Other constituents of concern
along Whitewood Creek include cadmium, copper,
cyanide, iron, manganese, mercury, and silver. The
largest concentrations of dissolved arsenic typically
occur during storm-flow recessions and result from
seepage from tailings deposits in the adjacent flood
plain. Concentrations of total arsenic exceeding
100 µg/L are common during storm flows when sedi-
ments are mobilized.
A variety of factors influencing the solubility of
arsenic have been identified by previous investigators.
Arsenic is most soluble within a pH range of 8.1 to 8.6;
however, adsorption/desorption processes also can
affect the mobility of arsenic (Fuller and Davis, 1989;
Fuller and others, 1993). The abundance of calcite
and ferrihydrite in bed sediments was identified by
Williamson and Hayes (2000) as important factors in
controlling adsorption/desorption of arsenic. Solubility
of arsenic is increased by abundance of calcite because
of associated increases in pH. Solubility of arsenic is
100 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
reduced by abundance of ferrihydrite, which provides
iron surfaces for adsorption of arsenic. The highest
concentrations of dissolved arsenic typically occur in
streams with limited quantities of ferrihydrite in bed
sediments. Photosynthesis and respiration by aquatic
vegetation within a stream can cause diurnal changes in
pH, resulting in fluctuations in arsenic concentrations
(Fuller and Davis, 1989).
Arsenic concentrations in Annie Creek that con-
sistently approached the former MCL of 50 µg/L
resulted in USEPA designation of a 5-acre site on the
National Priorities List (Driscoll and Hayes, 1995). A
failed tailings impoundment from an abandoned mine
had resulted in large deposits of arsenic-rich tailings
along the stream channel. Natural geology and the
Annie Creek Mine, which occupies much of the Annie
Creek drainage basin, also may contribute to elevated
arsenic concentrations in Annie Creek. An important
influence is small concentrations of ferrihydrite in bed
sediments (Williamson and Hayes, 2000), which limits
adsorption/coprecipitation on ferrihydrite and contrib-
utes to high concentrations of dissolved arsenic.
Elevated concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate in
Annie Creek, with two samples exceeding the MCL of
10 µg/L in 1995 and 1996, were noted by Williamson
and Carter (2001). The concentrations probably result
from the breakdown of blasting agents (ammonium
nitrate mixed with diesel fuel) and cyanide, which is
used in the heap-leach extraction process. Two denitri-
fication facilities were installed within the Annie Creek
Basin in 1997 and have been effective in reducing
nitrite plus nitrate concentrations (South Dakota
Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
1998).
Elevated nitrite plus nitrate concentrations also
can result from various other influences including fer-
tilizers, animal and human waste, and natural processes
that occur within stream riparian systems. Nitrite plus
nitrate concentrations for sites representative of hydro-
geologic settings are shown in figure 66. In this figure,
Annie Creek is separated from other crystalline core
sites because of the substantial influence from mining
operations, as previously discussed. Concentrations for
most sites representative of individual hydrogeologic
settings are below 1 µg/L, which probably is indicative
of conditions with little human influence. Numerous
samples for sites that are not representative of indi-
vidual hydrogeologic settings are included in an “other
sites” category. Most of the elevated concentrations for
this category were collected prior to 1980 from Horse
Creek near Vale (Williamson and Carter, 2001), which
is influenced by irrigation return flows.
 104o 45' 103o30' EXPLANATION
Indian OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME-

Hors
o Belle Fourche
44 45' Reservoir Cr
Owl STONE (from Strobel and

e
Cr Newell
BE
LL eek Cr
ee
others, 1999)
E
Nisland k
BELLE FOURCHE
F
OU OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA
RC RIVER
Hay Cre
ek
HE FORMATION (from Strobel

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale and others, 1999)
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO
HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTINGS

k
Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr
ow Onge Limestone headwater
Cree

lc h reek
30' Gu Spearfish C Crystalline core
k
h

m
Gulc

Botto
Whitewood
Loss zone and artesian
ek
Cre

d
oo
se eek spring--Outer extent approxi-
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
Fal

tte
fish

hit
Bu mates the outer extent of the
W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton Black Hills area

aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v
Bea

dw

A
Cr ar
Cr

Exterior
a

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h nie Cr
An
ail

Strawberry
s
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr Cr Tilford
ee
Wh

El
k k MAXIMUM ARSENIC CONCEN-
k

TRATION, IN MICROGRAMS
ee

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k PER LITER
C
N. F

Bo
ish xe Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

er Ellsworth Less than 6

R api

S. F Air Force
ork
Rap
Nemo Base 6 to 10
d Cr

id C Blackhawk
Cold Sp 11 to 35

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
For
gs

Rochford
k

s
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

d
a N. Fo
rk Rap 36 to 50
o

Cas
Rh

tl id RAPID CITY
eC
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree 51 to 68
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

ee Reservoir
reek

Cre
eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
S. F Reservoir Spring
44o
r

ork
e C

C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
ing

Memorial
Spr

anyon Harney
Peak
Hayward
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C
re Cr
ek ee
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre G
tte nch CUSTER
ac
Red

e
ill
e

G ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER

eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument
STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beav ny
Dewey er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir
43 15' od
Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 65. Spatial distribution of maximum arsenic concentrations in surface water (modified from Williamson and
Carter, 2001).

Surface-Water Characteristics 101

 106/1 80/6 25/0 7/0 56/1 1197/43
100

DISSOLVED NITRITE PLUS NITRATE CONCENTRATION, 50

20

10

5
IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.005

0.002

0.001
Limestone Crystalline core sites Annie Creek Artesian Exterior Other
headwater without spring sites sites sites
sites Annie Creek

HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING

EXPLANATION
106/1 Number of samples/Number of samples with Highest reporting limit
concentrations below the laboratory reporting limit Maximum Contaminant Level
Outlier data value less than or equal to 3 and more (U.S. Environmental Protection
than 1.5 times the interquartile range outside the Agency, 1994a)
quartile
Data value less than or equal to 1.5 times the
interquartile range outside the quartile
75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

Figure 66. Boxplots of concentrations of dissolved nitrite plus nitrate by hydrogeologic setting, with Annie Creek
separated from other crystalline core sites.

102 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Nitrite plus nitrate concentrations for selected
sites within the Rapid Creek Basin (fig. 62) are pre-
sented in figure 67. Concentrations for the farthest site
upstream (06409000, Castle Creek above Deerfield)
generally are slightly higher than for the next two sites
downstream. One possible nitrogen source, based on
land-use activities, is cattle grazing upstream from the
farthest site upstream. Rapid Creek at Rapid City
(06414000) shows minor influences of nitrite plus
nitrate from various possible urban sources. Concentra-
tions at Rapid Creek near Farmingdale (06421500)
increase markedly, reflecting various possible influ-
ences including non-point urban/suburban sources,
effluent discharge from the Rapid City municipal
wastewater treatment plant, and various possible
influences from agricultural activities.
Numerous constituents in addition to nitrite plus
nitrate can influence water quality in urban environ-
ments. Williamson and others (1996) documented
increased concentrations of various trace metals con-
tributed to Rapid Creek by the Rapid City municipal
wastewater treatment plant. Goddard and others (1989)
summarized data collected during a USEPA National
Urban Runoff Program study in the Rapid City area. In
an interpretation of this data set, Harms and others
(1983) documented increases in numerous constituents
in Rapid Creek associated with urban runoff.
Additional Factors Relative to In-Stream Standards
Beneficial uses for various stream reaches can be
influenced by several other factors in addition to those
that have been previously discussed. Detailed discus-
sions of low pH conditions associated with acid-mine
drainage were presented previously. Low pH values
below the desirable range (table 9) also can occur nat-
urally, especially in areas with bog-iron deposits (Luza,
1969). Occurrences generally are in limited stream
reaches within the crystalline core setting. Occasional
occurrences of pH values exceeding the desirable range
have been noted in the limestone headwater and crys-
talline core settings (Williamson and Carter, 2001).
Beneficial uses for some stream reaches also can
be limited by temperature and dissolved oxygen con-
centrations. In-stream temperatures exceeding benefi-
cial-use criteria for fisheries (table 9) occasionally
occur, especially during low-flow conditions. Concen-
trations of dissolved oxygen below desirable ranges
also can occur occasionally, especially during low-flow
conditions and when elevated temperatures reduce
oxygen solubility. Low concentrations of dissolved
oxygen associated with urban runoff also have been
documented (Harms and others, 1983).
Concentrations of suspended solids exceeding
beneficial-use criteria are relatively common in the
Black Hills area. The largest (and most frequent)
exceedances typically occur in the exterior setting,
where fine-grained particulates associated with clay
soils are easily mobilized during high-flow conditions.
High concentrations of suspended solids also typically
occur during urban runoff events (Harms and others,
1983).
HYDROLOGIC BUDGETS
The quantification of various hydrologic budget
components is important for managing and under-
standing the water resources in the Black Hills area.
This section contains summaries of hydrologic budgets
that were developed by previous investigators for
ground water, surface water, and the combined ground-
water/surface-water system. A detailed hydrologic
budget for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in the
Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming for 1987-96
was presented by Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell
(2001). Detailed hydrologic data sets were available for
this period, during which changes in ground-water
storage were considered negligible. Basic hydrologic
budgets for the Black Hills of South Dakota for
1950-98 were presented by Driscoll and Carter (2001)
for: (1) the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers; (2) other
bedrock aquifers; (3) surface water; and (4) the com-
bined ground-water/surface-water system. This time-
frame includes an extended period of particularly dry
climatic conditions that occurred during the 1950’s
(fig. 8) and the particularly wet conditions that
occurred during the middle to late 1990’s.
All hydrologic budgets were developed from the
following basic continuity equation, which states that
for any designated volume:
ΣInflows – ΣOutflows = ∆Storage (2)
where:
ΣInflows = sum of inflows;
ΣOutflows = sum of outflows; and
∆Storage = change in storage.
Thus, a positive ∆Storage results when inflows exceed
outflows.
Hydrologic Budgets 103
 99/0 133/1 25/4 35/0 144/0
100

DISSOLVED NITRITE PLUS NITRATE CONCENTRATION, 50

20
10
5
IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

2
1
0.5

0.2
0.1
0.05

0.02
0.01
0.005

0.002
0.001
06409000 06411500 06412500 06414000 06421500
Castle Creek Rapid Creek Rapid Creek Rapid Creek Rapid Creek
above below above at near
Deerfield Reservoir Pactola Dam Canyon Lake Rapid City Farmingdale

EXPLANATION
99/0 Number of samples/Number of samples with concentrations
below the laboratory reporting limit
Outlier data value more than 3 times the interquartile range
outside the quartile
Outlier data value less than or equal to 3 and more than 1.5
times the interquartile range outside the quartile
Data value less than or equal to 1.5 times the interquartile
range outside the quartile

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

Highest reporting limit

Maximum Contaminant Level (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1994a)

Figure 67. Boxplots of concentrations of dissolved nitrite plus nitrate within the Rapid Creek Basin.

104 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Methods for Estimating Basin Yield and
Recharge
Total yield, which is considered to be the sum of
runoff plus recharge, was estimated over selected areas
using the “yield-efficiency algorithm” discussed in a
previous section. Estimates of precipitation, total yield,
and evapotranspiration for the entire study area are pre-
sented in table 11. For 1950-98, precipitation averaged
18.98 inches or about 5.2 million acre-ft/yr. This is
equivalent to an average flow rate of about 7,240 ft3/s.
Of this amount, total yield is estimated as about
440,600 acre-ft/yr (about 608 ft3/s), which is equiva-
lent to about 1.59 inches over the study area. Thus,
evapotranspiration is estimated as 17.39 in/yr, which
accounts for about 92 percent of annual precipitation.
Total yield was apportioned between precipita-
tion recharge and runoff on the basis of recharge factors
for each aquifer (table 12). With the exception of local-
ized aquifers in the crystalline core, as discussed later,
recharge was estimated by multiplying the total yield
by the recharge factor, which is the fraction of total
yield estimated to be recharge for a particular unit. The
remainder of total yield (if any) was assumed to con-
tribute to runoff from the outcrop area. Of the total
average annual precipitation in the study area
(table 11), runoff accounts for about 4.9 percent
(352 ft3/s), and precipitation recharge accounts for
about 3.5 percent (256 ft3/s). Thus, only a small
fraction of the water originating from precipitation
recharges the aquifers by infiltrating in outcrop areas.

Table 11. Estimates of average precipitation, precipitation recharge, runoff, total yield, and evapotranspiration for the study
area, water years 1950-98
[Modified from Driscoll and Carter (2000)]

Total yield
Precipitation
Units Precipitation Runoff (Precipitation Evapotranspiration
recharge
recharge + runoff)
Acre-feet per year 5,245,400 185,500 255,100 440,600 4,804,800
Cubic feet per second 7,240.4 256 352 608.2 6,632.2
Inches per year 18.98 0.67 0.92 1.59 17.39

Table 12. Recharge factors and outcrop areas for bedrock aquifers
[From Driscoll and Carter (2001). --, not applicable]

Outcrop area
Aquifer unit Recharge factor1
(acres)
Localized aquifers in crystalline core area -- 616,800
(Precambrian/Tertiary/Other2)
Deadwood 0.80 66,200
Madison 1.00 292,600
Minnelusa 1.00 300,000
Minnekahta 1.00 72,100
Inyan Kara .80 219,700
Jurassic-sequence semiconfining unit .40 75,800
Cretaceous-sequence confining unit .05 716,100
1
Fraction of total yield estimated to result in recharge, with remainder (if any) assumed to contribute to runoff.
2
Other consists of other units within the crystalline core area, including: (1) isolated outcrops of the Deadwood For-
mation, Madison Limestone, and Minnelusa Formation, and Minnekahta Limestone above the loss zones; and (2) uncon-
solidated sedimentary deposits.

Hydrologic Budgets 105

 As previously discussed, direct runoff from out-
crops of the Madison Limestone and Minnelusa For-
mation seldom occurs. Thus, all precipitation on these
outcrops that is not evapotranspirated was assumed to
recharge the aquifers; hence, recharge factors for these
aquifers were assumed to be 1.00. The recharge factor
for the Minnekahta aquifer also was assumed to be
1.00, based on similar formation properties between
the Minnekahta Limestone and Madison Limestone.
Recharge factors for the Inyan Kara and Deadwood
aquifers were assumed to be 0.80 because these forma-
tions contain more shale layers than the Madison,
Minnelusa, and Minnekahta Formations. The Sun-
dance aquifer within the Jurassic-sequence semicon-
fining unit is a productive aquifer, but only constitutes
about one-half of the outcrop area of the total unit.
Thus, a recharge efficiency of 0.40 (one-half of 0.80)
was assumed for the entire Jurassic-sequence semicon-
fining unit. Likewise, the Newcastle Sandstone con-
tains a productive aquifer within the Cretaceous-
sequence confining unit; however, the Newcastle
Sandstone constitutes only a small portion of the total
unit in outcrop area. Thus, a recharge factor of 0.05 was
assumed for the entire Cretaceous-sequence confining
unit.
Recharge does occur to numerous localized aqui-
fers within the crystalline core area, especially where
extensive fractures and weathered zones are present.
These aquifers are not considered regional, however, as
indicated by the fact that wells constructed in Precam-
brian rocks in western South Dakota outside of the
Black Hills have not encountered measurable amounts
of ground water (Rahn, 1985). Thus, regional ground-
water flow in the Precambrian rocks was assumed to be
negligible although some flow may occur in the upper
weathered zone. Recharge to localized aquifers in the
crystalline core area was assumed equal to well with-
drawals from this unit. Actual recharge to the crystal-
line core aquifers must be much larger than this
estimate to accommodate ground-water discharge that
contributes to base flow of many streams. Recharge
conditions are highly transient and have large spatial
variability; thus, quantification was not attempted.
Within the crystalline core area, numerous ero-
sional remnants of sedimentary outcrops occur that are
“isolated” from regional ground-water flow systems as
described in a previous section (fig. 14). Precipitation
recharge was prescribed only for “connected” outcrops
and was not prescribed for isolated outcrops. Infiltra-
tion of precipitation on isolated outcrops was assumed
106 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
to contribute to streamflow, which eventually has
potential to provide streamflow recharge to the
Madison and Minnelusa aquifers. Additional methods
beyond identification of isolated and connected out-
crop areas were used in quantifying precipitation
recharge for the Deadwood aquifer as described by
Driscoll and Carter (2001). Additional details
regarding precipitation recharge are discussed in the
following sections.
Ground-Water Budgets
Ground-water budgets were developed for five
major, sedimentary bedrock aquifers within the study
area (Deadwood, Madison, Minnelusa, Minnekahta,
and Inyan Kara aquifers) and for additional minor aqui-
fers within the Jurassic-sequence semiconfining unit
and Cretaceous-sequence confining unit. A budget also
was developed for localized aquifers within the crystal-
line core area, which is dominated by Precambrian
igneous and metamorphic rocks, but also includes
Tertiary igneous rocks, erosional remnants of various
sedimentary rocks, and minor, unconsolidated sedi-
mentary deposits. These localized aquifers are subse-
quently referred to as the crystalline core aquifers. A
combined budget was developed for the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers because most of the budget compo-
nents cannot be quantified individually for these two
aquifers; this budget is presented prior to budgets for
the other bedrock aquifers.
Long-term budgets were developed for the
period 1950-98, during which changes in ground-water
storage were assumed to be negligible. Various compo-
nents in equation 1 for ground-water budgets are sche-
matically illustrated in figure 16 for the Madison
aquifer. Inflows may include recharge, vertical leakage
from adjacent aquifers, and lateral ground-water
inflows across the study area boundary. Recharge
occurs at or near land surface and includes infiltration
of precipitation on outcrops of the bedrock units and
streamflow recharge, which occurs where streams
cross the outcrops. Streamflow recharge was consid-
ered an inflow component only for the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers. Although the Minnekahta aquifer
also receives limited recharge from streamflow losses,
this recharge probably is very small relative to stream-
flow recharge to the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers
and could not be quantified.
Outflows include springflow, well withdrawals,
vertical leakage to adjacent aquifers, and lateral
ground-water outflow across the study area boundary.
Springflow includes headwater springs and artesian
springs. Headwater springs, which generally occur near
the base of the Madison Limestone in the Limestone
Plateau area, were considered an outflow component
for only the Deadwood, Madison, and Minnelusa aqui-
fers. Artesian springs, which constitute a form of
leakage but are treated as a separate component
because of magnitude and measurability, were consid-
ered an outflow component for only the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers.
Vertical leakage to and from adjacent aquifers,
which is difficult to quantify and cannot be distin-
guished from lateral ground-water inflows or outflows
across the study area boundaries, probably is small rel-
ative to other budget components in most cases. Thus,
for budget purposes, leakage was included with
ground-water inflows and outflows. Assuming that
∆Storage is equal to zero, the sum of the inflows is
equal to the sum of the outflows, and the hydrologic
budget equation can be rewritten as:
Ground-water outflow – Ground-water inflow
= Recharge – Headwater springflow
– Artesian springflow – Well withdrawals
1,000
IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND
800
RECHARGE,
600
400
200
0
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
WATER YEAR
Figure 68. Annual recharge to the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, water years 1931-98, in the Black Hills of South Dakota
and Wyoming (from Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001).
The terms on the right side of equation 3 gener-
ally can be quantified more accurately than the terms
on the left. Therefore, net ground-water flow (outflow
minus inflow) from the study area can be calculated as
the residual, given estimates for the other budget com-
ponents.
Budgets for Madison and Minnelusa Aquifers
Recent investigations have provided extensive
information regarding various budget components for
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, which are pre-
sented in table 13. Many of the budget components
were based on hydrologic measurements with rela-
tively short periods of record. Precipitation records
indicate that prolonged drought conditions occurred
prior to many available hydrologic records. Thus,
Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade (2001) estimated
recharge for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifer for
1931-98 (fig. 68) to address particularly dry conditions
that occurred during the 1930’s and 1950’s. Estimates
of streamflow recharge, precipitation recharge, and
combined recharge from both sources (for the
expanded area that includes part of Wyoming) are
shown in figure 68. The 1931-98 averages are smaller
than the 1950-98 averages (table 13) because of pro-
longed droughts during the 1930’s and 1950’s. Stream-
flow recharge is relatively steady; however, precipita-
tion recharge is highly variable, depending on annual
(3) precipitation amounts.
EXPLANATION
STREAMFLOW RECHARGE
PRECIPITATION RECHARGE
COMBINED RECHARGE
AVERAGE STREAMFLOW RECHARGE
(1931-98)
AVERAGE PRECIPITATION RECHARGE
(1931-98)
AVERAGE COMBINED RECHARGE
(1931-98)
1980 1990 2000
Hydrologic Budgets 107
Table 13. Estimated annual hydrologic budget components for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, water years 1931-98,
for the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming
[All estimates in cubic feet per second. --, not determined]

Recharge1 Net
Headwater Artesian Well
Water year ground-water
Streamflow Precipitation Total springflow2 springflow3 withdrawals3
outflow3
1931 38.17 57.37 95.53 3.6 -- -- --
1932 107.61 293.82 401.44 76.7 -- -- --
1933 98.50 262.78 361.28 63.6 -- -- --
1934 37.38 54.70 92.08 4.5 -- -- --
1935 61.71 137.54 199.25 28.6 -- -- --
1936 30.45 31.08 61.53 1.0 -- -- --
1937 53.55 109.75 163.30 16.4 -- -- --
1938 58.12 125.31 183.44 21.4 -- -- --
1939 58.78 127.53 186.31 24.0 -- -- --
1940 49.57 96.18 145.75 13.5 -- -- --
1941 128.70 365.63 494.34 99.7 -- -- --
1942 100.57 269.84 370.41 65.4 -- -- --
1943 79.75 198.96 278.72 48.5 -- -- --
1944 71.33 170.29 241.62 36.2 -- -- --
1945 125.98 356.35 482.33 102.1 -- -- --
1946 189.51 572.68 762.19 190.8 -- -- --
1947 89.69 232.79 322.47 56.5 -- -- --
1948 79.14 196.87 276.01 45.9 -- -- --
1949 56.72 120.53 177.24 20.1 -- -- --
1950 79.50 178.87 258.36 40.0 -- -- --
1951 76.09 160.75 236.84 30.5 -- -- --
1952 113.52 180.03 293.55 41.7 -- -- --
1953 96.62 184.32 280.94 45.8 -- -- --
1954 66.10 95.61 161.71 16.9 -- -- --
1955 65.04 268.06 333.09 71.0 -- -- --
1956 65.90 134.06 199.96 25.2 -- -- --
1957 117.12 278.05 395.17 70.7 -- -- --
1958 73.20 185.27 258.47 39.8 -- -- --
1959 60.53 140.36 200.89 26.2 -- -- --
1960 59.57 117.59 177.16 26.7 -- -- --
1961 54.97 68.88 123.85 7.0 -- -- --
1962 122.52 513.23 635.75 158.7 -- -- --
1963 103.64 426.54 530.18 128.5 -- -- --
1964 95.48 472.86 568.33 157.9 -- -- --
1965 140.80 525.80 666.60 161.7 -- -- --
1966 98.23 136.11 234.33 21.1 -- -- --
1967 121.00 319.45 440.45 83.3 -- -- --

108 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Table 13. Estimated annual hydrologic budget components for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, water years 1931-98,
for the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming–Continued
[All estimates in cubic feet per second. --, not determined]

Recharge1 Net
Headwater Artesian Well
Water year ground-water
Streamflow Precipitation Total springflow2 springflow3 withdrawals3
outflow3
1968 82.87 246.91 329.78 62.2 -- -- --
1969 74.24 215.90 290.14 50.6 -- -- --
1970 105.19 293.58 398.77 78.7 -- -- --
1971 123.68 365.41 489.09 101.4 -- -- --
1972 126.93 418.46 545.40 119.9 -- -- --
1973 123.78 283.41 407.18 69.5 -- -- --
1974 54.09 127.82 181.92 23.3 -- -- --
1975 96.06 178.43 274.49 37.5 -- -- --
1976 113.01 366.44 479.45 101.1 -- -- --
1977 86.23 269.50 355.73 69.1 -- -- --
1978 108.65 333.69 442.34 88.7 -- -- --
1979 84.96 233.26 318.22 54.8 -- -- --
1980 60.17 112.06 172.23 18.0 -- -- --
1981 60.88 170.50 231.38 32.4 -- -- --
1982 89.00 514.20 603.20 158.7 -- -- --
1983 115.39 167.59 282.97 37.7 -- -- --
1984 122.53 262.19 384.72 63.2 -- -- --
1985 49.88 68.91 118.79 8.0 -- -- --
1986 92.52 356.64 449.17 90.8 -- -- --
1987 108.41 126.33 234.73 21.1 199.6 28.3 100.4
1988 38.38 102.37 140.74 16.2 186.2 28.3 100.4
1989 40.36 146.66 187.01 26.6 163.4 28.3 100.4
1990 76.27 190.95 267.22 38.7 168.1 28.3 100.4
1991 103.11 306.66 409.77 74.9 170.6 28.3 100.4
1992 66.30 199.31 265.61 48.5 165.9 28.3 100.4
1993 128.83 444.35 573.18 127.2 173.9 28.3 100.4
1994 120.16 203.50 323.65 49.3 193.6 28.3 100.4
1995 183.57 663.81 847.38 214.6 221.5 28.3 100.4
1996 179.48 522.32 701.80 158.2 245.9 28.3 100.4
1997 221.55 545.83 767.38 192.9 -- -- --
1998 174.77 458.38 633.15 152.8 -- -- --
1931-98 average 93.18 250.90 344.08 65.5 -- -- --
1950-98 average 98.39 271.04 369.40 72.2 -- -- --
1987-96 average 104.49 290.63 395.11 77.5 188.9 28.3 100.4
1From Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade (2001).
2
From Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001). Estimates are based strictly on estimated annual recharge and are intended only for estimation of
long-term averages of springflow.
3
From Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001).

Hydrologic Budgets 109

 Driscoll and Carter (2001) developed average
budgets for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifer for
1950-98 for the Black Hills area of South Dakota
(study area) and for the Black Hills area of South
Dakota and Wyoming (expanded area) (table 14). The
budget for the study area includes an estimate of head-
water springflow (78 ft3/s) that was obtained by
applying estimates of precipitation recharge to the area
east of the ground-water divide on the Limestone
Plateau (fig. 50). “Net recharge” of 214 ft3/s was calcu-
lated by subtracting headwater springflow from the
sum of streamflow and precipitation recharge. A break-
down between wells and artesian springs (28 and
128 ft3/s, respectively) also is provided.
Table 14 also provides a budget for 1950-98 for
an expanded area that includes large outcrops areas in
Wyoming (fig. 54). For the expanded area, average
precipitation recharge (271 ft3/s) is considerably larger
than for the study area; however, average streamflow
recharge in the expanded area (98 ft3/s) is only slightly
larger. Average headwater springflow (72 ft3/s) is
slightly smaller because measured average flows of
about 6 ft3/s for Beaver and Cold Springs Creek are
excluded. Both streams originate as headwater springs
in South Dakota; however, both streams are depleted
by streamflow losses that provide recharge to the
Minnelusa aquifer just downstream (west) of the
Wyoming border. Artesian springflow (169 ft3/s) is
larger and primarily accounts for artesian springflow
measured along Stockade Beaver Creek and Sand
Creek (fig. 34). Average net ground-water outflow
(100 ft3/s) is larger and reflects additional recharge
within the expanded area.

Table 14. Average hydrologic budgets for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers
[From Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001) and Driscoll and Carter (2001)]

Net ground-
water outflow
Streamflow Precipitation Headwater Well Artesian
Units Net recharge from study
recharge recharge springflow withdrawals springflow
area/expanded
area

Black Hills of South Dakota (study area), water years 1950-98

Acre-feet 66,600 144,900 56,500 155,000 20,300 92,800 41,900

Cubic feet per 92 200 178 228

214 128 58
second

Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming (expanded area), water years 1950-98

Acre-feet 71,000 196,300 52,200 215,100 20,300 122,400 72,400

Cubic feet per 98 271 72 297 228 169 100

second

Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming (expanded area), water years 1987-96

Acre-feet 75,300 210,800 56,500 229,600 20,300 136,900 72,400

Cubic feet per 104 291 178 317 28 189 100

second
1
Includes 6 cubic feet per second of discharge for Beaver Creek and Cold Springs Creek in South Dakota, which subsequently recharges Minnelusa
aquifer a short distance downstream in Wyoming. Thus, this flow is treated as a discharge for South Dakota; however, discharge and recharge are offsetting
when both South Dakota and Wyoming are considered.
2
Identical estimate used for well withdrawals in both areas. Areas considered in Wyoming primarily are recharge areas, where well withdrawals are
minor.

110 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Precipitation recharge accounts for about
73 percent of the recharge in the expanded area. Arte-
sian springflow is the single largest discharge compo-
nent and accounts for about 46 percent of the total
outflows for the expanded area. Headwater springflow
accounts for about 20 percent of the total outflow for
the expanded area. Thus, most of the total outflow from
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers is from spring-
flow, which then provides flow to area streams. Ground
water flowing out of the expanded area accounts for
about 27 percent of the total outflows. Well with-
drawals account for about 8 percent of the total out-
flows.
Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001)
computed an average hydrologic budget for 1987-96
for the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming
(expanded area) (table 14). For this period, change in
storage was assumed equal to zero based on well
hydrographs. Total springflow (including headwater
and artesian springflow) averaged 267 ft3/s, which
constitutes about 68 percent of estimated recharge;
artesian springflow of 189 ft3/s was the single largest
outflow component.
Hydrologic budgets also were quantified by
Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001) for nine
subareas (figs. 69 and 70) for periods of decreasing
storage (1987-92) and increasing storage (1993-96),
with changes in storage assumed equal but opposite
(table 15). For most subareas, net ground-water out-
flow exceeds inflow, and ranges from 5.9 ft3/s in the
area east of Rapid City (subarea 4) to 48.6 ft3/s along
the southwestern flanks of the Black Hills (subarea 9).
Net ground-water inflow exceeds outflow for two sub-
areas where the discharge of large artesian springs
exceeds estimated recharge within subareas (subareas 7
and 8).
Detailed budgets developed for the nine subareas
included estimates of transmissivity and flow compo-
nents for the individual aquifers at specific flow zones
(figs. 69 and 70). The net outflow and inflows from the
subarea budgets were used with Darcy’s Law to esti-
mate transmissivity and flow across exterior flow
zones corresponding with parts of the study area
boundary and interior flow zones between subareas.
For estimation purposes, it was assumed that transmis-
sivities of the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers are
equal in corresponding flow zones. The resulting trans-
missivity estimates ranged from about 100 to
7,400 ft2/d, which are consistent with estimates from
other previous investigations (table 2). The highest
transmissivity estimates are for areas in the northern
and southwestern parts of the study area, and the lowest
transmissivity estimates are along the eastern study
area boundary. Because the transmissivity estimates
presented by Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell
(2001) are averages over large areas, much larger spa-
tial variability in actual transmissivities can be
expected.
The large changes in storage (table 15) for sub-
area 2 (about 69,000 acre-ft) result primarily from a
large net outflow rate and a large differential in stream-
flow recharge rates between the dry and wet periods.
The large storage change is consistent with large water-
level fluctuations for observation wells in this subarea.
In comparison, changes in storage are much smaller for
subareas 3 and 5, both of which have much smaller dif-
ferentials in both streamflow and precipitation recharge
rates. Both of these subareas are influenced by artesian
springs with highly variable discharge rates relative to
most other artesian springs. Water-level data for wells
in subarea 5 are sparse; however, hydrographs for wells
in subarea 3 show relatively small water-level fluctua-
tions.
Budgets for subareas in the southern Black Hills
are consistent with geochemical interpretations (Naus
and others, 2001), which indicate long flowpaths along
the western and southwestern flanks contributing to
large artesian springs in the area, as discussed in a fol-
lowing section. The average discharge of Beaver Creek
Spring in subarea 7 exceeds estimated recharge for this
subarea and probably is influenced by outflow from
subarea 8, which is consistent with geochemical infor-
mation. Similarly, discharge of artesian springs in sub-
area 8 is much larger than recharge in this subarea.
Outflow from subarea 9 is a probable source for inflow
to subarea 8, which again is substantiated by geochem-
ical information.
Hydrologic Budgets 111
 104o30' 104o 103o30'
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Cr
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Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996; Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

EXPLANATION
OUTCROP OF MADISON LIMESTONE (from Strobel and others, 1999;
DeWitt and others, 1989)
1 EXTERIOR INFLOW ZONE--Area where ground water is assumed
to be entering the study area. Number is zone number
4,000 POTENTIOMETRIC CONTOUR--Shows altitude at which water would have
stood in tightly cased, nonpumping wells (modified from Strobel and others,
10 EXTERIOR OUTLOW ZONE--Area where ground water is assumed
to be exiting the study area. Number is zone number
INTERIOR SUBAREA FLOW ZONE--Area where ground water is
2000a; Greene and Rahn, 1995). Contour interval 200 feet. Dashed where
inferred. Datum is sea level
12 assumed to be crossing subarea boundaries. Number is zone
number
GENERAL DIRECTION OF GROUND-WATER FLOW
DIRECTION OF FLOW ACROSS FLOW ZONE--Upper number is
SUBAREA--Number is subarea number 732 transmissivity estimate in feet squared per day; lower number is
8 1.3 estimated flow in cubic feet per second
LARGE ARTESIAN SPRING

Figure 69. Subareas, generalized ground-water flow directions, and flow zones for the Madison aquifer. Estimated
transmissivities and flow components for flow zones also are shown (from Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell, 2001).

112 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 3,196
17 8.1 SOUTH DAKOTA
104o30' 104o 103o30' WYOMING
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Belle Fourche
Reservoir Cr Area
Owl Black Shown

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Creek
Wind Cave 1,045
e

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7,393
National Park
30 3.9
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1,463
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ee

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EY

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25
EN

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26
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985 0 10 20 MILES
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996; Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

0 10 20 KILOMETERS
EXPLANATION
OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION (from Strobel and others,
1999; DeWitt and others, 1989)
15 EXTERIOR INFLOW ZONE--Area where ground water is assumed to
be entering the study area. Number is zone number
4,000 POTENTIOMETRIC CONTOUR--Shows altitude at which water would have
stood in tightly cased, nonpumping wells (modified from Strobel and others,
25 EXTERIOR OUTLOW ZONE--Area where ground water is assumed to
be exiting the study area. Number is zone number
2000b; Downie and Dinwiddie, 1988). Contour interval 200 feet, where INTERIOR FLOW ZONE--Area where ground water is assumed to be
appropriate.Dashed where inferred. Datum is sea level 30 crossing subarea boundaries. Number is zone number
GENERAL DIRECTION OF GROUND-WATER FLOW DIRECTION OF FLOW ACROSS FLOW ZONE--Upper number is
SUBAREA--Number is subarea number
510 transmissivity estimate in feet squared per day; lower number is
8 3.1 estimated flow in cubic feet per second
LARGE ARTESIAN SPRING

Figure 70. Subareas, generalized ground-water flow directions, and flow zones for the Minnelusa aquifer. Estimated
transmissivities and flow components for flow zones also are shown (from Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell, 2001).
Hydrologic Budgets 113
Table 15. Hydrologic budgets, by subareas, for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in the Black Hills area,
water years 1987-96
[From Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001). ft3/s, cubic feet per second; acre-ft, acre-feet]

Inflows (ft3/s) Outflows (ft3/s) Sum (ft3/s) Change in storage

Net Net
Water year Stream- Precipita- Artesian Well
ground- ground-
flow tion spring- with- Inflows Outflows ft3/s acre-ft
water water
recharge recharge flow drawals
inflow outflow

Subarea 1

1987 8.6 64.8 0.0 101.8 11.0 29.6 73.4 142.4 -69.0 -49,961
1988 5.9 53.9 .0 94.8 12.6 29.6 59.8 137.0 -77.2 -55,898
1989 6.1 65.5 .0 75.5 11.7 29.6 71.6 116.8 -45.2 -32,728
1990 7.5 83.9 .0 78.8 12.2 29.6 91.4 120.6 -29.2 -21,143
1991 8.5 122.7 .0 81.4 10.9 29.6 131.2 121.9 9.3 6,734
1992 6.6 86.5 .0 76.0 11.3 29.6 93.1 116.9 -23.8 -17,233
Average/sum1 7.2 79.6 .0 84.7 11.6 29.6 86.8 125.9 -39.2 1-170,228
1987-92
1993 9.8 170.2 .0 80.6 9.1 29.6 180.0 119.3 60.7 43,951
1994 11.3 100.7 .0 93.6 10.6 29.6 112.0 133.8 -21.8 -15,785
1995 15.9 260.0 .0 103.9 9.4 29.6 275.9 142.9 133.0 96,301
1996 16.1 202.9 .0 116.7 9.6 29.6 219.0 155.9 63.1 45,689
Average/sum1 13.3 183.5 .0 98.7 9.7 29.6 196.7 138.0 58.8 1170,156
1993-96
Average/sum1 9.6 121.1 .0 90.3 10.8 29.6 130.7 130.8 .0 1-72
1987-96
Subarea 2

1987 27.5 6.1 .0 .0 3.7 34.2 33.6 37.9 -4.3 -3,113

1988 5.8 5.9 .0 .0 4.2 34.2 11.7 38.4 -26.7 -19,333
1989 9.2 6.2 .0 .0 3.8 34.2 15.4 38.0 -22.6 -16,364
1990 15.5 5.8 .0 .0 4.1 34.2 21.3 38.3 -17.0 -12,309
1991 23.8 8.9 .0 .0 3.7 34.2 32.7 37.9 -5.2 -3,765
1992 12.3 5.7 .0 .0 3.8 34.2 18.0 38.0 -20.0 -14,481
Average/sum1 15.7 6.4 .0 .0 3.9 34.2 22.1 38.1 -16.0 1
-69,366
1987-92
1993 32.9 16.0 .0 .0 3.1 34.2 48.9 37.3 11.6 8,399
1994 35.4 5.9 .0 .0 3.6 34.2 41.3 37.8 3.5 2,534
1995 58.5 31.7 .0 .0 3.2 34.2 90.2 37.4 52.8 38,231
1996 49.7 16.0 .0 .0 3.3 34.2 65.7 37.5 28.2 20,419
Average/sum1 44.1 17.4 .0 .0 3.3 34.2 61.5 37.5 24.0 169,583
1993-96
Average/sum1 27.1 10.8 .0 .0 3.7 34.2 37.9 37.9 .0 1
217
1987-96

114 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Table 15. Hydrologic budgets, by subareas, for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in the Black Hills area,
water years 1987-96–Continued
[From Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001). ft3/s, cubic feet per second; acre-ft, acre-feet]

Inflows (ft3/s) Outflows (ft3/s) Sum (ft3/s) Change in storage

Net Net
Water year Stream- Precipita- Artesian Well
ground- ground-
flow tion spring- with- Inflows Outflows ft3/s acre-ft
water water
recharge recharge flow drawals
inflow outflow

Subarea 3

1987 10.6 1.6 0.0 1.6 0.6 9.8 12.2 12.0 0.2 145
1988 2.5 1.3 .0 .3 .6 9.8 3.8 10.7 -6.9 -4,996
1989 2.7 2.1 .0 .0 .6 9.8 4.8 10.4 -5.6 -4,055
1990 8.6 2.1 .0 .0 .6 9.8 10.7 10.4 .3 217
1991 9.1 4.6 .0 .1 .6 9.8 13.7 10.5 3.2 2,317
1992 5.6 1.8 .0 .0 .6 9.8 7.4 10.4 -3.0 -2,172
Average/sum1 6.5 2.3 .0 .3 .6 9.8 8.8 10.7 -2.0 1-8,544
1987-92
1993 10.0 5.3 .0 .1 .6 9.8 15.3 10.5 4.8 3,476
1994 10.9 1.7 .0 .4 .6 9.8 12.6 10.8 1.8 1,303
1995 12.0 10.3 .0 8.6 .6 9.8 22.3 19.0 3.3 2,389
1996 13.9 6.3 .0 8.2 .6 9.8 20.2 18.6 1.6 1,159
1 1
Average/sum 11.7 5.9 .0 4.3 .6 9.8 17.6 14.7 2.9 8,327
1993-96
Average/sum1 8.6 3.7 .0 1.9 .6 9.8 12.3 12.3 .0 1-217
1987-96
Subarea 4

1987 33.3 2.7 .0 25.6 4.3 5.9 36.0 35.8 .2 145

1988 17.3 1.0 .0 25.6 4.2 5.9 18.3 35.7 -17.4 -12,599
1989 15.6 3.9 .0 25.6 3.4 5.9 19.5 34.9 -15.4 -11,151
1990 24.1 3.7 .0 25.6 5.0 5.9 27.8 36.5 -8.7 -6,299
1991 33.7 10.3 .0 25.6 6.7 5.9 44.0 38.2 5.8 4,200
1992 25.9 3.2 .0 25.6 10.5 5.9 29.1 42.0 -12.9 -9,340
Average/sum1 25.0 4.1 .0 25.6 5.7 5.9 29.1 37.2 -8.1 1
-35,045
1987-92
1993 43.3 8.4 .0 25.8 10.2 5.9 51.7 41.9 9.8 7,096
1994 40.3 1.4 .0 25.6 11.1 5.9 41.7 42.6 -0.9 -652
1995 47.5 12.3 .0 27.1 9.1 5.9 59.8 42.1 17.7 12,816
1996 55.8 9.6 .0 30.1 7.6 5.9 65.4 43.6 21.8 15,785
Average/sum1 46.7 7.9 .0 27.2 9.5 5.9 54.7 42.6 12.1 135,045
1993-96
Average/sum1 33.7 5.7 .0 26.2 7.2 5.9 39.3 39.3 .0 1
0
1987-96

Hydrologic Budgets 115

Table 15. Hydrologic budgets, by subareas, for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in the Black Hills area,
water years 1987-96–Continued
[From Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001). ft3/s, cubic feet per second; acre-ft, acre-feet]

Inflows (ft3/s) Outflows (ft3/s) Sum (ft3/s) Change in storage

Net Net
Water year Stream- Precipita- Artesian Well
ground- ground-
flow tion spring- with- Inflows Outflows ft3/s acre-ft
water water
recharge recharge flow drawals
inflow outflow

Subarea 5

1987 12.8 1.3 0.0 6.2 1.6 6.0 14.1 13.8 0.3 217
1988 2.4 .6 .0 2.4 1.6 6.0 3.0 10.0 -7.0 -5,068
1989 3.1 2.2 .0 1.2 1.6 6.0 5.3 8.8 -3.5 -2,534
1990 10.6 3.6 .0 1.6 1.6 6.0 14.2 9.2 5.0 3,620
1991 12.9 4.5 .0 3.5 1.6 6.0 17.4 11.1 6.3 4,562
1992 7.9 2.0 .0 4.5 1.6 6.0 9.9 12.1 -2.2 -1,593
Average/sum1 8.3 2.4 .0 3.2 1.6 6.0 10.7 10.8 -0.2 1-796
1987-92
1993 17.3 4.9 .0 7.1 1.6 6.0 22.2 14.7 7.5 5,430
1994 10.2 1.3 .0 10.8 1.7 6.0 11.5 18.5 -7.0 -5,068
1995 18.7 7.2 .0 11.3 1.6 6.0 25.9 18.9 7.0 5,068
1996 18.0 4.7 .0 21.0 1.7 6.0 22.7 28.7 -6.0 -4,344
1 1
Average/sum 16.1 4.5 .0 12.6 1.7 6.0 20.6 20.2 .4 1,086
1993-96
Average/sum1 11.4 3.2 .0 7.0 1.6 6.0 14.6 14.6 .0 1290
1987-96
Subarea 6

1987 7.8 .3 .0 .0 .0 8.3 8.1 8.3 -0.2 -145

1988 2.7 .2 .0 .0 .0 8.3 2.9 8.3 -5.4 -3,910
1989 1.6 .6 .0 .0 .0 8.3 2.2 8.3 -6.1 -4,417
1990 5.1 .8 .0 .0 .0 8.3 5.9 8.3 -2.4 -1,738
1991 7.8 .9 .0 .0 .0 8.3 8.7 8.3 .4 290
1992 5.5 .7 .0 .0 .0 8.3 6.2 8.3 -2.1 -1,521
Average/sum1 5.1 .6 .0 .0 .0 8.3 5.7 8.3 -2.6 1
-11,440
1987-92
1993 9.2 1.3 .0 .0 .0 8.3 10.5 8.3 2.2 1,593
1994 7.4 .3 .0 .0 .0 8.3 7.7 8.3 -0.6 -434
1995 13.0 2.5 .0 .0 .0 8.3 15.5 8.3 7.2 5,213
1996 13.9 1.5 .0 .0 .0 8.3 15.4 8.3 7.1 5,141
Average/sum1 10.9 1.4 .0 .0 .0 8.3 12.3 8.3 4.0 111,513
1993-96
Average/sum1 7.4 .9 .0 .0 .0 8.3 8.3 8.3 .0 1
72
1987-96

116 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Table 15. Hydrologic budgets, by subareas, for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in the Black Hills area,
water years 1987-96–Continued
[From Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001). ft3/s, cubic feet per second; acre-ft, acre-feet]

Inflows (ft3/s) Outflows (ft3/s) Sum (ft3/s) Change in storage

Net Net
Water year Stream- Precipita- Artesian Well
ground- ground-
flow tion spring- with- Inflows Outflows ft3/s acre-ft
water water
recharge recharge flow drawals
inflow outflow

Subarea 7

1987 2.0 0.6 6.1 10.0 0.1 0.0 8.7 10.1 -1.4 -1,014
1988 .4 .4 6.1 10.0 .1 .0 6.9 10.1 -3.2 -2,317
1989 .4 .6 6.1 9.0 .1 .0 7.1 9.1 -2.0 -1,448
1990 1.0 .9 6.1 9.0 .1 .0 8.0 9.1 -1.1 -796
1991 1.6 1.1 6.1 8.1 .1 .0 8.8 8.2 .6 434
1992 1.0 1.2 6.1 8.0 .1 .0 8.3 8.1 .2 145
Average/sum1 1.1 .8 6.1 9.0 .1 .0 8.0 9.1 -1.2 1-4,996
1987-92
1993 2.2 2.1 6.1 9.1 .1 .0 10.4 9.2 1.2 869
1994 2.3 .6 6.1 9.5 .1 .0 9.0 9.6 -0.6 -434
1995 6.1 4.2 6.1 12.5 .1 .0 16.4 12.6 3.8 2,751
1996 6.1 1.2 6.1 11.1 .1 .0 13.4 11.2 2.2 1,593
1 1
Average/sum 4.2 2.0 6.1 10.6 .1 .0 12.3 10.7 1.7 4,779
1993-96
Average/sum1 2.3 1.3 6.1 9.6 .1 .0 9.7 9.7 .0 1-217
1987-96
Subarea 8

1987 5.9 3.2 35.6 45.4 1.8 .0 44.7 47.2 -2.5 -1,810
1988 1.5 2.2 35.6 44.1 1.8 .0 39.3 45.9 -6.6 -4,779
1989 1.6 3.8 35.6 43.1 1.8 .0 41.0 44.9 -3.9 -2,824
1990 3.9 5.4 35.6 44.1 1.9 .0 44.9 46.0 -1.1 -796
1991 5.5 5.7 35.6 43.1 1.8 .0 46.8 44.9 1.9 1,376
1992 1.6 5.2 35.6 42.9 1.8 .0 42.4 44.7 -2.3 -1,665
Average/sum1 3.3 4.3 35.6 43.8 1.8 .0 43.2 45.6 -2.4 1
-10,499
1987-92
1993 4.1 10.8 35.6 42.1 1.8 .0 50.5 43.9 6.6 4,779
1994 2.4 2.3 35.6 44.0 1.9 .0 40.3 45.9 -5.6 -4,055
1995 11.9 14.6 35.6 46.3 1.9 .0 62.1 48.2 13.9 10,065
1996 6.0 7.5 35.6 47.5 1.8 .0 49.1 49.3 -0.2 -145
Average/sum1 6.1 8.8 35.6 45.0 1.9 .0 50.5 46.8 3.7 110,644
1993-96
Average/sum1 4.4 6.1 35.6 44.3 1.8 .0 46.1 46.1 .0 1
145
1987-96

Hydrologic Budgets 117

Table 15. Hydrologic budgets, by subareas, for the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in the Black Hills area,
water years 1987-96–Continued
[From Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and Jarrell (2001). ft3/s, cubic feet per second; acre-ft, acre-feet]

Inflows (ft3/s) Outflows (ft3/s) Sum (ft3/s) Change in storage

Net Net
Water year Stream- Precipita- Artesian Well
ground- ground-
flow tion spring- with- Inflows Outflows ft3/s acre-ft
water water
recharge recharge flow drawals
inflow outflow

Subarea 9

1987 0.0 24.6 0.0 9.0 2.2 48.6 24.6 59.8 -35.2 -25,487
1988 .0 20.7 .0 9.0 2.2 48.6 20.7 59.8 -39.1 -28,311
1989 .0 35.3 .0 9.0 2.2 48.6 35.3 59.8 -24.5 -17,740
1990 .0 46.1 .0 9.0 2.2 48.6 46.1 59.8 -13.7 -9,920
1991 .0 73.1 .0 8.8 2.2 48.6 73.1 59.6 13.5 9,775
1992 .0 44.6 .0 8.9 2.2 48.6 44.6 59.7 -15.1 -10,933
Average/sum1 .0 40.7 .0 9.0 2.2 48.6 40.7 59.8 -19.0 1-82,616
1987-92
1993 .0 98.2 .0 9.1 2.2 48.6 98.2 59.9 38.3 27,732
1994 .0 40.2 .0 9.7 2.3 48.6 40.2 60.6 -20.4 -14,771
1995 .0 106.4 .0 11.8 2.2 48.6 106.4 62.6 43.8 31,714
1996 .0 114.3 .0 11.3 2.3 48.6 114.3 62.2 52.1 37,724
1 1
Average/sum .0 89.8 .0 10.5 2.3 48.6 89.8 61.3 28.5 82,399
1993-96
Average/sum1 .0 60.4 .0 9.6 2.2 48.6 60.4 60.4 .0 1-217
1987-96
1Sum used for change in storage in acre-feet.

Budgets for Other Bedrock Aquifers
Recharge estimates for the other bedrock aqui-
fers consist only of precipitation recharge, which was
derived by Driscoll and Carter (2001) using the yield-
efficiency algorithm. Total yield, which is the sum of
runoff plus recharge, was computed by applying the
yield-efficiency algorithm to the estimates of precipita-
tion on outcrops of the various bedrock formations.
Individual ground-water budgets and an overall
budget for all bedrock aquifers in the study area are pre-
sented in table 16. The Madison and Minnelusa aqui-
fers, which have the largest outcrop areas of the major
aquifers in the study area, dominate the overall ground-
water budgets. In contrast, runoff from aquifer outcrops
is dominated by the crystalline core area, with negli-
gible runoff from outcrops of the Madison, Minnelusa,
or Minnekahta aquifers. Combined recharge for all bed-
rock aquifers was estimated as 348 ft3/s, of which about
84 percent is recharge to the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers. Total well withdrawals and springflow
account for 259 ft3/s, of which about 90 percent is from
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers. Net ground-water
outflow from the study area was calculated as 89 ft3/s
and ranges from zero (assumed) for the crystalline core
aquifers to about 58 ft3/s (65 percent) for the Madison
and Minnelusa aquifers. For the Deadwood aquifer,
well withdrawals and springflow were estimated as
14 ft3/s, which consists primarily of spring discharge in
headwater areas of about 13 ft3/s. For the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers, springflow of 206 ft3/s is much
larger than well withdrawals of 28 ft3/s. For all other
aquifers, springflow is small and was neglected; only
well withdrawals are listed in table 16.

118 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 Table 16. Average ground-water budgets for bedrock aquifers, water years 1950-98
[From Driscoll and Carter (2001). --, no data]

Well with-
Evapotran- Precipitation Streamflow Total Net study area
Units Precipitation Total yield Runoff drawals and
spiration recharge recharge recharge outflow
springflow1
Crystalline Core (Precambrian, Tertiary, and Other Minor Units)
Acre-feet per year 1,084,500 964,200 120,300 116,700 3,600 0 3,600 3,600 0.0
Cubic feet per second 1,497 1,331 166 161 5 0 5 5 0
Inches per year 21.10 18.76 2.34 2.27 0.07 0 0.07 -- --
Deadwood
Acre-feet per year 128,200 110,100 18,100 3,600 14,500 0 14,500 10,100 4,400
Cubic feet per second 177 152 25 5 20 0 20 114
6
Inches per year 23.24 19.96 3.28 0.65 2.63 0 2.63 -- --
Madison and Minnelusa
Acre-feet per year 1,021,500 876,600 144,900 0 144,900 66,600 211,500 169,500 41,900
Cubic feet per second 1,410 1,210 200 0 200 92 292 1234 58
Inches per year 20.69 17.76 2.93 0 2.93 1.35 4.28 -- --
Minnekahta
Acre-feet per year 120,300 113,800 6,500 0 6,500 0 6,500 700 5,800
Cubic feet per second 166 157 9 0 9 0 9 1 8
Inches per year 20.02 18.94 1.08 0 1.08 0 1.08 -- --
Inyan Kara
Acre-feet per year 326,700 312,200 14,500 2,900 11,600 0 11,600 1,400 10,200
Cubic feet per second 451 431 20 4 16 0 16 2 14
Inches per year 17.84 17.05 0.79 0.16 0.63 0 0.63 -- --
Jurassic-Sequence Semiconfining Unit
Acre-feet per year 115,900 110,000 5,800 3,600 2,200 0 2,200 700 1,500
Cubic feet per second 160 152 8 5 3 0 3 1 2
Inches per year 18.35 17.43 0.92 0.57 0.35 0 0.35 -- --
Cretaceous-Sequence Confining Unit
Acre-feet per year 1,028,700 980,900 47,800 45,600 2,200 0 2,200 1,400 800
Cubic feet per second 1,420 1,354 66 63 3 0 3 2 1
Inches per year 17.24 16.44 0.80 0.76 0.04 0 0.04 -- --
Overall Budget for Bedrock Aquifers
Acre-feet per year 3,825,900 3,468,000 357,900 172,400 185,500 66,600 252,100 187,600 64,600
Cubic feet per second 5,281 4,787 494 238 256 92 348 259 89

Hydrologic Budgets
Inches per year 19.46 17.64 1.82 0.88 0.94 1.35 1.28 -- --
1
Includes estimated springflow of 13 cubic feet per second for Deadwood aquifer and 206 cubic feet per second for Madison and Minnelusa aquifers. For other aquifers, springflow is considered negli-
gible and estimates include only well withdrawals.

119
Surface-Water Budgets
Surface-water budgets were developed by
Driscoll and Carter (2001) by consideration of stream
channels within various specified areas, for which the
basic continuity equation (eq. 2) was applied. Inflows
considered included stream channels crossing bound-
aries for specified areas and net tributary flows gener-
ated within specified areas. Because net tributary flows
(flows less depletions) were considered, flow deple-
tions such as streamflow losses or diversions were not
included as outflows. Storage changes for the four large
Bureau of Reclamation reservoirs (Angostura, Deer-
field, Pactola, and Belle Fourche) located within the
study area were considered, with records of storage
changes (positive change reflects increased storage)
derived primarily from Miller and Driscoll (1998).
Large storage increases occurred during 1950-98 for
Angostura Reservoir (completed during 1950), Pactola
Reservoir (completed during 1956), and Belle Fourche
Reservoir, which had very low storage during 1950.
Average surface-water budgets for 1950-98 are
provided in table 17. Inflows to the study area averaged
about 106 and 146 ft3/s in the Cheyenne and Belle
Fourche River drainages, respectively, with combined
inflows averaging about 252 ft3/s. Net tributary flows
generated within the study area were estimated as about
201 and 107 ft3/s in the Cheyenne and Belle Fourche
River drainages, respectively, with combined tributary
flows of about 308 ft3/s. Considering storage increases
of about 7 ft3/s in Bureau of Reclamation reservoirs,
total outflows from the study area were estimated as
about 554 ft3/s, with outflows of about 303 ft3/s for the
Cheyenne River drainage and 251 ft3/s for the Belle
Fourche River drainage.
Table 17. Average surface-water budgets for study area, water years 1950-98
[From Driscoll and Carter (2001). All in cubic feet per second]
+ Study area
Basin Study area inflows
tributaries
Cheyenne River 105.8
Belle Fourche River 146.4
Combined 252.2
120 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
The primary surface-water outflows occur along
the eastern side of the study area, of which the Chey-
enne and Belle Fourche Rivers constitute the largest
percentage of outflows (Driscoll and Carter, 2001).
Estimated outflows include combined flows of about
6 ft3/s in the Beaver Creek and Cold Springs Creek
drainages, which drain a portion of the Limestone
Plateau area, with flow to the west into Wyoming. Flow
in both of these streams is lost to the Minnelusa
Formation a short distance downstream of the
Wyoming border.
Combined Ground-Water and Surface-
Water Budgets
Combined average ground- and surface-water
budgets are presented in figure 71A, which includes a
detailed budget that shows complex ground- and
surface-water interactions, and in figure 71B, which
shows a more simplified budget. These budgets also
are used to show consumptive uses of water that occur
within the study area. Total consumptive use within the
study area from both ground-water and surface-water
resources was estimated by Driscoll and Carter (2001)
as 218 ft3/s, which includes well withdrawals
(40 ft3/s), reservoir evaporation (38 ft3/s), and con-
sumptive withdrawals from streams (140 ft3/s). Con-
sumptive uses consist primarily of consumptive
irrigation withdrawals, which do not include uncon-
sumed irrigation return flows. Most well withdrawals
are consumed; however, in some locations (such as
Rapid City), some portion of municipal well with-
drawals may be unconsumed and returned to streams
via wastewater treatment effluent.
- Change in = Study area
storage outflows
201.2 4.5 302.5
107.3 2.7 251.0
308.5 7.2 553.5
 A Detailed budget showing complex ground- and surface-water interactions for selected hydrogeologic units
Stream P (1,410) ET (1,210)
outflow P (177) ET (152)
(6) Stream
R (0)
Wells inflows
Madison P (1,497) ET (1,331) P (4,156) ET (3,939) (252)
(1) R (5)
and Wells Wells Consumptive
Minnelusa (5) withdrawals
Deadwood R (161) (6) R (186)
PR (200) (140)
PR (20) Crystalline All other
core area outcrops Reservoir
HW
storage and
(6) PR (5) PR (31)
evaporation
HW

WYOMING
NO (6) (38)
(72) HW

SOUTH DAKOTA
(13) NO (0) NO (25)
(18) Loss zone bypass
(251) (159) (473) (295)

Streamflow losses Artesian

(92) springflow Net Stream
Wells
(28) (128) outflows
Net precipitation recharge (122)
Total recharge to (547)

Streamflow loss (6)

Madison and
Minnelusa P Precipitation
(214)
R Runoff
ET Evapotranspiration
NO (58)
PR Precipitation recharge
HW Headwater springflow
Wells Well withdrawals
B Simplied budget showing components for all hydrogeologic units
NO Net ground-water outflow
ET (6,632)
Stream
inflows
Total R (352) (473) (295) (252)
precipitation
(7,240)
Discharge to

WYOMING
Streamflow losses Artesian
HW streams (85) (92)

SOUTH DAKOTA
springflow Reservoir evaporation
Discharge to HW (128) and consumptive Net stream
PR (256)
withdrawals (178) outflows
streams in Wyoming (547)
(6) Net precipitation Net recharge
recharge (165) (257)
Total
consumptive use
NO (89) Wells (40) (218)

Hydrologic Budgets
Figure 71. Schematic diagram showing average hydrologic budget components for study area, water years 1950-98 (from Driscoll and Carter, 2001). All values

121
in cubic feet per second.
 A schematic diagram is presented as figure 72
that shows the progression of average streamflow rela-
tive to surface geology and streamflow depletions.
Streamflow upstream from loss zones to the Madison
and Minnelusa aquifers averages about 251 ft3/s,
which consists of headwater springflow from the Mad-
ison and Minnelusa aquifers (72 ft3/s) and Deadwood
aquifer (13 ft3/s) in the Limestone Plateau area, and of
runoff from the Deadwood Formation (5 ft3/s) and
crystalline core area (161 ft3/s). Streamflow losses to
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers average 92 ft3/s;
thus, combined streamflow downstream from loss
zones (loss-zone bypass) averages about 159 ft3/s.
Artesian springflow (128 ft3/s) and runoff
from outcrops beyond the Madison Limestone and
Minnelusa Formation (186 ft3/s) provide additional
streamflow beyond the loss zones (fig. 72). Thus,
average streamflow prior to major depletions, which
result primarily from irrigation operations, is about
473 ft3/s. Reservoir evaporation and consumptive
withdrawals of 178 ft3/s reduce average tributary flows
to the Cheyenne and Belle Fourche Rivers to 295 ft3/s.
The tributary flows of 295 ft3/s in figure 72 differ from
the study area tributary flows of 308 ft3/s in table 12 by
the reservoir storage change (7 ft3/s) and by combined
flows for Beaver and Cold Springs Creeks (6 ft3/s). The
flows of Beaver and Cold Springs Creeks do not con-
tribute to flows of the Cheyenne and Belle Fourche
Rivers because streamflow losses occur a short dis-
tance downstream from the Wyoming border, as previ-
ously discussed.
Evaluation of Hydrologic Budgets
Numerous assumptions and estimates have been
made in developing budgets for the complex hydrology
of the Black Hills area. This section summarizes eval-
uations of budget components by Driscoll and Carter
(2001), who concluded that methods used have pro-
vided reasonable budget estimates.
Hydrologic budgets for the Madison and Min-
nelusa aquifers are especially important because these
aquifers dominate the overall ground-water budgets for
the Black Hills area and heavily influence the surface-
water budget. Estimates of streamflow recharge, which
are based largely on measured values, are considered

500
473 Net
consumption
450 from surface
Runoff from water
outcrops beyond (178)
Madison Limestone
400 and Minnelusa
Formation
(186)
IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

350

295
STREAMFLOW,

300 287
Streamflow Average
251 losses to tributary flow
250 Madison and from study
Minnelusa area to
aquifers Cheyenne and
Runoff from (92) Artesian springflow Belle Fourche
200 and unconsumed Rivers
crystalline
core area 159 well withdrawals
Headwater (128)
(161)
150 springflow
Runoff from
Headwater from Loss-zone
Deadwood
springflow Deadwood
aquifer
Formation bypass
from 85 90
100 Madison and (13) (5)
72
Minnelusa
aquifers
50 (72)

Figure 72. Schematic showing generalized average streamflow (water years 1950-98) relative to surface geology and
depletions (from Discroll and Carter, 2001).

122 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

more accurate than estimates of precipitation recharge,
which have relatively large uncertainty associated with
use of the yield-efficiency algorithm (and the assump-
tions on which the procedure is based). Short-term esti-
mates for artesian springflow, which are based
primarily on measured values, have relatively small
uncertainty; however, extrapolation for longer term
budgets (1950-98) introduces additional uncertainty.
Uncertainties are larger for estimates of headwater
springflow, which are based on yield potential for
inferred areas contributing to ground-water discharge.
Uncertainties are small for well withdrawals; thus,
most of the uncertainties for estimates of net ground-
water outflow from the study area are related to uncer-
tainties for estimates of precipitation recharge.
Detailed water-budget analyses for subareas (figs. 69
and 70) provided confidence that estimates for all
water-budget components are reasonable.
Budgets for other aquifers are based primarily on
estimates of precipitation recharge, which were derived
using the yield-efficiency algorithm. The assumed
“recharge factors” used to apportion overall yield
potential between runoff and recharge are another
source of potential error. Considerable evidence exists
that direct runoff is uncommon from outcrops of the
Madison and Minnelusa aquifers; however, informa-
tion regarding other aquifer outcrops is sparse.
The yield-efficiency algorithm also was used
extensively in developing surface-water budgets and in
estimating consumptive withdrawals for the study area.
An analysis of streamflow depletion from streamflow
losses indicated that estimates of total basin yield from
the crystalline core area were reasonable. Evaluations
of consumptive withdrawal estimates indicated that the
yield-efficiency algorithm also performed well for
areas beyond the Madison/Minnelusa outcrop band.
Systematic biases in yield estimates undoubtedly
would occur for various localized applications; how-
ever, evaluations performed have provided confidence
that the algorithm systematically produces reasonable
and reproducible estimates of basin yield from the spa-
tial distribution of annual precipitation. Readers are
cautioned that because of inherent, unexplained vari-
ability between annual yield and precipitation, esti-
mates for individual years that are based on this
algorithm have a relatively high level of uncertainty.
Uncertainties associated with long-term estimates are
much smaller, however.
MADISON AND MINNELUSA FLOW
SYSTEM
A major focus of the Black Hills Hydrology
Study has been to obtain a better understanding of flow
systems within the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers,
which are extremely complex due to heterogeneity and
anisotropy related to karst features and fractures and to
interactions between the aquifers and surface-water
resources. A variety of information has been consid-
ered in evaluating flowpaths, mixing conditions, and
interactions. Much of the relevant background infor-
mation, such as potentiometric-surface maps, hydro-
graphs for colocated Madison and Minnelusa wells,
major-ion chemistry, and hydrologic budgets, has been
presented in previous sections. Background informa-
tion regarding isotopes is presented in the following
section.
Isotope Information
Various isotopes were used by Naus and others
(2001) in evaluating the Madison and Minnelusa flow
systems. The stable isotopes of oxygen (18O and 16O)
and hydrogen (2H, deuterium; and 1H) were used to
evaluate ground-water flowpaths, recharge areas, and
mixing conditions. The radioisotope tritium (3H) pro-
vided additional information for evaluation of mixing
conditions and ground-water ages. Background infor-
mation for these isotopes and their distributions in
the Black Hills area are discussed in the following
sections.
Background Information and Composition of
Recharge Water
This section presents background information
regarding stable isotopes and tritium, which generally
are not affected by interactions between minerals and
ground water. The stable isotopes of oxygen and
hydrogen are useful as flowpath tracers because of dis-
tinctive patterns in the Black Hills area resulting from
meteorological influences. Tritium, which is subject to
decay over time, is useful for age dating because large
temporal variations of concentrations in precipitation
have resulted from atmospheric testing of thermonu-
clear bombs during the 1950’s and 1960’s.
Stable isotope values are given in “delta nota-
tion,” which compares the ratio between heavy and
light isotopes of a sample to that of a reference stan-
dard. Delta values are expressed as a difference, in
Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 123
parts per thousand, or per mil (‰), from the reference
standard. For example, the oxygen isotope value of a
sample written in delta notation is:
18 16
18 O/ O sample – O/ O standard
δ O sample = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
18 16
O/ O standard
× 1, 000 ‰ VSMOW.
A sample with a δ value of -20 ‰ is depleted by
20 parts per thousand (2 percent) in the heavier isotope
of the element relative to the standard. In this report,
δ18O (18O/16O) and δD (deuterium/hydrogen) values
are reported in per mil relative to Vienna Standard
Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) and are described as
lighter and heavier in relation to each other. The lighter
values are more negative relative to the heavier values,
which are less negative.
Distinct isotopic signatures can result from iso-
tope fractionation, which results from the loss of water
18 16
vapor from a cooling air mass as it passes from its
- oceanic source over continents. As air masses rise to
higher altitudes, lower temperatures and the subse-
quent formation of precipitation cause fractionation to
occur within the cloud, and 18O and deuterium (D) are
partitioned preferentially into the rain or snow. The
heavy isotopes thus are distilled from the vapor, which
is progressively depleted in 18O and D (Clark and Fritz,
1997). A linear relation exists between δ18O and δD for
samples collected in the Black Hills area (fig. 73); thus,
subsequent discussions and illustrations refer only to
δ18O for simplicity.

-80

#
#
-90 #
#
#
### # #
-100
### ###
## # ##
##
#####
δD, IN PER MIL (‰)

#
#
-110 # #
#
# #
-120 #
#
# ##
-130
#
# #

-140

-150
-19 -18 -17 -16 -15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10

δ18O, IN PER MIL (‰)

EXPLANATION
Global Meteoric Water Line: Surface water - loss zone
δD = 8δ18O + 10 # Well - Deadwood aquifer
Artesian spring Well - Madison aquifer
Headwater spring - Deadwood aquifer Well - Minnekahta aquifer
Headwater spring - Madison aquifer
# Well - Minnelusa aquifer
Headwater spring - Minnelusa aquifer

Figure 73. Relation between δ18O and δD in Black Hills samples in comparison to the Global Meteoric Water
Line (Craig, 1961) (from Naus and others, 2001).

124 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 A generalized distribution of δ18O values for
near-recharge areas is shown in figure 74. Sampling
sites and values from which contours were derived also
are shown in figure 74. Sites considered generally are
located in or near recharge areas and probably are
affected primarily by localized flowpaths.
In near-recharge areas, δ18O values are influ-
enced primarily by orography and storm patterns. Pre-
cipitation in the northern Black Hills generally is
isotopically lighter than in the south because of rela-
tively high altitudes and the influence of Pacific storms
that are isotopically depleted in crossing the Rocky
Mountains. The generally lower altitudes in the
southern Black Hills, combined with warm weather
patterns from the south-southeast, result in precipita-
tion that is isotopically heavier than in the north (Back
and others, 1983; Busby and others, 1983; Greene,
1997). The resulting distribution of isotopes in near-
recharge areas of the Black Hills serves as a natural
tracer for ground-water flowpaths.
Temporal variability in δ18O values for selected
surface-water and ground-water sites is shown in
figure 75; locations for these sites were provided by
Naus and others (2001, p. 42-44). Temporal variability
for ground-water samples generally is small relative to
surface-water samples (fig. 75). The temporal vari-
ability in δ18O values for selected loss-zone streams
(Spring Creek, Rapid Creek, and Boxelder Creek)
(figure 75A) is due to seasonal variability in isotopic
composition of precipitation. Data sets for selected
headwater springs (Rhoads Fork and Castle Creek) are
somewhat limited, but indicate less variability because
of mixing associated with ground-water storage. Thus,
for the wells and headwater springs shown in figure 74,
variability in δ18O was assumed by Naus and others
(2001) to be small and values were considered repre-
sentative of average isotopic composition in near-
recharge areas.
Tritium, which beta-decays to 3He with a half-
life of 12.43 years (Clark and Fritz, 1997), is produced
naturally in small concentrations by cosmic radiation in
the stratosphere. Naturally occurring background con-
centrations of tritium in continental precipitation are
estimated to range from 1 to 20 TU (tritium units),
depending on location (Michel, 1989). One TU is
defined as one 3H atom per 1018 atoms of hydrogen,
which is equivalent to 3.19 pCi/L (picocuries per liter)
in water (International Atomic Energy Agency, 1981).
Because of nuclear-bomb testing during the 1950’s and
1960’s and a subsequent treaty limiting such tests,
tritium concentrations in atmospheric water increased
sharply in 1953, peaked in 1963, and then declined.
Current sources of tritium, such as nuclear power pro-
duction, contribute to atmospheric tritium concentra-
tions that are slightly higher than background
concentrations prior to nuclear testing.
Numerous factors limit capabilities for age-
dating of ground-water. One important factor is impre-
cise data for tritium concentrations in precipitation for
the Black Hills area. Estimates by Naus and others
(2001) are shown in figure 76, along with decay curves
for selected 12-year increments that approximate the
half-life decay of tritium. Estimates were derived pri-
marily from data by Michel (1989) that were based on
measurements at Ottawa, Canada (fig. 77) and other
remote locations. Seasonal variability in tritium con-
centrations in precipitation (fig. 77) is another limiting
factor. The composition of recharge water also can be
affected by streamflow recharge, which is inherently
older than precipitation. Especially large age differ-
ences can occur for streams such as Spearfish Creek or
Rapid Creek, where large proportions of flow may
originate from discharge of headwater springs.
Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 125
 104o 45' 103o30'
EXPLANATION
Indian OUTCROP OF MADISON

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl LIMESTONE (from Strobel

e
Cr Newell
BE eek
LL
E
Cr
ee and others, 1999)
Nisland k
F
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC
OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA
HE RIVER
Hay Cre
ek FORMATION (from Strobel

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale and others, 1999)
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO LINE OF EQUAL δ18O--Interval
-15

k
Cree
Cox
Lake Cr
Saint 1 per mil
ow Onge
-15.58 lch CAVE--Number indicates δ18O
reek
Gu Spearfish C -13.33
Cr

30' value in per mil

h

m
Gulc

Botto
Whitewood
ek
Cre

-16.91 HEADWATER SPRING--Number

d
oo
se eek
Bear

Higgins

Cr

ew
indicates δ18O value in per mil
Fal

te -14.61
fish

hit
-16.96 t
-16.93 Bu

W
ear
Cr

Squ STURGIS Creek

Central
Sp

Tinton
STREAMFLOW GAGING
aw

Cr CityCr li
Iron
er

ood DEADWOOD lka 103o

15'
v

-16.59
Bea

dw

A
-16.01ar -12.59 STATION--Number indicates
Cr

Be
De

Cr Lead
Cr

h An
nie Cr
δ18O value in per mil. The δ18O
ail

Strawberry
s

-14.63
Little Spearfi

i t et

Cr
-16.24 values are contoured using the
El
Wh

k Tilford
k

-15.74
ee

-14.61 approximate centroid of the

Cr

Roubaix Little Cree

-17.59 El reek k basin
15' k
C
N. F

-16.56 Bo
ish
-17

xe
-13.96 Piedmont
o rk
f

ld
Spear

e r
-14.06
Ellsworth WELL COMPLETED IN THE
R api

S. F Air Force
ork
Rap
Nemo Base -14.63 MINNEKAHTA AQUIFER--
d Cr

-16

-15

Cold Sp id C -15.35 Blackhawk

Number indicates δ18O value

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
For
k Box Elder in per mil
gs

Rochford
k

s -16.96
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

d
a N. Fo
rk C Rap
o
Rh

a s tl id
eC
r RAPID CITY
Beav
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree
k

C pid
e

Cr
stle

Reservoir
ee -13.49
reek

Cre
eek

-13.33
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
-16.41 Reservoir
-14

o S. F
44
r
e C

ork
C astl -12.59
ing Sheridan Cr
Spr Lake Rockerville ee
k
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore
National Keystone
Memorial
3

anyon Harney Hayward

-1

Peak -11.51
C
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa
CUSTER CO n e C Cr
-12

re ek ee
-14.60
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

Cr

Fre G
tte nch CUSTER
ac
Red

e -11.58
ill
e

G ge
C o o li d
45'
Cr

CUSTER
Jewel Cave
eek

-11.58
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument STATE
Beaver

Fre Fairburn
Canyon

nch
WYOMING

-14.27 PARK k
ee
-13.41 Cr
Highla
Lam
nd

Creek
yon

Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Can

-12.28
Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
ny
Dewey -12.25 Beav
er
d
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
-12.44 Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
e

o t Brook
k

Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
Cr
43o15' od
Reservoir Cr
ee
k
wo
eek
on
Cott

Igloo
Cr

Provo
t
Ha

0 10 20 MILES
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996 0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

Figure 74. Generalized distribution of δ18O in surface water and ground water in near-recharge areas (from Naus and
others, 2001).

126 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 -10
A Rhoads Fork
-11 x Castle Creek
Boxelder Creek
Rapid Creek
-12 Spring Creek

-13

-14

-15

-16
x
x xxx x x
x
-17

-18
-12.5
+ ++
B Black Hills Power & Light + + +
Rapid City No. 6
Westberry Trails - Madison
-13.0 x Rapid City No. 10
Rapid City No. 8
+ Rapid City No. 9
δ18O, IN PER MIL (‰)

Rapid City No. 5

City Springs
+
-13.5

-14.0

x x
x x
-14.5

-15.0
-11.5

C + +
++++ + x +++
-12.0 + x x
x xx x
x xx x
x x x

-12.5

-13.0

Highland Hills
Carriage Hills Main Well
Chapel Lane Madison
-13.5 x Rapid City No. 11
Hart Ranch
+ Pine Grove
Cleghorn Springs

-14.0
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 75. Temporal variation of δ18O for selected sites (from Naus and others, 2001). Graph A shows
selected loss-zone streams and headwater springs. Graphs B and C show selected wells and artesian
springs.
Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 127
 10,000
7,000 Tritium concentration in
5,000 precipitation for Black
4,000 Hills area
3,000
Decay curves
2,000 1974
1986
1998
1,000
TRITIUM CONCENTRATION, IN TRITIUM UNITS

700
500
400
300

200

100
70
50
40
30

20

10
7
5
4
3

1
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 76. Estimated tritium concentrations in precipitation for Black Hills area and decay curves for selected years.
Decay curves depict decayed tritium concentrations for selected sampling years. Maximum tritium concentrations of
about 4,200 tritium units occurred in about 1963. Tritium has a half-life of about 12.43 years and decay curves are
presented for selected 12-year increments that approximate this half-life. Using 1963 as an example, the tritium
concentration in a sample collected in 1974 containing water recharged in 1963 would be equal to about 2,200 tritium
units. The tritium concentration would have decayed by almost one-half to 1,100 tritium units for a sample collected
12 years later in 1986, and again by about one-half to about 600 tritium units for a sample collected in 1998.

128 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 10,000
7,000
5,000 Ottawa, Canada
4,000
Black Hills area
3,000
2,000
TRITIUM, IN TRITIUM UNITS

1,000
700
500
400
300
200

100
70
50
40
30
20

10
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 77. Monthly tritium concentrations in precipitation at Ottawa, Canada. Samples collected in Black Hills
area of South Dakota also are shown (from Naus and others, 2001).

Another important consideration for age dating
is ground-water mixing conditions, which can be
highly variable because of large heterogeneity within
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers. Naus and others
(2001) presented three simplified conceptual mixing
models (fig. 78) that were used in evaluating ground-
water ages and mixing conditions for the Black Hills
area.
The first conceptual model (fig. 78A) depicts
slug flow (often termed pipe or piston flow). The decay
curves presented in figure 76 would be applicable for
slug-flow conditions. For the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers, a slug-flow model could approximate ground-
water flow conditions in dual-porosity settings if the
dominant flow proportions are in continuous fractures
and solution openings, with minimal contributions
from the low-porosity matrix, dead-end fractures, or
discontinuous solution openings.
The second conceptual model (fig. 78B) depicts
the “immediate-arrival” mixing model, which gener-
ally is applicable for locations with water-table condi-
tions within outcrop areas, such as headwater springs.
For this scenario, water recharged during a given year
is mixed with equal proportions of water recharged
during previous years. For the hypothetical spring with
a maximum traveltime of about 10 years that is shown
in figure 78B, 10 percent of the water recharged during
the current year is discharged as springflow during that
same year. The remaining 90 percent of the water dis-
charged is composed of equal proportions of water
recharged during each of the previous 9 years.
The third conceptual model (fig. 78C) depicts
the “time-delay” mixing model, which assumes a delay
time before any recharge water reaches a discharge
point. This model generally is appropriate where an
upper confining unit is present and wells or springs are
located some distance from outcrops areas, which is
applicable for many locations around the periphery of
the Black Hills, especially where confined conditions
occur. For example, the hypothetical artesian well
shown in figure 78C withdraws a mixture of water that
was recharged during a 50-year period from 1929 to
1978. The minimum traveltime (delay time) in this case
is 20 years; in other words, the earliest arrival of
recharge water is delayed by about 20 years before
reaching the discharge point. The maximum traveltime
is 70 years.

Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 129

 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 etc. Flow
direction
A Slug flow or pipe flow - negligible mixing with delayed arival

1998 Precipitation

1998
1997 Aquifer
1996 outcrop
90% in storage 1995
10% discharged 1994
1993
1992
Water table 1991 10% in storage
1990 90% discharged
1989 Spring

Confining unit Stream

channel

B Hypothetical water-table spring with maximum traveltime of 10 years - thorough mixing

with immediate arrival

1998 Precipitation

Aquifer outcrop/recharge area

Well Potentiometric surface

Water table

1998 Conf
ining
1988 unit
Aquifer 1978
1968
1958
1948
1938
Confi 1928
ning u
nit

C Well completed in artesian aquifer at considerable distance from recharge area - thorough
mixing with delayed arrival

Figure 78. Schematic diagrams illustrating mixing models for age dating for various ground-water flow
conditions (from Naus and others, 2001).

130 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 The immediate-arrival and time-delay mixing
models are based on various assumptions including
equal annual recharge from year to year. Routine viola-
tion of this assumption (fig. 68) is one limitation for
these conceptual models. A larger limitation is the non-
homogeneous hydraulic characteristics that commonly
occur and result in nonuniform mixing conditions
within the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers. Given the
large range of hydraulic characteristics, the simplified
models cannot address all of the complex mixing and
flow conditions that occur. The models do, however,
provide a mechanism by which finite numerical age
estimates can be derived for water samples.
Decay-curve families for these two mixing
models for various sample-collection years were pre-
sented by Naus and others (2001). Example curves for
a 1995 sample-collection date, which was a midpoint
for the main sampling period for the study, are pre-
sented in figure 79. The graph includes a family of
curves depicting minimum traveltimes, or delay times,
in 4-year increments. The 0-year delay curve in
figure 79 is applicable for the immediate-arrival
mixing model (fig. 78B), and the other curves are
applicable for the time-delay mixing model (fig. 78C).
Using a sample concentration of 50 TU as an
example, the immediate-arrival model (0-year delay
1,000
700
500
TRITIUM CONCENTRATION, IN TRITIUM UNITS
400
300
200
100
70
50
40
30
20
10
7
5
4
3
2
1
1800
Figure 79. Decay-curve family for delayed-arrival mixing model for a 1995 sampling date (from Naus and others,
2001). Each curve shows average decayed tritium concentrations, for hypothetical mixes over time, for specified
delay times that are provided in 4-year increments.
curve) indicates two possible solutions, including equal
annual recharge during about 1964-95 or 1930-95
(fig. 79). Two solutions also are possible for time-delay
scenarios with delay times less than about 24 years.
Using the 20-year delay curve for the same example,
the concentration would indicate recharge during about
1969-75 or 1915-75. Because multiple solutions are
possible for most sample concentrations, two or more
samples usually are necessary for making general esti-
mations of ground-water age.
Isotope Distributions and General Considerations
Distributions for δ18O and tritium are presented
in this section. Various general considerations associ-
ated with the isotope distributions also are discussed.
Distributions of δ18O values in Madison and
Minnelusa wells and selected springs are shown in
figure 80. Samples from sites considered representa-
tive of the isotopic composition of recharge in the study
area were presented earlier in figure 74 and are
excluded from figure 80. Distributions of stable iso-
topes generally are consistent with spatial patterns in
recharge areas (fig. 74), with isotopically lighter pre-
cipitation generally occurring at higher altitudes and
latitudes.
0 year
4 year
8 year
12 year
16 year
20 year
24 year
28 year
32 year
36 year
40 year
1850 1900 1950 2000
CALENDAR YEAR
Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 131
 104o 45' 103o30' EXPLANATION
Indian OUTCROP OF MADISON LIMESTONE (from Strobel

Hors
Belle Fourche
44o45' Reservoir Cr
Owl and others, 1999)

e
-17.80 Cr Newell
BE eek
LL Cr
E
Nisland
ee
k OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION (from
-17.07 F
BELLE FOURCHE O UR Strobel and others, 1999)
CHE RIVER
ek
Hay Cre WELL COMPLETED IN MADISON AQUIFER--Number

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
-15.34
-16.67
-17.46TER RI MEADE CO
-12.55 indicates δ18O value in per mil
REDWA LAWRENCE CO
Cox

k
-16.88

C ree
Lake WELL COMPLETED IN MINNELUSA AQUIFER--
-17.43 C -16.95 -16.71 Saint
-17.07
ro
w -16.36
Onge -13.61 Number indicates δ18O value in per mil
-17.19 -16.98 h
Cree

lc reek
30' -17.28Gu Spearfish C
-16.65 ARTESIAN SPRING--Number indicates δ18O value in
k
h

m -13.79
Gulc

-16.66 -16.84 per mil

Botto
Whitewood
ek
Cre

d
-15.90

oo
eek
r

se
Higgins
Bea

-16.13 Cr

ew
Fal
sh

tte

hit
rfi

Bu

W
ea
Cr

Sq -15.11 STURGIS Creek

Sp

Tinton Central
ua

-17.19
C
on r CityCr li
w

Ir lka -15.04 103o

ver

DEADWOOD
dw
ood 15'

A
Bea

Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

ie
h Ann Cr Strawberry
il
s

iteta
Little Spearfi

Cr -15.61 Tilford
Wh

k
El -15.52 -13.79
eek

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek k -13.45
15' k
C
-13.61
N. F

Bo
fish xe Piedmont -13.68
ld
Spear

o rk R

er Ellsworth
S. F -13.90 Air Force -13.40 MEADE COUNTY
apid Cr

ork Nemo Base PENNINGTON COUNTY

eek
Rap -14.18 -13.66
-14.13

Cr
Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r -13.25
Cree in

eek
For
k Box Elder -14.40
gs

Rochford
k

s Boxelder
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

d
a N. Fo
rk C Rap -14.15
o

-14.43
Rh

a s tl e id RAPID CITY
Cr -14.38
Beav
-14.35 -14.25
Ca

-12.55
R
City
stl

Pactola Creek ap -14.28 -13.95

Springs
er

C ree
k

C
e

Cr id
stle

ee Reservoir -14.30
reek

Cre -13.65 -14.23

eek

Li
Ca

ek m
Vi -14.37 -14.38
k

e -13.70 Creek
Cr

Deerfield ct o ria -13.94

Cr
Reservoir Spring

ee
44 o -13.83 -14.38

k
r

S. F -13.69
e C

ork -14.16 -14.40

pid
-13.11
C astl

Ra
Rockerville Cleghorn/
ek Sheridan Cr -12.70
Jackson RAPID CITY
-12.77
Cre Lake ee Springs
-11.89 k -12.92 Canyon
Hill City
Mt. Rushmore -12.44 Lake -12.90 -13.90
National Keystone ek -12.35
ing

Memorial id -12.09
Cre
-12.06 Rap Tittle
Spr

anyon Harney
Hayward Springs -12.05
-12.13
C

eek
Peak
Canyon

PENNINGTON CO x -12.09
Ba Cr
C anyon

Spoka -11.62 ttle Hermosa Victo

CUSTER CO ne ria -12.44
C-11.98
reek Cr
ee
es

k -12.26
k

Bea
Bol

ee
bird

r ulch
Gr

-12.66
Cr

-15.88 ette Fre G

-16.32 nch CUSTER
ac
Red

ill -11.68
e

G ge
C o o li d -12.78 -12.51
45' -11.50 Spring Cr
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER eek

-12.36
eek
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument STATE
-11.75
Fren Fairburn
Canyon

ch -12.27
Beaver
WYOMING

PARK
e ek
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

-17.23 -14.21
Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Dewey -11.93 -11.96
Beave ny
d

r
Re

-14.27 R
-14.10 VE
Hell

-12.13 -12.38 Cre RI

Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO -14.86

H n -16.71
nyo
ek

o t Brook
-14.88 Ca HOT SPRINGS
-13.87
Minnekahta -15.97 Fall-15.43 Oral
R
-16.59
-15.15 Cascade
CH
EY

Springs
-15.23
EN
N

-15.40
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
Cr
43o15' od
Reservoir Cr
ee
wo k
k
on

ee

Igloo
Cott

Cr

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,

Provo 1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
-17.09 Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996
t
Ha

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13 0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 80. Distribution of δ18O in samples from selected Madison and Minnelusa wells and springs in the Black Hills area
(modified from Naus and others, 2001). Sampling dates are through 1998, with mean values shown for sites with multiple
samples.

132 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 The effects of recharge altitude are apparent in
some areas. The δ18O values are lighter in the Madison
aquifer than in the Minnelusa aquifer for 10 of 13 well
pairs shown in figure 80 because the Madison aquifer
generally is recharged at a higher altitude than the Min-
nelusa aquifer. The Madison aquifer also is influenced
by preferentially larger volumes of isotopically light
streamflow recharge, relative to the Minnelusa aquifer.
The δ18O values for samples from a Madison/
Minnelusa well pair at Tilford (fig. 80) are somewhat
lighter than in nearby outcrop areas (fig. 74) and are
distinctively lighter than for samples from a Madison/
Minnelusa well pair at Piedmont and for the artesian
spring between Tilford and Piedmont. The spring and
the Piedmont wells probably are influenced predomi-
nantly by recharge on nearby outcrops, whereas the
Tilford wells probably are influenced predominantly
by streamflow recharge from Elk Creek.
In the southern Black Hills, the δ18O values for
samples from sites near Battle, Grace Coolidge, and
French Creeks (fig. 80) are isotopically heavier than
for any other part of the Black Hills area and are similar
to values for nearby streamflow loss zones (fig. 74).
Along the southern and southwestern flanks of the
uplift, δ18O values for samples from most wells and
springs (fig. 80) are much lighter than estimated values
for near-recharge areas immediately nearby (fig. 74),
indicating either recharge areas to the northwest or
possible influence of regional flow from the west, as
discussed in subsequent sections of this report.
Distributions of tritium in Madison and
Minnelusa wells and selected springs are shown in
figure 81. Large spatial variability in concentrations
occurs near outcrop areas, which reflects large vari-
ability in mixing conditions and aquifer characteristics
(heterogeneity). Most samples from wells that are far
removed from outcrop areas have low, or nondetectable
(<0.3 TU) tritium concentrations. Concentrations
noted as <0.3 TU are equivalent to about <1.0 pCi/L,
which is the method reporting limit (MRL) for most of
the laboratory analyses that have been performed. Sam-
ples reported as <0.3 TU are assumed to be composed
primarily of water recharged prior to initial influence of
nuclear testing during the early 1950’s (pre-bomb
water), regardless of mixing conditions (Naus and
others, 2001).
Samples with tritium concentrations that equal
or slightly exceed the MRL also are dominated by pre-
bomb water, but probably are showing the presence of
some proportion of modern water (recharged since the
early 1950’s). For concentrations between 0.3 and
1.0 TU, the detection of modern water is fairly certain,
from an analytical standpoint, and would indicate
either: (1) the initial arrival of modern water for slug-
flow conditions; or (2) at least some proportion of
modern water for all mixing conditions.
Given the uncertainty in estimation of tritium
concentrations in recent precipitation (since about
1992) for the Black Hills area, concentrations as low as
10 TU (fig. 76) may be possible for recently recharged
water. Thus, for samples with tritium concentrations
between about 1 and 5 TU, dominant proportions of
pre-bomb water generally can be assumed. For concen-
trations greater than about 5 TU, it is difficult to make
generalizations because of numerous possible mixing
scenarios; however, for all mixing conditions, the prob-
ability of dominant proportions of modern water
increases with increasing tritium concentrations.
Boxplots showing the distribution of tritium in
samples collected during 1990-98 from wells, head-
water springs, artesian springs, and streams upstream
from loss zones in the Black Hills area are presented in
figure 82. Concentrations for samples from streams
upstream of loss zones generally are comparable with
estimated concentrations for precipitation in the Black
Hills area since about 1985 (fig. 76). As a group, head-
water springs have the highest tritium concentrations,
which generally indicates relatively large proportions
of modern water. Potential age ranges for selected
headwater springs were estimated by Naus and others
(2001) using the immediate-arrival mixing model.
Concentrations for samples generally are lower from
wells than artesian springs, which probably tend to
develop near preferential flowpaths that may be further
enhanced by dissolution activity and thus are associ-
ated with relatively faster traveltimes than flowpaths to
wells.
Tritium distributions for the ground-water sites
(fig. 82) provide evidence that the mixing models illus-
trated in figure 78 have general applicability. The
lower end of the range of tritium concentrations for
headwater springs is much higher than for the wells and
artesian springs, which is consistent with the concept of
an immediate-arrival mixing model in outcrop areas for
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers. The lower end of
the range of concentrations for wells and artesian
springs is near zero, which supports applicability of the
time-delay model in areas where an upper confining
layer is present.
Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 133
 104o 45' 103o30' EXPLANATION
Indian
OUTCROP OF MADISON LIMESTONE (from Strobel and others,

Hors
44o45' Belle Fourche
Reservoir Cr 1999)
Owl

e
Newell
BE Cr
eek Cr
OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION (from Strobel and
LL
E ee others, 1999)
Nisland k
F
BELLE FOURCHE OU
RC
HE RIVER TRITIUM CONCENTRATION, IN TRITIUM UNITS--Colors used
ek
Hay Cre represent the different categories: Madison aquifer (red);

V ER
BUTTE CO Vale
Minnelusa aquifer (green); headwater spring (cyan); and artesian
ER RI MEADE CO
R E D W AT LAWRENCE CO spring (blue). The different sizes represent the tritium units

k
Cree
Cox Saint
Lake Cr Onge Less than 0.3 10.0 to less than 20.0
ow
0.3 to less than 1.0
Cree

lch reek 20.0 to less than 40.0

Gu Spearfish C
30'
k
h

m
Gulc

1.0 to less than 5.0

Botto
Whitewood Greater than 40.0
ek
Cre

d
oo
eek
r

se
Higgins
Bea

Cr 5.0 to less than 10.0

ew
Fal
sh

tte

hit
rfi

Bu
W
ea
Cr

Sq STURGIS Creek
WELL COMPLETED IN MADISON
Sp

Tinton Central
ua

Cr li
Iron CityCr
103o
w

lka 15'
er

ood DEADWOOD AQUIFER

v

dw

A
Bea

Cr ar
Cr

Be
De

Lead
Cr

h ie
Ann Cr Strawberry
WELL COMPLETED IN MINNELUSA
il
s

iteta
Little Spearfi

Cr Cr
ee
Tilford AQUIFER
Wh

k k
El
HEADWATER SPRING
eek

Little
Cr

Roubaix Cree
El reek Elk k
15' k ARTESIAN SPRING
C
N. F

Bo
fish xe Piedmont
ld
Spear

o rk R

er Ellsworth
S. F Air Force
apid Cr

ork Nemo Base

Rap
Cold Sp id C Blackhawk

Cr
r r
Cree in

eek
k Box Elder
For
gs

Rochford
k

s
LIMESTONE PLATEAU

d
a N. Fo
rk Rap
o

Cas
Rh

tl id
eC RAPID CITY
Beav r
Ca

Ra
stl

Pactola Creek
er

C ree
k

pi
e

C Cr
stle

ee Reservoir d
Cre
reek

eek
Ca

Vi ek
k

Cr

Deerfield ct o ria
o Reservoir Spring
44 S. F
r
e C

ork City Springs

C astl Rockerville
ek Sheridan Cr
Cre Lake ee Li
k m
Hill City e k
Mt. Rushmore
Cree
National Keystone
ing

Cr
Memorial

ee
Spr

anyon Hayward

k
Harney
C

Peak
Canyon

d
x

pi
PENNINGTON CO

Ra
Batt
C anyon

Spoka le Hermosa Cleghorn/

CUSTER CO ne Jackson
Cre Cr
ek ee Springs
es

k
k

Bea
Bol

ee

Canyon
bird

r Gulch
Gr

Cr

tte
Fre
nch CUSTER Lake RAPID
ac

lle
Red

Gi ge CITY
C o o li d
45' ek
Cr

Jewel Cave CUSTER Cre

eek

Tittle
SOUTH DAKOTA

National
Monument Springs
STATE
Fren Fairburn
Canyon

ch
Beaver
WYOMING

PARK k
ee
Cr
on
ny

Highla
Ca

Lam
nd

Creek
Wind Cave
e

Pringle National Park

Cr
ee
k

Wind Jo
Cave hn
Beave ny
Dewey
d

r
Re

R
VE
Hell

Cre RI
Buffalo Gap ek
30'
Cre

FALL RIVER CO H n
nyo
ek

o t Brook
Ca HOT SPRINGS
Minnekahta Fa
ll Oral
R
CH

Cascade
EY

Springs
EN
N
E

Edgemont Ho
rse
k he
ee Angostura ad
o Cr Reservoir Cr
43 15' od ee
k
wo
eek
on

Igloo
Cott

Cr

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,

Provo
1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996
t
Ha

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13 0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 81. Tritium occurrence for selected sample sites in Black Hills area (modified from Naus and others, 2001).
Sites considered include only those sampled during the 1990’s with the most recent concentration shown for sites with
multiple samples. Higher tritium concentrations indicate larger proportions of modern water.

134 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

 70
68 9 19 12

TRITIUM CONCENTRATION, IN TRITIUM UNITS

60

EXPLANATION
50 68 Number of samples
Maximum
90th percentile
40
75th percentile
Median
30 25th percentile
10th percentile
Minimum
20

10

0
Wells Headwater Artesian Streams
springs springs upstream from
loss zones
SITE TYPES

Figure 82. Boxplots of tritium concentrations for selected ground-water and surface-water samples
collected during 1980-98 in the Black Hills area (from Naus and others, 2001).

The tritium distributions also provide evidence Rapid City Area

that purely slug-flow conditions probably are
uncommon within the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers. For slug-flow conditions, water recharged
between about 1962 and 1970 would have tritium con-
centrations of about 70 TU to as much as several hun-
dred TU for all sample dates prior to 1998 (fig. 76).
Tritium concentrations for the 96 ground-water sam-
ples collected since 1990, however, are uniformly less
than 70 TU (fig. 82).
Flowpaths, Ages, and Mixing Conditions
A summary of interpretations regarding flow-
paths, ages, and mixing conditions for the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers is presented in this section. Discus-
sions include the Rapid City area and the northern and
southern Black Hills. Regional flowpath consider-
ations are included in discussions of the northern and
southern Black Hills.
Extensive data sets of isotope information are
available for the Rapid City area. In addition, dye
testing in this area has provided useful information
regarding flowpaths, relative ages of ground water, and
mixing conditions. Evaluation of flowpaths and mixing
conditions for the Rapid City area is especially compli-
cated because: (1) recharge generally is dominated by
streamflow losses, rather than precipitation on outcrop
areas (Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001); and (2)
large and variable withdrawals from the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers have occurred. Municipal produc-
tion from the Madison aquifer has increased substan-
tially since about 1990 (Anderson and others, 1999).
Dye testing has consisted of dye injection at a
swallow hole in the loss zone of Boxelder Creek, with
dye recovery documented at locations indicated in
figure 83, many of which are located in the Rapid
Creek drainage basin. The time required (in days) for
the earliest arrival of dye from the dye injection point
on Boxelder Creek to reach the various locations is
shown in figure 83.

Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 135

 103o22'30" 20' 17'30" 15' 103o12'30"
44o10'
-13.45

Dye injection MEADE COUNTY

point on PENNINGTON COUNTY
Boxelder -13.25 -13.40 -13.66
Creek -14.18
eek
X -15.4
Cr
7'30" Area in Madison aquifer where
δ18O values are indicative of
-14.43
Boxelder recharge
some recharge
Creek
from Boxelder Creek
from Boxelder

-14.40

-14.38
49
4.7
-14.35 City30Springs
-14.25 14.5 -13.95
-14.28 41
-14.37
30 Li
-13.65 m 3.7 -14.30
-13.94 40.8 e -13.70 Cree
5' 26 -14.38 k

Cr
31.0 -13.69 -14.23

ee
-14.40
-14.16 -14.38

k
d
pi
-13.83

Ra
Cleghorn/ -13.11
RAPID CITY
Jackson -12.70 -13.90
Springs -12.77 Area in Madison aquifer where
-12.92
Canyon
-12.35 δ18O values are indicative of
-12.44 -12.90 recharge primarily from Spring
Lake Creek
-14.2 -12.05
-12.09
ek
id Tittle Cre -12.13
-12.09
2'30" Rap Springs
eek
Cr

Victo
ria
-12.44
Area
shown
SOUTH
-12.26
-12.66 DAKOTA
44o Study
-12.36 area

Spring -12.78 Creek

-12.51

-12.6 -12.27

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985 0 1 2 MILES
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996; Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13
EXPLANATION 0 1 2 KILOMETERS
OUTCROP OF MADISON LIMESTONE -12.51 WELL COMPLETED IN MINNELUSA AQUIFER--Number indicates
(from Strobel and others, 1999) δ18O value in per mil
OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION -14.45 ARTESIAN SPRING--Number indicates δ18O value in per mil
(from Strobel and others, 1999) 41 DYE RECOVERY AT WELL OR SPRING--Upper number indicates
-12.6 AVERAGE OF δ18O VALUES FOR STREAM 3.7 the time required, in days, for the earliest arrival of dye from injection
AT STREAMFLOW LOSS ZONE point on Boxelder Creek. Lower number indicates tritium concentration,
-12.26 WELL COMPLETED IN MADISON AQUIFER-- in tritium units
Number indicates δ18O value in per mil

Figure 83. Concentrations of δ18O in Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in Rapid City area (modified from Naus and
others, 2001). Average δ18O values for streamflow loss zones also are shown. In addition, traveltimes and tritium
concentrations for sites at which dye recovery was reported by Greene (1999) are shown.
136 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
 A distinct division of stable isotope values is
apparent for the Madison aquifer along Rapid Creek
(fig. 83). Areas south of Rapid Creek reflect isotopic
composition similar to Spring Creek (fig. 83), which is
isotopically heavier than Rapid Creek and Boxelder
Creek (fig. 75). Sites north of Rapid Creek generally
reflect isotopically lighter composition similar to that
of Rapid Creek and Boxelder Creek, indicating a com-
bination of recharge from these areas. Areas that prob-
ably have some influence from water recharged in
Boxelder Creek also are shown in figure 83. The δ18O
values for samples from Minnelusa wells in the Rapid
City area show a general gradation from north to south
of lighter to heavier values, with no distinct division,
which probably indicates larger influence from precip-
itation recharge, than for the Madison aquifer in this
area.
Results of 1993 dye testing in the Rapid City
area (Greene, 1999), in combination with tritium sam-
ples, provide relatively definitive age-dating informa-
tion for several sites. A tritium concentration of
58.1 TU was measured at the dye-injection location
along Boxelder Creek. Two of the wells with dye
recovery (within less than 50 days of injection) had
detectable, but low, tritium values (3.7 and 4.7 TU;
fig. 83), which generally would be considered indica-
tive of large proportions of pre-bomb water. This infer-
ence is reasonable, but somewhat misleading because
the small proportions of modern water in the mix con-
sist of extremely modern water. Unequal mixing of
about 5 to 10 percent very recent water (tritium con-
centration of about 58 TU) with 90 to 95 percent pre-
bomb water (0 TU) was suggested by Naus and others
(2001) as a viable mix for these sites. This scenario is a
noteworthy example of unequal mixing conditions that
can occur in a dual-porosity system.
Time-series δ18O and tritium data provide useful
information regarding mixing conditions and general
ages for numerous other sampling sites in the Rapid
City area. Sites with minimal variability in δ18O values
generally have tritium data indicative of dominant pro-
portions of pre-bomb water, reflecting generally thor-
ough mixing conditions. A number of sites, however,
showed response to temporal δ18O trends in stream-
flow recharge (fig. 75), with associated tritium data
generally indicating relatively large proportions of
modern recharge. Water from several large Madison
production wells located along Rapid Creek had
changes in δ18O values indicative of changes in capture
zones associated with recent production. Potential
changes in ground-water age characteristics at several
wells also were indicated by tritium concentrations for
sequential samples.
Northern Black Hills
Naus and others (2001) examined the possible
influence of regional flow components from the west
for the Madison aquifer in the northern part of the study
area. Samples from two Madison wells just north of the
study area (fig. 84) show influence of regional flow,
with δ18O values (-18.13 ‰ and -19.66 ‰) that are
much lighter than any of the values in the Black Hills
recharge areas (fig. 74). Busby and others (1983) and
Plummer and others (1990) noted samples from
Madison wells near recharge areas in Wyoming near
the Bighorn Mountains with δ18O values as light as
-18.5 ‰ and near the Laramie Mountains as light as
-19.25 ‰. Concentrations of common ions for samples
from the two wells just north of the study area (Busby
and others, 1991) are approximately an order of magni-
tude higher than for samples from wells along the
northwestern flank of the Black Hills and are consistent
with a regional flowpath trending northeasterly from
the Bighorn Mountains in Wyoming (fig. 17).
The δ18O value of -17.80 ‰ for a well sample
northeast of Belle Fourche (fig. 84) indicates possible
minor influence from regional flow; however, the value
of -17.07 ‰ for the well sample at Belle Fourche pro-
vides no indication of regional influence. Ion concen-
trations for the well sample northeast of Belle Fourche
are slightly higher than for the well sample at Belle
Fourche (fig. 34), but are much lower than concentra-
tions for samples from the two wells just north of the
study area (Busby and others, 1991). Ion concentra-
tions also are low for a sample from a well just north of
Nisland (fig. 34). Thus, Naus and others (2001) con-
cluded that regional flowpaths in the Madison aquifer
are largely deflected to the north of the study area.
Regional δ18O values are not available for the Min-
nelusa aquifer; however, values for Minnelusa wells
along the northwestern flank of the uplift (fig. 84) are
similar to those in near-recharge areas to the south and
west (fig. 74).
Several large artesian springs located along the
northern axis of the uplift are a major hydrologic fea-
ture of the northern Black Hills area. These springs are
a major discharge area for the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers (Klemp, 1995), with cumulative discharge of
all artesian springs along the northern flank estimated
as 90 ft3/s for 1987-96 (Carter, Driscoll, Hamade, and
Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 137
 104o30' 104o 103o30'
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Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985
0 10 20 KILOMETERS
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996; Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13

EXPLANATION
OUTCROP OF MADISON LIMESTONE (from WELL COMPLETED IN MADISON AQUIFER--
Strobel and others, 1999; DeWitt and others, -17.09
Number indicates δ18O value in per mil
1989) ARTESIAN SPRING--Number indicates δ18O value
OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION -15.40 in per mil
(from Strobel and others, 1999; DeWitt and
others, 1989)
GENERALIZED FLOWPATH

Figure 84. Distribution of δ18O in selected Madison wells and springs and generalized flowpaths, based on δ18O
values, in the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming (from Naus and others, 2001).

138 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota

Jarrell, 2001). The δ18O values (fig. 80) and tritium
concentrations (fig. 81) for most of these springs are
quite similar, which probably indicates generally thor-
ough mixing conditions resulting from large discharges
(and associated large recharge areas). The tritium con-
centrations are consistently indicative of modern
recharge, which does not necessarily preclude regional
flow contributions, but confirms Black Hills recharge
as the primary recharge component. Multiple tritium
samples are available for several springs and wells
along the northern flank of the uplift. General evalua-
tions of potential age ranges derived using the time-
delay mixing model were discussed by Naus and others
(2001).
Results of water-budget analyses for the
Madison and Minnelusa aquifers (figs. 69 and 70,
table 15) support the geochemical interpretation of
minimal influence from regional flowpaths in the
northern part of the study area. For subarea 1, which
includes the large artesian spring area along the
northern axis, ground-water outflow is estimated to
exceed inflow by about 30 ft3/s. This analysis does not
necessarily preclude a regional ground-water flow
component in the northern part of the study area, but
does support the conclusion of dominance by recharge
in the Black Hills area.
Southern Black Hills
Naus and others (2001) also evaluated the pos-
sible influence of regional flow components for the
Madison aquifer in the southern part of the study area.
Light δ18O values from samples for several sites west
of the study area in Weston County (fig. 84) are indic-
ative of a possible transition zone between regional and
areal flowpaths. Ion concentrations for samples from
wells in this area (Busby and others, 1991) generally
showed little, if any, influence of regional flow, how-
ever. High ion concentrations for samples from several
Madison wells in the southwestern corner of the study
area (fig. 34) indicate possible regional influence, but
cannot necessarily be distinguished from basinward
increases in constituent concentrations. Farther north,
regional influence probably is minor or negligible.
Several large artesian springs located along the
southern axis of the Black Hills uplift comprise another
major discharge area for the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers (Whalen, 1994; Hayes, 1999). For subareas 7
and 8 (figs. 69 and 70), artesian spring discharge aver-
aged about 54 ft3/s during 1987-96 (table 15). Com-
bined streamflow and precipitation recharge for these
subareas averaged only about 14 ft3/s; thus, much of
the recharge for the springs probably occurs in
subarea 9, where recharge averaged about 60 ft3/s.
Considering the three subareas (7, 8, and 9) collec-
tively, ground-water outflow is estimated to exceed
inflow by about 7 ft3/s. This analysis does not neces-
sarily preclude a regional ground-water flow compo-
nent in the southern part of the study area, but does
indicate dominance by recharge in the Black Hills area.
Dominance by recharge in the Black Hills area
also is indicated by the δ18O values for the large
springs (fig. 84), which are notably heavier than
reported regional values (Busby and others, 1983;
Plummer and others, 1990) and essentially preclude
substantial influence from regional flowpaths. This
conclusion is supported by ion concentrations for the
springs (fig. 34 and 35), which are insufficient to be
indicative of regional flow. High sulfate concentrations
for several of the springs reflect influence from disso-
lution of anhydrite within the Minnelusa Formation.
Low, but detectable, tritium concentrations in the
large springs (fig. 81) confirm the influence of recharge
from within the study area, but indicate relatively long
traveltimes. This is consistent with the δ18O values,
which indicate potential recharge areas extending
along the entire southwestern flank of the uplift. Gen-
erally low tritium concentrations for large springs in
the southern Black Hills, relative to concentrations for
springs along the northern axis, may be influenced by
generally smaller recharge rates in the southern Black
Hills.
The δ18O value for Beaver Creek Spring
(-14.10 ‰; figs. 80 and 84) located just northwest of
Buffalo Gap is much lighter than estimated values for
nearby outcrop areas and samples from nearby wells,
which indicates a possible flowpath extending from the
general Hot Springs area. This interpretation also is
supported by a low tritium value for Beaver Creek
Spring (fig. 81), which indicates generally long travel-
times, and by the water-budget analysis, which indi-
cates a substantial flow component to the spring from
west of the uplift axis (figs. 69 and 70, table 15).
Tritium concentrations for artesian springs along
Battle and Grace Coolidge Creeks indicate younger
water than for several nearby wells (fig. 81), which is
consistent with development of artesian springs along
preferential flowpaths. The discharges of these springs
(which are located in subarea 5) are highly variable
(table 15), and probably are influenced primarily by
variability in streamflow recharge, which dominates
recharge in this subarea.
Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 139
Interactions Between Aquifers
Geologic conditions facilitate hydraulic connec-
tion between the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers.
Confining layers in the lower portion of the Minnelusa
Formation probably are influenced by paleokarst
features such as caverns and sinkholes in the upper
Madison Limestone. Extensive fracturing and solution
activity have contributed to enhanced secondary
porosity in both formations and decreased competency
of the confining layers. Potential exists for downward
leakage (from Minnelusa to Madison) in recharge areas
where the aquifers are unconfined (water-table condi-
tions), and for either upward or downward leakage,
depending on direction of hydraulic gradient, where
confined conditions exist. Hydraulic connections prob-
ably occur at various artesian springs, many of which
discharge stratigraphically within or slightly above the
Minnelusa Formation, but may include the Madison
aquifer as a source (Whalen, 1994; Klemp, 1995;
Hayes, 1999). Naus and others (2001) evaluated poten-
tial interactions through analysis of hydraulic and
geochemical information for well pairs and artesian
springs.
Hydrographs for Madison and Minnelusa well
pairs were presented previously in figs. 26-29 and
potential interactions were discussed in the section
“Comparisons between Madison and Minnelusa aqui-
fers.” Hydraulic connection for most colocated wells
cannot be confirmed or refuted because aquifer testing
has not been performed. Of the well pairs with gener-
ally similar hydrographs (fig. 27), hydraulic connec-
tion has been confirmed by aquifer testing (Greene,
1993) only for the City Quarry wells (fig. 27D). These
wells are located near City Springs, where aquifer con-
nection has been confirmed by dye testing (Greene,
1999). Aquifer testing (Greene and others, 1999) pro-
vided no indication of hydraulic connection in the
vicinity of the Spearfish Golf Course wells (fig. 27A).
Hydrographs for many other colocated wells indicate
distinct hydraulic separation and no evidence of direct
hydraulic connection between the aquifers.
Although some exchange of water must occur in
locations where hydraulic head differences occur, Naus
and others (2001) concluded from examination of
geochemical information for colocated wells that gen-
eral leakage between the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers probably does not result in areally extensive
mixing in most locations. The most notable differences
in ion chemistry (figs. 34 and 35) are in concentrations
140 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
of sulfate, which increase with increasing distance
from recharge areas in the Minnelusa aquifer but do not
provide definitive information regarding aquifer
mixing. Although δ18O values for samples from colo-
cated Madison and Minnelusa wells (fig. 80) reflect
generally higher recharge altitudes for the Madison
aquifer than for the Minnelusa aquifer, information
regarding aquifer mixing is inconclusive. Similarly,
tritium concentrations for well pairs (fig. 81) do not
provide conclusive information.
Substantial interactions between the Madison
and Minnelusa aquifers can occur at artesian springs,
many of which have large discharges. Combined dis-
charge of all artesian springs within the Black Hills
area of South Dakota and Wyoming was estimated by
Driscoll and Carter (2001) as 169 ft3/s for 1950-98,
which represents about 46 percent of average recharge
to both aquifers (table 14). Numerous investigators
have identified the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers as
probable sources for artesian springs in the Black Hills,
based on hydraulic properties and geochemical charac-
teristics. The Minnekahta aquifer also may be a con-
tributing source in locations where the Minnekahta
Limestone is present. The underlying Deadwood
aquifer also cannot be discounted as a possible source.
Locations of artesian springs are shown on the
previously presented potentiometric-surface maps of
the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers (figs. 19 and 20).
Hydraulic heads in these aquifers at major spring loca-
tions were estimated from potentiometric-surface maps
and are summarized in table 18, along with the approx-
imate land-surface altitudes near the springs.
Several hydraulic possibilities exist for interac-
tions between the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers at
spring locations, including: (1) water originates only
from the Minnelusa aquifer, with no contribution from
the underlying Madison aquifer; (2) water originates
entirely from the Madison aquifer and passes through
the Minnelusa Formation, with little interaction;
(3) water originates entirely from the Madison aquifer,
part of which discharges at the surface and part of
which recharges the Minnelusa aquifer; and (4) water
originating from both aquifers contributes to spring-
flow. For cases where the Madison aquifer contributes
to springflow, leakage to the Minnelusa aquifer could
consist of either focused leakage in the immediate
vicinity of the spring-discharge point or general
leakage in upgradient locations.
Table 18. Selected hydraulic and geochemical information for major artesian springs
[Modified from Naus and others (2001). ft3/s, cubic feet per second; mg/L, milligrams per liter; <, less than; ≈, approximately equal]

Altitude Hydraulic head

Approxi-
of land (feet above sea level)
mate Sulfate Estimated spring source from previous
Name surface
discharge Madison Minnelusa (mg/L) studies
(feet above
(ft3/s) aquifer aquifer
sea level)
Higgins Gulch 5-10 3,405 3,490 3,550 110 Mostly Madison1
Old Spearfish Hatchery ≈5 3,405 3,500 3,550 340 70 percent Madison, 30 percent Minnelusa1
NcNenny Rearing Pond ≈1 3,400 3,720 3,580 130 Mostly Madison1
Mirror Lake ≈1 3,410 3,720 3,580 1,600 50 percent Madison, 50 percent Minnelusa1
Cox Lake ≈5 3,415 3,705 3,580 545 Mostly Madison1
Crow Creek 30-50 3,355 3,710 3,560 580 --
Elk Creek 0-20 3,450 3,450 3,450 420 --
City Springs 0-5 3,440 3,450 3,450 98 --
Cleghorn Springs 20-25 3,380 3,420 3,380 25 --
Battle Creek 1-10 3,540 3,540 3,540 19 --
Grace Coolidge Creek 0-20 3,650 3,650 3,650 11 --
Beaver Creek Spring 10-15 3,460 3,480 3,480 1,300 Mostly Madison with dissolved
Minnelusa minerals2
Hot Brook Spring <5 3,625 3,700 3,625 76 Mostly Madison2

Evans Plunge Spring <5 3,465 3,610 3,420 540 Mostly Madison2
Fall River 20-30 3,415 3,580 3,360 400 --
Cool Spring ≈2 3,450 3,505 3,450 830 --
Cascade Spring 18-22 3,440 3,495 3,450 1,500 Mostly Madison with dissolved
Minnelusa minerals3
1
Estimated by Klemp (1995).
2Estimated by Whalen (1994).
3
Estimated by Hayes (1999).

Precise quantification of relative contributions
from source aquifers to individual springs is not neces-
sarily possible; however, the Minnelusa aquifer prob-
ably can be discounted as a primary source for springs
located where the Minnelusa Formation is exposed,
which generally precludes confined conditions in the
Minnelusa aquifer. This setting exists at Cleghorn/
Jackson Springs in western Rapid City and at Hot
Brook Spring located just northwest of Hot Springs
(fig. 20). Other artesian springs listed in table 18 occur
in locations where the Minnelusa Formation is con-
fined by overlying units and confined conditions are
assumed for both the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers.
Mapped hydraulic heads at most artesian spring
locations are higher in the Madison aquifer than the
Minnelusa aquifer (table 18, figs. 19 and 20), which
could indicate higher potential for contributions to
springflow from the Madison aquifer, relative to contri-
butions from the Minnelusa aquifer. An alternative line
of reasoning may be plausible, however. Higher
hydraulic head in the Madison aquifer also indicates
relatively competent confinement by the overlying
Minnelusa Formation, which could imply larger contri-
butions from the Minnelusa aquifer. Thus, generalities
regarding dominant contributions to artesian spring-
flow cannot be inferred from comparisons of hydraulic
head.

Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 141

 Discharge characteristics for artesian springs
(table 18) probably are affected by hydraulic condi-
tions at spring locations. Flow variability is minimal
for many artesian springs (Miller and Driscoll, 1998;
Anderson and others, 1999; U.S. Geological Survey,
2000), including McNenny Rearing Pond, Cox Lake,
Crow Creek, Cleghorn Springs, Beaver Creek Springs,
Fall River, and Cascade Springs. Hydraulic heads at
these sites generally are substantially above land sur-
face for one or both of the two aquifers. In contrast, dis-
charge is much more variable for Elk Creek, City
Springs, Battle Creek, and Grace Coolidge Creek. At
these sites, mapped hydraulic heads in both aquifers are
approximately coincident with land-surface altitude.
Contributions from the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers to individual artesian springs cannot neces-
sarily be quantified precisely (Naus and others, 2001)
because of geochemical similarities between the aqui-
fers (figs. 35 and 36). For some springs, high sulfate
concentrations (table 18) could indicate Minnelusa
influence, but may result from dissolution of
Minnelusa minerals by water from the Madison
aquifer. Previous investigators (Whalen, 1994; Klemp,
1995; and Hayes, 1999) used geochemical modeling to
estimate contributions of the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers to selected springs; generalized results are
summarized in table 18. The Madison aquifer generally
was identified as the primary source, with variable con-
tributions from the Minnelusa aquifer, or chemical
influences resulting from residence time within the
Minnelusa Formation.
Saturation indices reported by Naus and others
(2001) indicate that the Madison aquifer is undersatu-
rated with respect to gypsum, even at the highest sul-
fate concentrations. Generally higher hydraulic head in
the Madison aquifer, in combination with gypsum
undersaturation, was concluded by Naus and others
(2001) to be a primary mechanism driving interactions
with the Minnelusa aquifer, in areas where confined
conditions exist. Upward leakage from the Madison
aquifer probably contributes to general dissolution of
anhydrite deposits and development of breccia pipes in
the Minnelusa aquifer. Breccia development may be
especially prevalent in locations where the competency
of intervening confining layers has been decreased by
fracturing or by depositional influences in the Min-
nelusa Formation resulting from paleokarstification of
the Madison Limestone.
142 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Hayes (1999) hypothesized that upward leakage
from the Madison aquifer was contributing to ongoing
development of breccia pipes at Cascade Springs.
Hayes (1999) noted that breccia pipes commonly occur
in the upper Minnelusa Formation, but very few have
been observed in the lower part of the formation. Net-
works of interbedded breccia layers and short, vertical
breccia dikes do occur in the lower Minnelusa Forma-
tion, however, as schematically illustrated in figure 85.
Development of breccia pipes probably contrib-
utes to enhanced vertical hydraulic conductivity in the
Minnelusa aquifer. Breccia pipes are a likely pathway
for upward movement of large quantities of water
through the Minnelusa aquifer at artesian spring loca-
tions. Dissolution processes are an important factor in
a self-perpetuating process associated with develop-
ment of preferential flowpaths and artesian springs.
Preferential flowpaths initially develop in locations
with large secondary porosity and associated hydraulic
conductivity, with ongoing enhancement resulting
from dissolution activity.
Hayes (1999) further hypothesized that many
exposed breccia pipes of the upper Minnelusa Forma-
tion probably are the throats of abandoned artesian
springs. An outward (downgradient) shifting of loca-
tions of artesian springs probably has occurred as
upgradient spring-discharge points are abandoned and
new ones are occupied, keeping pace with regional ero-
sion over geologic time (Hayes, 1999). In response,
hydraulic heads in the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers
have declined over geologic time, as indicated by
exposed breccia pipes located upgradient from Cascade
Springs (Hayes, 1999). Further supporting evidence is
provided by Ford and others (1993), who concluded
that water-level declines of more than 300 ft have
occurred in the Madison aquifer during the last 350,000
years, based on geochemical data for Wind Cave.
Ground water discharging from the Madison
aquifer at artesian springs was referred to as “rejected
recharge” by Huntoon (1985), who hypothesized that
recharge is rejected as transmissivity decreases with
distance from upgradient recharge areas. This hypoth-
esis is consistent with decreasing potential for large
secondary porosity with increasing distance from the
uplift, which results from: (1) decreased deformation
and associated fracturing of rocks; and (2) decreasing
potential for dissolution enhancement associated with
increasing basinward concentrations of dissolved
constituents.
 EXPLANATION
MADISON AND MINNELUSA CONFINING UNIT
AQUIFERS
CAVE
OTHER AQUIFER
BRECCIA PIPE

Water Potentiometric surface

table
of Madison aquifer

Alluvium

Artesian spring
Pr d ig
an
ec n e

In
am o u

ya
De

n
br s r

ad

Ka
ian o c

wo

ra

M
M

in
me ks

G
od

ad

ne
ro
tam

is

up

ka
on
Fo

ht
or

a
rm

Li

Li
ph

M
at

in
es
ic

es
io

ne
to

to
n

lu
ne

ne

sa
Fo
rm
at
io
n
Dip of sedimentary rocks exaggerated
Thicknesses not to scale

Figure 85. Schematic showing breccia pipes and caves in relation to the hydrogeologic setting of the Black
Hills area (modified from Hayes, 1999). Breccia pipes contribute to secondary porosity in the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers and may result from upward leakage from the Madison aquifer, creating conduits for
artesian springs. Arrows show general areal leakage and focused leakage at breccia pipes.

Artesian springs are essentially a “pressure-
relief” mechanism that influence the upper limit for
hydraulic head. As previously noted, springs located
where hydraulic head is substantially above land sur-
face generally have relatively stable discharge. In loca-
tions where hydraulic head is near land surface,
however, discharge characteristics generally are more
variable, with springflow increasing in response to
increasing water levels.
Considering all available information, it was
concluded by Naus and others (2001) that interactions
between the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers are an
important factor governing the hydraulic behavior of
the two aquifers. The exchange of water resulting from
general, areal leakage probably is small, relative to that
which occurs near artesian springs; however, both pro-
cesses probably contribute to the control of hydraulic
heads in the Black Hills area. Interactions between the
aquifers are an important consideration regarding the
hydraulic behavior of the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifer system, which has a major influence on the
overall hydrology of the Black Hills area, as discussed
in the following section.
Influence on Overall Hydrology of
Black Hills Area
The Madison and Minnelusa aquifers strongly
influence the hydrology of the Black Hills area and
have important water-management implications. The
ground-water hydrology of the area is dominated by the
Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, which receive about
84 percent of estimated recharge to all bedrock aquifers
in the study area. The Madison and Minnelusa aquifers
are the most heavily used aquifers in the study area,
with ongoing development occurring to meet steadily
expanding needs for ground-water resources. Surface-
water resources, which also are heavily used in the

Madison and Minnelusa Flow System 143

study area, are influenced by interactions with these
aquifers.
Headwater springflow, which originates prima-
rily from the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers in the
Limestone Plateau area, provides a reliable source of
baseflow in several streams. Relatively stable dis-
charge is an important characteristic of the limestone
headwater springs, which generally are influenced pri-
marily by long-term, rather than short-term, climatic
conditions. Thus, adequate baseflow for sustaining
aquatic populations often can be maintained during
extended periods of dry conditions in streams with sub-
stantial influence from headwater springflow. A gen-
eral absence of direct runoff is another distinguishing
characteristic of areas with extensive outcrops of the
Madison Limestone and Minnelusa Formation.
Streamflow losses that provide recharge to the
Madison and Minnelusa aquifers are another important
influence on the hydrology of the Black Hills area.
Only two streams in the study area maintain perennial
flow through loss zones—Whitewood Creek, in which
the loss zone probably has been sealed by mine tailings
(Hortness and Driscoll, 1998), and Rapid Creek.
Spearfish Creek also would maintain perennial flow
under natural conditions; however, flow is diverted
around the loss zone for hydroelectric power genera-
tion. Utilization of surface- and ground-water
resources upstream from loss zones has potential to
reduce recharge to the Madison and Minnelusa aqui-
fers. In some streams, discharge of limestone head-
water springs can provide a relatively consistent source
of streamflow for subsequent recharge in loss zones.
Streamflow loss zones create potential for direct
introduction of contaminants into the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers, which can have small filtration
capacity and large potential for rapid transport of con-
taminants because of large secondary permeability.
Similar concerns exist for all recharge areas of these
aquifers, regardless of proximity to streamflow loss
zones. The Madison and Minnelusa aquifers are among
the most sensitive of all hydrogeologic units in the
study area, relative to contamination potential (Davis
and others, 1994; Putnam, 2000).
Artesian springflow from the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers is an especially important influence
on surface-water resources in the study area. Artesian
springflow provides large and consistent baseflow for
many streams in exterior areas, where zero-flow condi-
tions commonly occur in streams that are not influ-
enced by artesian springs. This baseflow is especially
144 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
important in maintaining adequate flow for aquatic
populations and for various water-supply needs
including stock water, municipal supply, and irrigation.
In many locations irrigation withdrawals are made
directly from streams. In addition, artesian springs pro-
vide large and consistent baseflow upstream from
Angostura and Belle Fourche Reservoirs, which also
are heavily used for recreational purposes.
As previously mentioned, artesian springs are
essentially a pressure-relief mechanism that influence
the upper limit for hydraulic head in the Madison and
Minnelusa aquifers. These aquifers have a “maximum-
sustainable equilibrium” water level, which is con-
trolled by the discharge of artesian springs, with spring-
flow increasing in response to increasing recharge and
water levels. Conversely, artesian springflow decreases
in response to decreasing water levels. As discussed
previously, hydraulic heads are approximately coinci-
dent with land-surface altitudes near some artesian
springs (table 18). Thus, large-scale well withdrawals
near some artesian springs could diminish springflow
before large-scale declines in water levels would occur.
However, to some extent, the large recharge potential
of the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers may be suffi-
cient to replenish springflow and water levels relatively
quickly during episodic periods of prolonged wet con-
ditions.
Additional insights regarding potential effects of
large-scale development of the Madison and Minnelusa
aquifers can be obtained by reviewing the water budget
for these aquifers for the entire Black Hills area
(including both South Dakota and Wyoming) that was
presented previously in table 14. For this budget, the
dominant outflow component is artesian springflow of
169 ft3/s, which is larger than combined well with-
drawals (28 ft3/s) and ground-water outflow from the
study area (100 ft3/s). Hypothetically, artesian spring-
flow could be replaced by increased well withdrawals
without causing substantial changes in hydraulic
gradient or associated ground-water outflow from the
study area (figs. 69 and 70).
The previous interpretations could provide
insights regarding future management of ground-water
resources and potential influences on surface-water
resources. Many large springs currently have relatively
stable discharge, whereas others, including both small
and large springs, have large variability in discharge
characteristics. Large-scale development of the
Madison and Minnelusa aquifers probably has the
potential to influence the balance of this dynamic
“plumbing system.” Potential effects would be most
pronounced during prolonged drought periods, which
would result in decreased recharge and increased
demand. Although discharges of many artesian springs
respond slowly to changes in recharge conditions (both
decreases and increases), other springs respond more
quickly. Similarly, responses to large-scale increases in
well withdrawals probably would be distinct for partic-
ular withdrawal scenarios.
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