7 Selection of conductors 7.0 Symbols ‘Symbol a An Ane ‘ws G D Dy Dye Dyiss Dats £ Ex Ere Foc Ep BoE Eo f Re a ae Sigfication Cross-sectional area Aluminium erosssectional area ‘Sted eros-setiona area ‘Total conductor crosesectional rea Specific heat Specific heat of aluminium Specific heat of ster Capacitance per unit length ‘Conductor diameter Conductor diameter with ce ‘Mean eonduetor distance ‘Mean conductor distance of dauble cet lines Gnep elongation Creep elongation ater ove hour ‘Modulus of elasticity Modulus of elasiity of alumi Most of elasticity of ste! Specific erection investments ofa double creat ine Specific investments for energy generation Factors used to determine installation investment Frequency Conductor tensile free Tee load per unit length Atitnde above sea-level “Mean conductor height above ground Solar angle fective current Absorption coficent Coeficiont of emission ofa black body ‘Stef Boltsnay constant Spreifie cots of ener loses Specific annual transmission costs Fixed specific annual costs of one circuit Specific costs of power losses Specific transmission costs ‘Conductor mass per unit length ‘Grosssectional ratio of conductor envelope to care (aluminium to ste) Exponent of the ereep elongation ‘Number of subeonductors in a bundle Energy loss by convection Joule heat ‘Magnetic losses Energy input by solar radiation Energy loss by radiation Standard solar radiation ‘Nufllt number Factor for fixed annual costs Power demand factor Specific energy costs Poorer losses196 7 Selection of conductors Symbol Pons Rea iy Frac Roe Ry Re rs Sigfication “Maximum transmitted power Conductor eadins DDC resistance at 20°C Resistance per unit length AC resistance per unit length DC resistance per unit length DC resistane st temperature T Reynolds number Conductor rated tensile stress Subeondictor spacing, Time Annual utilization period Annual utilization period of power losses ‘Temperature, absolute temperature Ambient temperature (absolute) Temperature of the exteral atmosphere (absolute) ‘Transmission voltage Nominal transmission voltage Wind velocity Wind load per unit length Wind lod per unit length wit tow Parameter for skin and spiral efots “Temperature coefcent of resistance ‘Temperature coefciont of resistance of aluminium ‘Temperature conflicent of resistance of stel Specitie mass, density Specie mash of aluminium Specific mass of ster Ange for consideration ofthe geographic orientation CCoefcent of thermal expansion CCoefcent of thermal expansion of aluminium CCoefcent of thermal expansion of steel Dynamic viscosity of air Specie conductivity Sheciie conductivity at 20°C ‘Thermal conductivity of ait Permeability in vac [Relative permeability of material Resistivity Resistivity of aluminium Resistivity of stel ‘Tensile stress ‘Tensile stress of aluminium, Ukimate tensile strength ‘Teme sees of steel, ‘Tene stress of steel wires coresponding to 1% elongation Latitude, power lod angle Angle of line direction tothe north-south axis Tl Conductor types and design 7.1 Introduction Overhead power lines are aimed at reasonable and reliable transmission of electric ‘energy between two points. The conductors carry the electric energy and are, therefore, the most important e uponents of an overhead power line. The expenditures necessary to purchase and install them correspond to something between 30 and 50 % of the7.1 Conductor types and design 197 TBC LOK EN 90182 DIN 48201 Pat § ASTM-B2S1 TEC 6108) EN 60182 DIN 48201 Part 6 ASTM.300 : : DIN 48201 Part 1 ASTM. : : DIN 48201 Part 2 : EN so180 DINA8201 Part 3 ASTM-AgGs ‘Aluminiuncad stool TRC 61089 EN 50182 DIN 48201 Part § ASTALBAIG Acs TBC 61089 EN 50182 DIN 4204 ASTM.B2n2 AACS TEC 61080 BN 50182 DIN 48206 ASTM-BTLL ACSR/AC 5 EN 30182 ASTMEBSIL |AACSR/AC. EN OI? — : Formed wie conductors TEC 62219 = = TEC wss EN 60889 DIN 48900 Pare 5 ASTN-BEA0 ‘Aline alloy TEC 6101 EN SOIR} DIN48200 Pare 6 ASTACBSOS Coppee DIN 48200 Pa 1 ASTACBL Copper alloy : : DIN 49200 Pare ASTAL-BIOS Aluminiumead sted IEC 61252 EN 61252 DIN 48200 Part 8 ASTMLBAIS Sul IEC 6085S _EN50189 DIN 45200 Pa 3 ASTMCASTS ‘Table 7.2: Recommended minimum conduetor eras sections in mn? ‘Nomina voltage Concorde of above LV up kV ‘ACSI according co EN 60182 SEALI/ESTIA 2¢ALi/4STIA ‘Aluminium according to EN 60182 SeALL 2eaLt ‘AACR according to BN 60182 SEALYeSTIA StALy/4STIA ‘Aluminium ally acording to EN 50182 3LALS. DEAL Copper sceordng to DIN GB201 Part 1 25 8-Cu 10a (Copper alloy according to DIN 48201 Part 2 25s 1o-Ba ‘Aluminium cad tel scoring to EN 50182 24A20SA____24A2ISA total investment for an overhead line. Many different types of conductors have been used since overhead lines were first installed. In many industrialized countries there are standards for conductors, and also international ones from IEC [7.1] and CENELEC [7.2]. US American standards like (7.3, 7.4] and [7.5] are of widespread use as well. The EN standards replaced the national standards valid up to now in European countries; e.g in Germany the conduetor standards of the DIN 48200 series (Table 7.1). Prt the standards, the best-suited conductor can be selected for a specific application ‘Besides that, special overhead conductors can also be manufactured, whenever deemed necessary. According to [7.6], conductors are bare or covered, insulated or earthed cables strung Detween the supports of an overhead line, irrespective of whether they are alive or not, Bundle conductors are arrangements of two or more subconductors used instead fof & single conductor and usually kept at an approximately constant spacing om their entire length. According to [7-7], conductors ate wires or combinations of wites not i sulated and suitable for earrying an electric current. Conductors ean be wires, stranded conductors or eables made of electrically conductive materials, but also, in accordance with the definition given in [7.6], non-metallic optical fle cables for velecommunication purposes. Wires will not play any role for overhead lines in the future. Recommended ‘conductor minimum cross sections are given in Table 7.2, in accordance with (7:8). Conductors are made either of one material ~ single material conductors ~ or of to materials composite conductors. Single-mmaterial conductors can be formed by mono-198 7 Selection of conductors ‘Table 7.8: Examples of conductor designations "Type of conductor EN 30182 TEC LGR) Taermtiona Aaaiatam AT wan Alumina alloy soa so.An19 Stet a sTia ssiat9 : Aluminiomcta see 95-4205 : acs. Aluainion/stee DGALI/SOSTIA 248-A1/S1A-26/7 ACS lumii lly tet OALOSTIA AgAysiazey) ANCE Aluminior/aluiniun dad-teel 24-AL3/30-A208A— ACSR/ACS lumii oy 2RYALI/B0-AL ACAR metallic or metal-clad steet wites, Compsite conductors include combinations of mono- metallic and metal-clad steel wires. Aluminium and aluminium alloys, copper and cop- per alloys are applied as base materials, as well as stel. The conductors ate manufac- ‘tured with at least one or more successive layer with changing layer divwction, arranged halically around a core wire. The direction of layer is designed as right-hand or let- hhand. With right-hand layer, the wires conform to the diroction of the central part of the letter Z when the conductor is held vertically. With left-hand layer, the wires conform to the central part of the letter § when the conductor i held vertically. The outermost layer is preferably right-hand. The standards listed in Table 7.1 contain eonduetors often used for overhead power lines. Beside the compositions and conduetor structures mentioned there, other designs ean be found in national standards. Not-standardized special conductor types, in particular types with integrated optical fibres, are adopted! as well 7.1.2 Conductor designation ‘The designation of standardized wires and conductors can be found in the relevant standards as shown in Table 7.1, According to EN 50 182 [7.2], hard-draum alumintum is indicated as ALI and aluminium alloys are indicated as ALx, whore x varies from 2 to 7 (EN 50 183 [7.9}) and refers to standardized alloys usually applied. Stee! wines are identified as STyz, the letter y representing the mechanical strength according to the six different classes standardized by EN 50 189 [7.10]. The letter 2 stands for the type fof zine coating, classes A to E being standardized by EN 50189. Alwniniuon-clad steel wires are identified as yeSA, where y designates the stel strength (y = A or B) and x the conductivity (711). The figure stands for the percentage of conductivity in relation to copper JACS (International Annealed Copper Standard [7.21], see also clause 7.1.4.5). There ate four types of conductivity being 20 SA, 27 SA, 0'SA and 40 SA. ‘The conductors are identified by a code number which corresponds to the cross-sectional area in square millimetres and a code for the material. For composite conductors, the data are separated for the envelope and the conductor core, Table 7.3 presents examples for conductor identifications according to the European standard EN 50 182, jn comparison with the previous Central European identification and North American practice. In North America, UK and France, the conductors have distinguished by names of flowers, birds or animals like Crocus 228 for 185-AL1/43-ST66, Finch for 565-ALI/T2STIA and Lynx for I83-AL1/43-STIA. 7.1.8 Progress in technical development ‘The technical development of conductors for overhead power lines is described in [7.9 7.13] and [7.14]. Copper conductors were used in the intial period of energy transmis-71 Conductor types and design 199 sion via overhead lines around 1880, ‘They were designed considering the mechanical rather than the conductive and electric behaviour of materials, thus the high eouduc- tivity of copper was not utilized to full extent. "Therefore, the employed cross sections were larger than necessary in view of the requited conductivity: Due tothe high weight of eopper, spans were short, which in turn increased the total investment. At the end ofthe 19th century, copper was replaced gradually by aluminium for transmission and distribution lines. The fist overhead power ines adopting aluminium were builtin Cal tm 1805 nnd in Cormany in 1000: "The fot overied power ine wing teven strand aluminium conductor was erocted in Connecticut in 1899 and had been in op- eration for more than 50 years. After these early applications, the use of aluminium, conductors increase continuously, being the practically exclusive material for overhead conductors nowadays. Around the year 2000, aluminium has been used for overhead lines for more than 100 years. Regarding conductivity, aluminium is second in the ran ‘of non-precious metals, behind copper. The ratio of conductivity to weight is twice as that applicable to copper, and the ratio of mechanical strength to weight is approx- ately 30% higher Since the introduction of aluminium in 1900, a higher ratio of mechanical strength to weight of the conductors had been considered advantageous, as compared with pure aluminium, Therefore, a composite conductor made of aluminium and steel was isto- luce in 1907. This conductor conbinel the hw weight ul higher caren expacly of aluminium with the higher mechanical strengths of xine coated ate! core. The ad- ‘vantages achieved by the so-called aluminium conductor stee-reinfored (ACSR) were soon acknowledged; they have been used in Germany sinee 1920 and eaptared the mar- ot within 10 years, by 1990. The good conductivity of the conductors, tether with their favourable ratio of mechanical strength to weight, and their eaxy handling were the reasons why they were almost exclusively applied in overhead power ine projects during the fest half ofthe 20th century. After some experiments carried out in Switzerland in 1921, anew aluminium magnesium alloy, designated as Aldrey in Germany and Almelee in Pance, was introduced dung the 1890's. Mono-metallic conductors were developed with this material, which achieved the same mechanical and electric characteristics a aluminitm-steel conductors, reduced the weight and also improved the corrosion performance. These al lu dlyctors (AAC) and the composite conductors (AACSR), which co with stel cores, represented alteruatives tothe aluniniumsteel eonductors. However, the acceptance of this conductor type, as it sometimes happens to any new product, ‘was not the same in all industsalzed countries. In France, this type of conductor has already been use almost exclusively for many yeas. In other counties, its use was restricted to special applications, because of unexpected problems caused by conductor vibrations During the past years, however, there has been a worldwide trend towards the selection ‘of AAC conductors, preferably to the aluminiumestee! conductors, oF even towards the use of composite conductors made of aluminium ally and sted In most recent years, some innovative conductor designs have appeared in the mazket which comply with the changing requirements of the electricity industry [715], New alloys have been developed, which show a better thermal stability and electric conduc- tivity. Innovative designs improved the vibration endurance capability, besides other special characteristics. ‘The selection oF development of conductors for transmission and disteibution fines has become a demanding tsk from both the iechuical aud the economic pint of view. Selection of the best-suted conductor type and dimension fora certain line requires @ detailed knowledge of the characteristics of commercially available types of conductors ‘The following items should be taken into account for an optimum selection2007 Selection of conductors ics of main conductor materials Mac Standard Densty Specie Specie Temperature Cocficeat esis Con- teal fondue: Beat coefficient ofthemal ity duet tie tresistance expansion “ny a © om eo TACs m/f? WejRk 1K Siun?/n_ 3% Mr Naso 3538 807 — ops 025 oF ‘ALS EN 50183 we 0.909 040036 0.952538 Alt EN 50183 ‘0.909 )0036 Gos 52 ALS BN 5018s (0.909 op036 Gas 54 ALG EN oss ‘0.900 o)pos6 oasio—55 AL? EN oo18s 0.909 0,036 oso 57 TAL — 088.0409 owsts aa STIA EN 50189 ast oi 9 ST2n EN 50189, asi oie 8 STaD EN 50189, ost ° STHA EN 50180, ast ° STSE EN 0180 st 5 Stec EN S180 D381 3 mis EN 6128 sis 2» 908A EN L232 0358 Ey OSA EN LZ sis ” cu ae 109 Ea DIN 48200 04 o Patt Bad DINGS200 S89 4800 OST 110 poms 88 Bal DIN AS20589 36.00 0377 0.088 m0 oom Par? Ban DIN 48200 889 180003770088 10 sss at Par? 7 Annealed copper leciic conductivity and thermal behaviour, ‘Thermal load limits, = Economy of transmission, Mechanical strength of conductor, Mechanical load and stress-stmin curves, = Creep characteristics and the resulting sag increase as well ns Behaviour under vibrations and fatigue strength. 71.4 Materials 4.1 Aluminium Hari-drawn aluminium isthe most frequently used material for overhend ins. 1 shall consist of 99,5 % AL ls 35.8 S conductivity amounts to 61 % of eopper conductivity, and is described as 61 % IACS by the respective standard IEC 6089 [716] Alusninium and its alleys belong, to a group of non-precious metals that shows low cor ‘som resistance even in less aggresive atmospheres. However, aluminium in contact with air builds up a thick oxide layer that protects the metal against corrosion and presets efetive protection even under more aggresive environmental conditions, fr Instance, near the sea. In Table 74, the physical characteristics of conductor materials are presented Its relatively low mechanical strength forms a disadvantageous character-71 Conductor types and design 201 ‘Table 7.5: Mechanical strength characteristics ofthe most important conductor ma- terials ‘Material Standard Modulus of ‘Taal saree at Tensile sires Elongation daisty 2 1% elongation before stranding EN/um! N/mm Njeua™ % Ati ENGosey 60 160 to 300 AL ENSDIES Oo = 315 40 325 Als ENWISS wo = 5 Aa EN a = HS e005 ats 7 = 25 Ate o SM wo 14 Aur o = 25 t0 300 ™ cy = 10 to 190 STIA ENs0s0 207 110019 1370 130001400 304040 STB ENS01s9 207 1000 t0 13001200 to 1300 STID ENS0189 207 100 to 112) 1400 to 1500 STIA ENSO189 207 225101273 162010 167030 e040 STE ENSOIS) 207 15106 142) 162040 1670-31040 St6C EN SDISD ar 150 6 140016000 17m) BOs Ama EN 61252 162 1000 co 12m 1071309 — BHSA ENGLI 155 1100 - rsd ENGI 10 00 ~ asa ENGI2N2 109 0 = ECe DINGS200 150 = - Ba DINGS 190, = 0 = Pare? Batt DIN48200 190, = as — Part 2 an —DINA8200 190 = 108 : Pan? 7 pot sandardied| inti of conductive alumni. Ie ranges from 160 ¢o 200 mun? therefore, aluminium alos o aluminiinstet composite conductors are preferably chosen for trasmsson lines. ARer beng stranded, the characteristics shown in [7.16] and ‘Table 7.5 may be reduced hy 5%. Wires produced i the easting/roling process alo known a8 Propers Blanks, ace almost exchsively used in the production of aluminium wires [7.17) 7.1.4.2 Aluminium-magnesi sm-silicon alloys Six types of aluminium-magnesium-slicon alloys ate given in [7.9], which ean be dis- tinguished by their conductivity and mechanieal strength. They are designated as AL2 to ALT. Their conductivity is between 30,4 and 32,8 m/Omm?, that is between 86 and 93 % of the conductivity of aluminium resulting in 52,5 and 57,5 % IACS. The me- chanical strength is between 255 and 325 N/mm?, which amounts to about as much as 1,6 times the corresponding aluminium value. These mechanical strengths should be ‘obtained also after stranding the conductors. The essential data are given in Tables 7-4 and 7.5. ALx alloys are standardized in EN 1715-2 (7.18). For the production of alu- ‘minjum alloy strands, blank material resulting from the casting/rolling process [7.19] is tused and then drawn to the final diameter. Blank material prepared by the extruding process is expensive and seldom used for overhead conductor strands In the USA, the aluminium alloy named 6201-T81 is most commonly used for overhead line conductors. Its rated strength is around 310 N/mm?, similar to that of ALS listed in Table 75.202 7 Selection of conductors TAB Steel wires Zine-coated stel wines are used for aluminium-stee! composite conductors and also for stool earth wites. In [7.10], six types of steel wires are mentionod: STIA, ST2B, STSD, ST4A, STSE and ST6C, The numbers indicate the mechanical strength and the last ‘capital letter the type of zine coating. The requirements of zinc coating depend on the ‘wire diameter and are as follows: between 150 and 200 g/m? for classes A, C and E; between 370 and 580 g/m? for cass B and betwoen 365 and 825 g/m? for class D. Standard EN'10244-2 [7.20] describes the testing of zine coating. ‘The tensile strength of steel wires is between 1200 and 1800 N/mm®, depending on the steel class and the wire diameter, which is standardized between 1,25 and 4.75, ‘Tables 74 and 7.5 contain the most important characteristics of steel wires. In case ‘of testing of wire samples taken from stranded conductors, their acceptable tensile strength may he 5 % lower than specified in Table 7.5 7.1.4.4 Aluminium-clad steel wires Aluminium-clad stel wires are produced by sintering alumin faRerwards, drawing them to the final strand diameter. ‘This process results in a con Dination of high mechanical strength of steel and, increased conductivity and good resistance against corrosion of alt [7.21]. Im [7.11 ve types of alain tee] wires are standardized with the codes A20SA, B20SA, 27SA, ISA ‘The letter A or B refers to the stoel strength. The numbers indicate the eos percent JACS and correspond to an aluminium portion of 25, 37, 42 and 62 5, respec- tively, ofthe total cross section of individval wires or to a mean thickness of aluminium layers with 13,4, 20,5, 24,5 or 38,4 % of wiee radi. ‘The mechanical strengths depend substantially on the thickness of the aluminium layer (see Table 7.5). The strength data ‘of A20SA wires correspond approximately to those of steel wires STIA. 7.1.4.5 Copper and copper alloys, Conductive copper (E-Cu) and expper wrought alloys with magnesium (bronze) are sel- dom used for overhead lines, howrver, they are still find in ol Fines and ie allway” tlectrie power supply installations, where high mechanical strength and high conduc- tivity are roquired. Nevertheless, the resistivity of annealed copper is used as a com- parative bass fr the resistivity of other materials. The International Annealed Copper standard is expressed in terms of mass resistivity as 05928 Q-g/m*, or the resistance fof « uniform round wire Tm long weighing 1 g at 20°C. An equivalent expression is 0.017241 mmm. The equivalent conductivity is 58 Sm/mm? defined as 100% IACS, Addition of magnesium significantly increases the mechanical strength of eopper wires, ‘but greatly reduces the conductivity, as can be seen in Table 7.4, Since the application ‘of copper conductors is lnited, no international standaed has been prepared so far 7.14.6 ‘Thermal resistant aluminium alloys Hani-drawn aluminium recrystallizes at temperatures above 100°C and looses its me- chanical strength (Figure 7.1). This applies to aluminium-magnesium-sicon alloys as well, Thus, their permissible permanent temperature is Hinited to 80°C [7.6]. Higher reratures are also linked with higher permanent unelastic elongation, which leads to an irreversible increment of sag. To allow operation at higher temperatures and to ‘enable the transmission of higher currents, some zirconium is added to the alwinia ‘This component increases the recrystalization temperature to a value around 200°C, keeping the other characteristics approximately the same. In Figure 7.2, the residual strength of aluminium and Thermal resistant Aluminum (TAL) at 200°C is shown asa7.1 Conductor types and design 208 BOE Bee Tempest —= Pao ce igh tmpaae Figure 7.1: Strength of conductor materials Figure 7.2: Strength of aluminium and TAL depending on the temperature at 200°C ‘op tensile strength before temperature rise ‘oe tensile strength after temperate rise function of the heating period. After the frst 100 hours only an insignificant decrease of the mechanical strength is observed for TAL. The eletric conductivity of TAL is 60 % ACS instead of 61 % for aluminium (see Table 7.4). The mechanical strength is as with aluminium, Conductors made of AlZr alloys [7.22] ean be operated at temperatures of 150°C, whereby correspondingly large sgs cat result, however 7.1.5 Wire testing 7.1.5.1 Introduction [BN 60888, EN 60889, EN 50 183, EN 50189 and EN 61.235 describe testing of various types of metalic wires used for overhead line conductors. Sample tests should be carried ‘out at every 10 % of the wire lengths prepared for stranding. When a sample does not ‘comply with any of the requirements, the clit has « right to rqject the whole lot the ‘sample was taken from. The manufacturer is then allowed to test every single reel or ‘every single coil of blank material and to present those wires for acceptance which have accomplished the requirements. However, in any case, the client will take samples with strands from already stranded conductor. At these samples, the tensile strength may be up to 5 % lower than that required for the wires before stranding. 7.1.5.2 Dimensions and surfaces ‘The wire diameters are given in millimetres and are accurate to two decimal places For ALI to ALZ, permissible deviations given by the standards are: +0,03 mm for diameters up to 8,00 mm and +1 % for larger dianacters ‘The wire surface must be smooth, fee from fissures, cavities, innsions as wel a from ‘impurities like, for instance, copper particles. The same applies to the surface of zine coated steel wires 7.1.5.3 Testing the tensile strength [Every wine sample is submitted to a tensile strength test according to EN 1002-1 [7.23] or [7.24]. The tensile strength measured may not fall below the required values. When carrying out the tensile test, the breaking strain is recorded related to a measuring length of 250 mm. In case of steel and aluminium-clad steel strands, the tensile oad2017 Selection of conduetors corresponding to a 1% elongation relatod to a measuring length of 250 mm is recorded as wel 7.1.5.4 Wrapping and twisting test Every sample is submnitted to a wrapping test in accordance with ISO 7802 [7.25] Bight ‘wrappings ofthe aluminium wire are wound around mandrel with the same diameter as the wire and, then, six turns age wound off and wound up again around the mandrel ‘The wire may not break, For ALx wires, standard EN 50188 requires only winding up of the wires tested, For zine coated steel, the mandrel diameter depends on the classification of material Here, winding up of only eight turns is enough. A twisting fest is also required for steel and aluminium-clad steel wires where a wire as long. 100 times its diameter is ‘wisted around itself and, depending on the steel class and on the wire diameter, should withstand without rupture 10 to 18 rotations in ease of steel wires, or 20 such rotation in case of aluinium-clad steel wires. 1155 Tes ing zinc mass, cladding thickness and uniformity ‘The sine mass of galvanized steel wires can be tested using the volume or the mass method according to EN 1024-2 [720], whereby the zine coating s detached by app! cation of hydrochloric acid ‘The uniformity is tested by applying the zine dip test by ‘dipping in a copper sulphate solution, The required minizanm number of dips depends ‘on the thickness of the zine coating and is specified in [7-10 ‘The cladding thickness and cladding uniformity of aluininiuan-clad steel wires is de- termined either applying the magnetic penetration or by direct measurement on the photomicrograph of a sample embedded in east resi. TA1.5.6 Testing resistivity ‘The resistivity is measured at temperatures betwoen 10 and 30°C in accordance with TEC 60 468 [7.26], The measured resistance Ris adjusted to the reference temperature ‘of 20°C a follows: Ry = Rr/(+a(T 29), (ay where a temperature during measurement, Ry Ray resistance at temperature T’and 20°C, respectively, and a temperature coefficient of resistance (see Table 7.4) ‘The resistivity can be evaluated from the measured diameter ofthe wire and the mea suring Tength. 7.1.6 Conductors made of wires h the same material 7.1.6.1 All aluminium conductors Standards include all aluminium conductors (AAC)as in [7-2], where information is given about many types used in European countries. In Table 7.6, composition and echanical strength ate given as an example for conductors specified in BN 50 182, to- gether with the current carrying capacity (ampacity), which ranges from 110 to 1540 A. ‘The current carrying eapacity applies to 35°C ambient temperature and 0,6 ms wind velocity. Due to the relative small ratio of mechanical strength to weight as well as the high susceptibility to vibrations, ALL conductors are nowadays used mainly in disteibutionTA Conductor types and design 205 Designation Dismeter——Tated—‘DC Strand) Conductor breaking sistance earying strength epaity (ampacty) Sfiem A IAL 1.79800 BEALL nie 16 BEALL ogra AOALL bare m5 weal bao ae oeALL baer m0 BOALL pani a0 ural 246 300, MraALt ioe 66 ALL sss 520 2.AL1 os 20bALL no aODALL 838 Sopa 00 1300 1300 ‘Dwble 7.7: Technical data for conductors made of aluminium alloy (ALS or AAAC) Designation Cross Number Diameter Rated“ DC Current sectional of Strand” Conductor breaking resistance caring ‘ren strands strength capacity (ampacty) oun? om om fn A wale 9ST 2071105 als 272100 135660135 SEALS Ma 72800 asm AL 93. 30090 nes 200 As a8 130300 bos 210 ova 20s oan 335 SoA 2m 5 oss 0 2040 ozs 5 wraLa 225s 26 Bs wets 200s nis 490 DGALS 2005 25 m3 busts 585 dooaLs 2004 230 5 oun 67 awoALs wot 20 m0 dose 810 sooAts W908 325 930 OAL aan 205 6 a, worALs siz 335 1235 o0-ALa 9907 160 networks and substations, where high conductivity is required and the span lengths are relatively short. ‘Their high resistance against corrosion qualifies these conductors also for lines in coastal regions. In USA, all aluminium conductors (AAC) are standardized in ASTM B231 (7.3) 7.1.6.2 All aluminium alloy conductors All aluminium alloy conductors are standardized in [72] with the designation ALx. As an example, AL3 conductors as per EN 50182, Table F.18, ate provided in Table 7.7 Depending on the diameter of the individual strands, the rated breaking strength for206 7 Selection of conduetors ‘Table Tate Techical data for conductors made of aluminiunclad steel (A20SA) Designation Cros Number Diameter Rated Caren sectional of Strand Conductor breaking resistance caring rea strands strenge ‘apie (anpacty) mo Nm a EARSA 10680 on Se AaOsA 250 Tao ack 2 og %» GARSA fm Sm os) Tem Go-A208A ao SITS 55.A205A 230 15s og ASA, 2a 01677195 MTAmISA 2368S OsaRL UAWSA 816 20 SB OTEL DSAMSA 2025 25-03 500 Og ID 2WADSA 20054 230250285 2 stuinium and wee eros sctons consider the same conductor design is 55 to 84 % higher than that of ALI conductors, while the steady-state current carrying capacity amounts to 95.% of the ALL data. ‘The ALx conductors share a large application in the international market due to th high mechanical strength and their high conductivity when compared with composite conductors of the same diameter, for example in France, where this alloy is called Almelec. In (7.2), this material is referred to as ALA. The higher eveficient of thermal ‘expansion is disadvantageous compared to ALL/STy conductors, as is thei low weight, “with respect to acolian vibrations. In the USA, aluminium alloy conductors (AAAC) fare mainly manufactured according to ASTM 1309 (7.4) 7.1.6.3 Aluminium-clad steel conductors AAs an example, Table 7.8 contains technical data for aluminium-clad steel conductors (A20SA) which are standardized according to EN 501182, Table P21, The rated breaking strongth is approximately 7,5 times higher than of ALI conductors having the same dimension. Such conductors are specially adequate as earth wires [7.27], as well as for span lengths of 2000 m and above, however using special designs which have larger cross sections and a higher number of strands (7.28). In the USA, alumininm-clad steel conductors (ACS) are standardized according to ASTM BAl6 [7.29] 7.1.6.4 Copper, copper alloy and steel conductors Copper, enpper alloy and steel conductors are applied today only in cases where high resistance to corrosion is needed (copper and bronze), for earth wites or in eases where ‘unusually high loads are expected in overhead lines. Here, steel conductors may rep pative solution. There are no European standards for such conductors nan standard DIN 48201, Part 1 deals with copper, DIN 48201, Part 2 with bronze sau DIN 48201, Part 3 with ine coated stool conductors, Copper magnesium alloys are usod for bronze conductors. 7.1.7 Composite conductors 7.1.7.1 Configuration and design Composite conductors are made up of wires produced from different types of a als. They are usually formed by a steel core and a one- or multiple-layer envelope fof aluminium (ALI) or aluminium alloy (ALx). ‘These conductors are also designated7 Conductor types and design 207 Figure 7.8: Cross setion of «composite condctor 245-AL1/39.ST1A, actoraing Wo Ev 90182, prowously ACSM 240/30 ‘8 ACSR (aluminium conductor steel reinforced) or AACSR. However, there are also designs in which stee! and aluminium wires are mixed in individual layers of the con- dluctors. Furthermore, there are also conductors with a eore made of aluminiumeelaa stool wires (y25A) or of ALx (AAAC) wires whch are known as ALL/y28A, ALx/yaSA cr ALI/ALx, respectively. They are also nated as ACSR/ACS or ACAR, respectively. 1m Figure 73, the cros section is shown of a 243-AL1/S0-STIA composite conductor previously designated as ACSR. 240/40 in Germany, having @seven-wie stel core and 26-wiee lumina envelope. Composite conductors provide some advantages which contribute to their widespread cme. Tas cumpunitivn allows a high eonductnty Ly wleguate aeetion uf Une mec of eonductive envelope, combined with high mechanical strength of a ste, aluminium clad steel oF ALR core. The high strength enables to reduce the sags and achieve long span lengths. ‘Thus, ALx/Syz (AACSR) and ALx/y#SA (AACSR/ACS) conductors have proved tobe adequate for overhead lines across wide rivers or valley. The strength may be adapted to every application hy means of variations in the components of the core ot in its mechanical stength. ALx (aluminium alloy) used as conductive material increases the breaking strength in comparison with ALL, without causing a significant decrease of the total conductor conductivity. ‘The multiplayer aluminium envelope of composite conductors protects the zine coated steel wires permanently against coreoson, when the steel cores are grease. In Central Europe, the practice of greasing is followed, However, especially in regions of tot climate, the grease could melt and drop from the conductor thus producing corona, discharges, Therefor, attention should be paid to a sulicently high drop point of the ‘grease (above 80°C) and a high viscosity. Standard prBN 50326 [7:0] applies to grease Composite conductors with a core made of aluminiumclad see wiees [7-21] combine a high conductivity with an excellent resistance agaist corrosion and, therefore, no easing is needed Composite conductors have shown a superior long-term performance under aeolian tibration due to wind excitation. Under permanent tensile load, aluminium is contin ously elongated, « phenomenon called creep. In composite conetors, steel creep to ‘eh lower extent than aluminium (7.31 With passing period of time, the tensile res of aluminium wires decreases while that of steel wiesinreases. This results ina higher resistance against alternating bending stresses caused by aeolian vibrations. This load displacement cannot take place in mono-metalic or ALL/ALx conductors. That is the reason why these conductors are highly susceptible to fatigue problems [7.32 Every composition, especially every cross-sectional ratio of conductive material to core is conceivable fr composite conductors; however, with pasting time, certain ratios have become popular. Internationally, there is lot of standardized dimensions. In Europe, the various national standards for conductors were replaced by EN 60182. Table 7.9 ‘contains information on ALI/STIA conductors according to BN 80 182, Table P19, The standardised cross-sectional ratios of aluminium and aluminium ally, respectively, to stool ae 1A, 17, 43, 60, 77, 113, 145 oF 28,1. Today, phase conductors are used208 7 Selection of conductors ‘Table 7.9: Characteristic data of ACSR conductors ~ configuration ALI/STIA as per EN 50182, Table F.19 SSO-ALI/SESTIA 385/35 420148 TOEALI/SOSTIA 435/55 4006 G4 AUBALI/ISTIA 450/40 488248 SWOALL/OISTIA 490/65 5588 54 ADEALY/SISTIA 495/35 32RA EHALMeSTIA HOfe ene ae SSO-ALI/TSTIA 550/70 6209 54 HRALA/OSTIA 560/50 61248 STLALYSOSTIA 570/40 610845 OEALIGSTIA GOS GIRS AS STOALYSOSTIA 630/85 7643 5A IMGALI/SSSTIA 1015/45 10009 72 2736236 2s twas 13859 287158111905, snp 18529 span 29 a6 11796, sea purr? 16632 m2 tans 14628 3 ser 136.00 Sut mis99 568 30 3510.7 20650 0g? auN92 Designation Former Gros Number Com Naw ‘Rated DO Curent ‘ode section af dues per” strength esi caring ACSH total iam. eagts mm’ AL St_‘mm g/l AN fhm WAUASNA Was m8 6 1 540 616 Sa Lsr9 105 DEALINSTIA. Bok RB TBS SRB SEALIGSTIA. 35/6 ML G1 RT ROSH WALY/MSTIA 44/2 BE MT 23 A2kOsrE a) QALISSTIA. 50/8506 ims 168105959 210 SLALYSOSTIA— /90 8102 T sr 4298 230 TWAL/STIA—T/l2 BIS 26 T 2223627 20 OEALINIGSTIA 95/13 07257 3806 35,98 350 QTALYG6STIA 95/55 152817 fuos 7788 37 MOGALYIESTIA 09/7 18L2 MAD ass 10582 a TRALYSTIA 129/014 T solo ato a0 IALYTISTIA 12/7 Mk sis 792 a3 BEALYIOSTIA 125/90 1ST 3D 7 S870 50 2 MOALIDSTIA 190/25 1781287 ams sar MPALYOSTIA fa 287 rea? 7480 ISLALY/JOSTIA aws/an 2148287 gan ear QUPALI/OESTIA H/3 2482 sit 1335 ADALI/ABSTIA 210/50 268M mst on BLALI/MSTIA 200/90 AIS BT sue 7213 DWALI/IOSTIA 240/40 28ST oxa.t §52 BOEALI/SMSTIA 265/35 DOT AT out shoe SOFALI/SOSTIA —o/S035RT 25 T 284 TD ANh OD SUFALISOSTIA —s/a0 3441 4 T 28112 Bed SOOALI/S0STIA 340/30 368,148 7 aS IT otaT SSALIOSTIA 90/50 49,2 Ge TOM MaRS aL 7 1 hhaving cross-sectional ratios between 6,0 and 14,5 for the majority of lines: Iower ratios are used for earth wires, lager ratios in substations. The respective number of wires varies between 6 and 72 for the envelope and between 1 and 19 for the core, For special applications, conductors with more than 100 wires are applied. In these eases, the stranding is performed in several consecutive runs. The number of recs available at the stranding machines determines the maxi umber of wires of the outermost layer and the number of runs to manufacture the conductor (see clause 7.1.7.3) In the USA, composite conductors are standardized according to ASTM B232 [7.33] 71.7.2 Characteristic data In many practical calculations, composite conductors ean be treated as mono-metallic conuuctors, therefore, a virtual modulus of elasticity, a virtual tensile stress, a specific heat, a resulting esistance, a temperature cooficient of resistance and a resulting ther-71 Conductor types and design 200 lechanical and eletrcal values of standard conductors ‘Grow: Number CoeficientTemperatre Specie Specie Specie sect. of of thermal covet comduc- reir heat. onal steands expansion of resistance “tvty ity sik ffi? fs We 8) TELARC) . Ruane ren oom ast omnes i hanc) fom 0 noua mayan n0n ENovite Capper Dain Tool 170 pat 540 xT a8 Pu Bee aa ad woaie Daan Hos 10 opr al Seo Guam ar Pat Banko Gosia Sed Dis aaa roi 1S ooo 82 ate Pas AUS A Tio 6 0.00360 118 0,084 518, aR oor 1h ot auyna MOE om as oma? 8 rt au) at “aby 7 Sibysna a gma 292 oma? Gacy, MP ai) AL “BY ry BOR 3 Ge eo SF = BiB ss Tes ‘mal expansion coefficient can be used in the caleulations, The modulus of elasticity is approximately given by Eq + Ere Tiga (72) ‘where my isthe evoss-sectional ratio of conductor envelope to core (aluminium to ste!), Bay the modulus of elasticity of aluminium and Ey, the modulus of elasticity of stel ‘The values given in Table 7.11, which are based on [7.2] and [7.6], differ slightly from the result obtained from (7.2), because the stranding effects were taken into account ‘The eoeficient of thermal expansion eis exat Baim 1 cure Bre my “Eni + Eee where a) is the coeficent of thermal expansion of aluminium and sy the coefficient (ra) of thermal expansion of sel, Table 7.11 contains the standard vals. ‘The specific mass -y or density can be calculated by asm tone met? ca where 79118 the specific mass of aluminium and 7pe the specific mass of steel,2107 Selection of conductors ‘Table 7.11: Modulis of elasticity, everyday and long-term stress according 10 Conte ea Teniay sae a Steir “ae ans Nh i Bisa 10 7 i (aes) « 2 Hone Gp Dia wn ss on Sh ‘n to ip oF a i00 Bitten war Bir imo rae? ‘n Bait i90___6 at wa = ot Stim en BIN 01 a ee ee Sewigy tn Ta vst 1 Abi Als] ALi? Atay Sma Sra sna Stik iw 99 08a ae un auysna Cn ee mi 43 2 os wen a Som om AALSySTIA Z oe ee EN aaISe na 7 “a 531655, a o> 8 ie a 2 aos oe "The specific heat is obtained fom eo CNTAL IM + ere ‘amt i) where eq 8 the specific heat of aluminium and ey the specific heat of see. ‘The resistivity is given by exuore(om + 1) ro a+ ore Tm where oar is the resistivity of aluminium and gre the resistivity of stock ‘The tensile stress 0, defined as the quotient ofthe conductor tensile force Fe by the total cross-sectional area Ao, is not a real physical quantity of composite conductors, since Ue actual stresses occurring it aluminium and stel wires differ foun that quotient, ‘The stresses in the aluminium envelope, assuming the same elongation forall the ahurainiun wites, ean be ealeulated a8 follows m+ ONS Tt Bie /En an7 Conductor types and design 211 where ¢ = Fo /Aro isthe tensile stress related to the area ofthe total conductor. For the steel core, the tensile stress is given by L+m °° Tm (ENE) on ) ‘The results given by (7.7) and (7.8) are theoretical values which assume a homogeneous distribution of the proportional tensile load on all wires of the same material. Due to fe uifering Strang Of each layer, sgnieans ules may uLcur bevwest tense stresses in individual wires (7.34) Nevertheless, (7-7) and (7.8) give an estimate of the stresses in each individual wire Depending on the proportion of both materials ~ aluminium and steel ~ in composite conductors of different design, their stresses can difer, despite the same total fensile stress. Corresponding data can be obtained for other material, if aluminium is replaced by the envelope material and steel by the material of the core, respectively. For a SO4ALI/49-STIA conductor with a cross-sectional ratio of 6,0 and the overall tensile stress of 60 N/mm, a tensile stress of 45,8 N/mm? results for the aluminium ‘wires and 1448 N/mm for the stel wires For a 562-AL1/49-STIA conductor with a cross-sectional ratio of 113 and an overall tensile stress of 60 N/mm, a tensile stress (of 51,0 N/mm results for the aluminium wires and 161,1 N/mun? fr the steel wires. I can be seen th er the aluminium proportion, the higher the aluminiun aid steel stresses will be forthe same overall tensile stress. ‘The calculated distribution of the total force does not take into account the differ- ent temperature behaviour. To a decreasing temperature, the aluminium reacts with ‘higher participation in the total force, due to the diferent eoeficients of thermal expansion; ifthe temperature increases, the effect isthe opposite ‘The rated tensile strength (RTS) of composite conductors is determined in accordance with BN 0182, section 5.9, For ALx/STyz and ALx/yaSA conductors itis equal to the ‘minimum tensile strength of aluminium wires before the stranding process, multiplied by their rated cross section plus the tensile stress of steel or aluminiumclad stel wires corresponding to 1 % elongation in «250 mm gauge length before stranding, multiplied by their rated cross section Re’ onan: Ant a1 m6" Are (79) ‘The requirements on RTS of conductors are considered to be accomplished by a test ‘when falling of individual wires occurs only after 95 % of that rated strength have been reached. 7.7.3 Production ‘The machines used for stranding of conductors must accomplish different requirements depending on the materials of the wires to be stranded and the conductors to be produced. Twisting of stl, aluminium-clad steel or aluminium alloy wires should be avoided. Therefore, stranding machines provided with untwisting equipment are used. ‘The reel supports turn in the opposite direction to that of the stranding process; they keep the relative position of their axles in the space, thus reducing the twisting of the individual wires. Contrary to that, aluminium wires ean be stranded using machines ith rels fixedly arrangod in the cage which cause the individual wires to twist around themselves during the stranding process. During a run, one to three layers of wires can be stranded with 6, 12 and 18 wires per lay or by 12, 18 and 24 wires, respectively, depending on the design and the eapacity of the stranding machines. The lay ratio of a conductor isthe ratio of the lay length to the external diameter ofthe corresponding lay of wires in the stranded conductor. The2127 Selection of conductors lay ratios are in between 14 and 20 in case of steel wires and in between 10 and 16 in ‘ase of aluminium and aluminium alloy wires. The lay ratio should decrease from the core to the outermost layer or at least remain constant. ‘The consecutive layers are stranded in opposite lay dircetions, the external layer be stranded preferably right-hand. For composite conductors the core and the envelope are stranded separately. All stel wires should lie naturally in their position inthe stranded core, and when the core is cut the wire ends should remain in position or be readil requirements, the individual steel wires are preformed prior to the stranding process ‘To improve the resistance against corrosion, zine coated stoel wires are usualy greased, ‘There are soap-containing or soup-free greases which are mainly distinguished by their drop point; when the temperatuee exceeds the drop point, the grease gets liquid and lost ‘The drop point of the grease has to be adjusted to the maximum operating temperature of the conductor. Por soap-free greases, the drop point is below 100°C. ‘The standate EN 50326 [7.30] specifies details for conductor greasing, In EN 50 182 [7.2], Aunex B, four cases of grease application are specie: ~ Case I: only steel core is greased, ~ Cage 2 all the conductor is greased, except the outer layer. ~ Case $: all the conductor is greased, including the outer layer ~ Case 4: all che conduesor fe greased, except the outer surfice of the wises in the outer layer. Case I should be used for conductors with galvanized stool wires in the core as a ‘minimum requirement [7.2]. Experience and tests show that the zine coating will not bbe corroded even during long-term exposure to corrosive atmosphere, especially in ease of several ALx layers. On the other hand, severe corrosion is reported in ease of no sgreased galvanized stool cores, even when the exposure has been for a short period of time only. Greasing of the outer layer is not recommended, since corona could oceur the performance of clamps would be affected. TATA Joints Joints in aluminium and aluminium alloy blanks may be made prior to final drawing ‘without restrictions [7.9 7.16]. One joint may also be made inthe finished wire provides ~ The mass of the eo is atleast 500 ky: = ‘There isnot more than one joint in such col; ~ Not more than 10 % of eosin a lot contain a jot = When requested by the purchaser, the manufacturer can provide evidence that the joints do not have a tensile strength below 130 N/mm? Joints in steal wires are allowed in the base hot rolled rod and semi-finished wire by clectric butt or flash welding process, before or after heat treatment and prior to final drawing (see [7.10)). The following should be considered: ~ Alter drawing tothe final diameter, joints should have a minimum tensile strength not less than 80 % of a wire withont joint. ~ The finished wire with a joint is not required to pass the ductility wrapping test. = No joints should be made in the coated steel wires at final diameter. ~ No joint should be made after heat treatment in wiees destined to be wsed in uetors containing only one steel wire. Joints in aluminium-clad steel wires may only be made in the blanks prior to drawing, ‘The finished wire with a joint sould have a strength of 80% of the wine without joint. Several tts may not be passed by welded wires. In [7.2], soveral additional requirements are provided on the ‘conductors: use of jointed wires for71 Conductor types and design 213 ~ For conductors with one steel wire only, there may be no joint made after heat treatment, = No joints at all may be made in finished zine-coated or alumniniurn-clad stel wires, Not mote than one jointed aluminium wite may be used per length of conductor. ~ During stranding, aluminium wires may’ not be welded for the purpose of achieving the required conductor length However, joints are permitted in aluminium wires unavoidably broken during stranding. ‘oF jl aay 14 exe era mer as pee (7-2) ~ Their minimum distance is 15 m betwoen joints in the same or in any other wire. ~ The welding method should be approved by the purchaser ~ The joints should be dressed smoothly. ~ The joints should withstand a stress not less than 75 N/mm’. ~ Some purchasers do not allow wines of the onter layer to be welded. ~ The identification of joints should be agreed upon when placing the contrac. ~ Wires of conductors containing optial fibres should not be welded. 1.7.5 Shipment For shipping the conductors, they are wound on reels in accordance with [7-2], where ther fled lengths adjusted to the lengths of the tensioning setions or fixed lengths corresponding to the capacity of the reels ate supplied. Both, type of shipment and so of reels should be agreed upon together with the order. The diameter of the rool Darrel should be 30 times the eonductor diameter or 60 times the steel core diameter, ‘whichever isthe larger Occasionally, conductors on wooden reels shipped in containers [7.35] showed dark discoloration, which was attributed to condensation water within the containers or could also be traced back to damp wooden recs. In the mentioned publication, some recommendations to prevent such discoloration are provided. The discoloration does not represent any damage of the conductors. Duly not impregnated wood may be used for wooden reels, because salts used for impregnation cause a chemical reaction with aluminium, damaging their surface. "The 1s of stor! rele ie generally mich more acceptable for FHV Fines, hecanse they can be reused and cause no damage to the conductors. 7.1.8 Conductor testing 7.1.8.1 Classification of t ‘Type and sample tests are specified for overhead conductors. Type tests are intended o verify the main characteristies of the conductor which depend mainly on its design ‘These tests are normally performed only once for a given conductor design. Sample tests are intended to guarantee the quality of conductors and compliance with the requirements of relevant standards of client's specifications. In Table 7.12, an ‘overview is given on the tests according to (7.2). Before stranding the conductor, the Dank material and in particular the sizos should be eubmitted to teste decesibed in clause 7.1.5. Such tests are carried out at the wites of stranded conductors to comply with the requirements of the relevant specifications. Single wire tests are not discussed further within this clause 7.1.82 Extent of sample tests ‘accordance with EN 50182, sample fests are foresoen for 10.% of the total number ‘of rels belonging to a lot being shipped, whereby the extent ofthe tests may be ageeed ‘upon between the purchaser and the manufacture.2147 Selection of conductors ‘Table 7.12: Type and sample tests for conductors according to [7.2 ‘Type Sample Type Semple “Rtumsinium wires ‘Conductor Smeter x x ace condition x x tense steagth xX diameter x “erapping est mS umber and tpeofwine xx yelling x sass per unit length x x Hinecosted steel wires 1 ereeatrain carve w - thameter x x tense breskingwength (2) “ens tengt xx ringing test a “sites at 1 Eedongation feep 8 2) a “longston or torson test xx Gre *erapping ert x ‘mass per unit length x “Tate of sine op pane xx ne dip test x x besion ofsincconting aameter x x “tense ength x x Chew at's eowgauon =X dongation x x ding thickness ae ‘nd oniformiy {i according to agasomcnt between manufacturer mad prchaser (2) according to TEC 61395 7.1.8.3 Surface condition, dimensions, inertness and mass As roquited for wires, the conductor surfaces should be fre from imperfections observed with the nnaided eye as, for example, nicks, indentations of scores. ‘The dimensions should accompli ms OF the requirements of the order for di meters, lay lengths and number of wires. The inertness of the form is related to the steel core, where, after cutting, the wires should remain in a cross section (see clause 7.1.7). The conductor mass without grease should not deviate more than 2 % from the rated value. TAB4 Strese-strain diagram train diagrams for conductors inform on the behaviour of a conductor under load. Annex C of (7.2} gives explanations on the stress-strain test method. ‘The test ‘sample length between the end terminations should be at least 400 times the conductor A shorter length may be agreed between purchaser h should be & minimum of 100 times the conductor diameter. Great care should be taken in the preparation of the test samples. Relative Aisplacements as small as 1 mm between steel core and aluminium layers of the con- ductor cause significant changes in the recorded stress-strain diagram, ‘Therefore, relative displacement should occur between the steel core and the envelope during the test procedure. At both ends of the sample length, end fittings such as compression clamps, epoxy-type or solder-type terminations approved by the purchaser should be used for the test. The application of the end fitting should not in wires which might affect the stress-strain diagram of the conductor,TA Conductor types and design 215 ‘3l__maweremere, B-"7 | Boo | ag feoma | § Lom x {uwaino | $0} eee ‘a ~ eee a a CCL Figure 7.4: valuation ofastress-straincurve Figure 7.5: Creep curve, conductor 483- ALI/63-ST1A (Cardinal) ‘The test loads should be applied on the conductor by the following steps: ~ Initial lond of 5 % ofthe rated tensile strength (RTS) to straighten the conductor ‘and set the strain gauges to zero, — For non-continuous stress-strain data recordings, the strain readings should be taken at intervals of 25 % RIS, rounded to the nearest KN during both loading and unloading procedure. ~ Load with 30 % RTS and holding the load for 0,5 h. Readings should be taken after 5, 10. 15 and 30 min during the holding period. ‘Then the load is released to the initial load, ~ Reload to 50 % RTS and holding for 1 h. Readings should be taken after 5, 10, 15, 30, 45 and 60 min during the holding period. Then the load is released to the initial load. ~ Reload! to 70 % RTS and holding for 1. Readings should be taken after 5, 10, 15, 30, 45 and 60 min during the holding period. Then the load is released to the initial load. ~ Reload to 85 % RTS and holding for 1 h. Readings should be taken after 5, 10, 15, 30, 45 and 60 min during the holding period. Then the load ie releaced to the initial lod, After the fourth application of load, the conductor is loaded again by increasing te tensile force steadily until the actual breaking strength is reached. Simulta- ‘neous readings of tensile force and elongation should be taken up to 85 % of RTS at least at the same time intervals as for the previous loading eyeles ‘The rate of load application should be uniform during testing. The time required to reach 30 56 RTS should not be ess than 1 min or more than 2 min. ‘The same rate of loading should thereafter be maintained throughout the tests. ‘The initial stress-strain diagram is obtained by drawing a smoothed line through the strain point after 0.5 h at 300% RIS and the strain points after 1 h at 50, 7D and 85 % ITS. The curve should be adjusted to pass through the zero point. The initial n diagrasn isreprotented by the broken line in Figure 7.4 The characteristic final steesssteain diagram may be determined from the unloading part (From 50, 70 or 85 % RIS) of the graph, as agreed upon between the manufacturer and the client. In re 74, an example is shown for a stres-strain diagram, 7.1.8.5 Tensile breaking strength ‘The tensile breaking strength is determined at & sample with a minimum length of 400 ‘times the conductor diameter, but at least 10 min accordance with [7.2]. ‘The breaking Toad is reached when one oF more wires are fractured. Ifthe fracture occurs within216 7 Selection of conductors reloar oot ‘aig ek distance of 50 mm from the dead-end termination, and before 95 % of the rated tensile strength is achioved, it can be attributed to the influence of the end terminations and the test may be repeated. The test is considered to be successful when the fracture ‘occurs fora Toad equal to or above 95 % of the rated tensile strength (RTS). 7.1.8.6 Test of ereep behaviour Conductor creep is deseribed according to [7.36] by the equation e=emet (7.10) where 6 the time in hours and iy, are parameters which depend on conductor type and load condition, "These values re measured by means of the tests described in [7.36], which is performed ‘on a sample which is at least as long as 100 times the conductor diameter, clamped in ‘atest device, which keeps the load constant during the test, with an accuracy of =1.% or £120 N, To measure the cmep elongation, some marks are made on the conductor and their displacement is recorded during the test in relation to an unloaded structure ‘or bars arranged in parallel to the conductor. The measuring intervals are selected logarithaie seale, The results of the tests ace then represented in a double logait scale corresponding to the equation loge = loge +n: loge uy) With this scale, the ereep elongation in the ideal case forms a straight line. So, ey is the intersection with the ordinate for # = 1h and n the slope of the straight line. In Figure 7.5, a creep diagram is shown, forming mean straight line through the measuring points in a double logarithmic seae. ‘The ereep elongation ean then be ex- trapolated until 100000 bs (approximately 10 a). Indicative data for ey and 1 can be found in (731) and clause 16.8.5. 7.1.8.7 Testing the tension stringing ability of conductors ‘This testis intended to sina the tensile load existing during Lesion stringing and to verify, in particular, the absence of bind caging, The test arrangement according to [7.2] is shown in Figure 7-6. The reel should be installed on an unwinding rel stand equipped with an adjustable disk brake which is not under automatic control from the tensioner. ‘The tensioner is arranged in a distance of approximately 15 m from the reel stand. ‘The diameter of the tensioner should be as Jow as just permissible for stringing of the conductor to be tested, ic. i should be approximately 30 times the couductor diameter (see clause 16.8.3.6). The conductor pulling winch should be installed approximately 400 m apsrt from the tensioner, and the conductor should be pulled by means of a pulling rope. A running block should be installed at mid-distance betwoen the pulling ‘wineh and the tensioner at au adequate height so that the conductor does not touch71 Conductor types and design 217 mo fa Th NIT. . 7 > 7 7 PAT oa . We re tow o (at stcondcos Figure 7.7: Configuration of twin, triple, quadruple, fve, six and eight bundle conductors, subconductor spacing 400 to 600 mm the ground during unwinding. During the test, the conductor is unwound by means of the pulling winch and braked by the tensioner, During unwinding, the sag between the rel stand and the tensioner should be adjusted to approximately 1,5 m. The tensile force at the output of the tensioner should be ‘maintained at 20 % of the RTS of the conductor tested and the nwinding speed be approximately 1 m/s. During the unwinding of the conductor length, observation should be made if any Individual outer layer wire is raised above its normal position by more than one wire diameter; if this occurred, the conductor should be deemed unacceptable. 7.1.9 Bundle conductors accordance with (7.7), bundle conductors are a set of individual conductors connected in parallel and disposed in a uniform geometrical configuration, that constitute one phase conductor of an AC line or one pole of a DC line, With the inauguration of the 220 RV transmission voltage in 1929, corona phenom- ‘ena occurred, which were then solved by larger conductor diameters obtained by ton conventional designs, as, for example, hollow copper conductors (Figure 7.9). AS a alternative to that, the use of two or more subconductors instead of a single one was Introduced, In 1990, Markt and Mengele got a patent for that alternative (7.87). They first described in detail the advantages, such as lower surface voltage gradient and ine ‘crease of the transmission capacity [7.38]. Power transmission at 420 kV and above is not feasible without the use of bundle conductors. Bundle conductors are very sporadically applied for 110 kV voltage transmission where high current carrying capacity is required. For 220 kV, bundle conductors ate usually ‘an alternative to single conductors with larger diameters. For 400 kV, twin, triple ot ‘quadruple bundle conductors are applied. For 500 kV lines, both triple and quadruple bundle conductors have been extensively used worldwide. Ror 800 KV, quadruple and six bundle conductors have been applied [7.39]; for transmissions with higher voltage levels, even more subconductors are required. The new 1000 KV lines in Japan are provided with bundles of eight subconductors (7.40, 71). Subconductors are installed in Europe with a usual spacing of 400 mm and in North ‘America with 18 inches (457 ram) a8 well as wider spacing. They are protected against clashing due to short-circuit or wind by means of bundle spacers arranged at predter- mined distances (see clause 10.2.5). Bundle spacers with integrated damping elements are used to reduce amplitudes due to aeolian vibrations and subspan oscillation. Larger ssubconductor diameters require the use of higher subeonduetor spacing, to more than 18 times of the subconductor diameter to counteract the subspan oscillations (7.42) Twin bundle conductors are arranged either horizontally or vertically (Figure 7.7). A horizontal arrangement facilitates the guiding of the conductors at angle strain towers and enables an effective protection against aeolian vibrations by means of dampers at2187 Selection of conductors Figure 7.9: Hollow copper conductor 1985 8380 ‘mx Bseemm igure 7.8: Coon seo of de sn Figure 7.10: Conductor adhe tor for the 400 EV Bosphorus crossing reshaped formed wires according (Turkey) to fall) the span ends. The vertical arrangement is less sensitive against sayging errors and Aiffering creep of the subconductors; the lower subconductor is then a little bit less submitted to tension than the upper one, A twin bundle 243-AL1/39-ST1A has approximately the same cross-sectional area as single conductor 490-AL1/64-STIA. Both can be operated at 220 KV. The current carrying capacity amounts to 1290 A for the bundle in accordance with Table 7.9: for the single conductor the value is 960 A, that is 75 % of the former one. The surge impedance of the bundle reaches 300 0 ia ease of the single conductor, it amounts to 360 42, i.e. its surge impedance lond amounts to only 88 %, The surface gradient of the single conductor reaches 16,0 KV /em for & triangular citeuit configuration; for the bundle, that value amounts to 15,6 RV/ems the audible noise level forthe single conductor is about 30 dB(A) ane for the bundle itis about 40 dB(A) close to ground surface in the right-of-way centre. This comparison shows the advantages of bundle conductors, being even more significant at higher voltage levels, ‘The dimensions of the bundle subconductors influence the eloctrie characteristies, spe- ally the surge impedance, the surge impedance load, the conductor surface gradient, tnd thus, the corona performance, The inerease of the surge impedance load inplies tan increase of the transmission capacity of long ines. In [7.43], a 800 kV line i cited, itor spacing in the bundle is variable and ean amount up to a maxi ‘Thereby, the surge impedance load increases up to 1:0 % of the value iueonductor spacing. 7.1.10 Special conductor designs 7.1.10.1 Non-standardized conductors made of round wires Beside the usual standard conductor designs, many other special conductors are applied. Long spans require conductors with higher ratod tensile strength [7.45]. For this appliea- tion, conductors with high steel content and a correspondingly large cross section offer ‘alternative. In the 220 KV line over the river Elbe, S10-ALS/110STIA, an interestTA Conductor types and design 219 Figure 1.11: Cross section of 2787- ALA/GO7-STIA conductor used a sn tle conductor for 8 $00 KV line across srinsna56 the Mission Ridge in British Columbia, sweat Canals (BC Tidy, Vaneonsver) conductors were used with a cross-sectional ratio equal to 3:1 and a diameter of 2 mm. In order to roach the required power transmission by means of one single conductor and to keep the conductor surface gradient as low as possible, the 400 kV overhead line over ‘the Bosphorus has been equipped with a 1805-AL4/228-A208A composite conductor hhaving an aluminium-clad steel core (7.28) (Figure 7.8) and a cross-sectional ratio of 7,9:. A rated strength of $50 KN was achieved by using an ALA alloy with 320 N/mm? tensile strength A.6,80 km long section of BC Hydro's 500 kV Peace River line was equipped with a single conductor having a 76,2 mm diameter instead of a quadruple bundle consisting (of 24.1 mm diameter subconductors. Tis section crosses the Mission Ridge mountains at elevations between 1200 m and 1900 m and is prone to severe icing. The longest span is 1 100 m, In Figure 7.11, the conductor cross section is shown. It is made up of 61 steel strands having each 3,56 mm diameter and 180 aluminium alley strands having 44 mm diameter. The alloy eross section is 2787 mm, that of steel 607 mm?. Therefore, the conductor eould be named 2787-AL4/607-STIA. Its rated tensile strength is 1463 KN, ‘The conductors were not tension-stringed but the conductor reels were pulled along the ground to place the conductors on wood lagging. 7.1.10.2 Conductors for increased operation temperature Annealing of hard-drawn aluminium wies limits the permissible temperature of conven tional conductors. ‘Thus, conductors for higher operational temperatures were developed! ‘with annealed low-tensle aluminium wires, which present a slightly higher conductivity ‘of 63 % IACS in comparison with that of 61 % IACS shown by hatd-drawn aluminium ‘conventional conductors In this case, the aluminium wires do not earry any mochan- ical stress; the mechanic function is guaranteed by the steel core alone. Such conductors ‘can operate at temperatures up to 150°C and are suited to reinforce existing lines if Tanger sags and high Joule loses can be accepted. A similar function is performed by conductors with aluminium alloy wires of high ther- ral capacity (TAL), which can be operated with temperatures up to 150°C. Compared ‘with a conductor that shows the same design as 243-AL1/39-STIA, the current carrying220 7 Selection of conductors coger ube igure 7.12: Hollow ALI/A208A conductor use as ALE TOWER single conductor for a 00 KV line in Astra (mpi eNi00 Gabi, Linz) ‘capacity increases from 650 t0 1015 A, that is by about 60 %, The sags also increase in correspondence with the higher temperatures; therefore, together with the replacement ‘of the existing conductors, adjustment of tower heights might also be nocessary to take fall advantage of the higher transmission capacity. Prices for such conductors exceed those for ALI/STIA conductors by about 50%. ‘To keep sags within certain limits, conductors with INVAR steel wires were developed, ‘whose coefiient of thermal expansion i low. The sag can thus be kept almost constant, ‘even under elevated temperatures. These conductors, however, imply very large eosts, in addition to high losses at high temperatures. When using such conductors, attention should be paid to the design of clamps and joints, as they will be submitted to the same high temperatures as the conductors and should withstand them, Construction ‘of a new line, with optimum conductor eross sections, on the same right-oF way, should jon long.sightd. be the most economic sla 7.1.10. Conductors with enlarged diameters Conductors with enlarged diameters were developed for transmission at 220 kV or higher voltage level, to reduce the conductor surfaee gradient, without having to accept the large conductor weights and unnceessary large cross sections of conventional conductor designs. Therefore, the fist 220 kV lines were equipped with ou-layer hollow co per conductors, which consisted of formed wires provided with featherkey and Reyway (Pigure 7.9). "Tho diamoter of luniniunsteel posite conductors ean be increased by using wires with large diameters in one or more internal layers, which result in a small fl ratio. Due to thei difficult and expensive production as well as to problems with fittings to terminate and suspend these conductors, they ate seldom applied today Uprating of au existing 220 kV double circuit Tine in Austria to 400 kV operation re- ‘quired new conductors that limit the audible noise emission to acceptable levels because the line runs close to residential areas. The geometric clearanves and the structural strength did not permit (0 use twin ndle 635-ALI/117-AQ0SA couductors as stl for 400 kV transmission. ‘Therefore, a hollow single conductor 667-AL1/75-A208A. was developed having 54 mn in diameter. In Figure 7-12, the cross section of that eouductor is shown. Two layers are straded around a flexible corrugated aluminium tube. ‘The inner layer consists of $2 ALL and 10 A20SA strands having 3.09 mm diameter each, ‘The outer layer is made up of 42 ALI strands with 3,60 mm diameter. ‘The ratod tensileTA Conductor types and design 221 Figure 7.14: Selfdamping conductors: a) Geman design, b) US-American design. 1 steel cores with ‘minium wires and INVAR long lay lengths; 2 aluminium layer with long lay steel core lengths: 3 void space; layer with sel supporting formed wires strength is 208 kN, the weight 2,89 kg/m. The current carrying capacity amounts to 1400 A, 7.10.4 Conductors with smooth surfaces ‘The use of formed wire instead of round wires results in compact conductors with smooth surfaces and less void spaces, which means a high fill ratio and a smaller di ameter forthe same exos-sectional area. This type of conductor is characterized by ‘lower wind force and supposedly lower trend to galloping. This was the reason why such conductors were used forthe 380 KV line crosing over the river Schelde in Bel ium 7-46]. I can be seen from 7.15], that formed wires can be produced with various shapes, such as z-shaped crass sections (Figure 710) o trapezoidal cro sections (Figg tue 713) and from all materials used for conventional conductors as well. With such ‘wires, aluminiun-stee conductors with any crosesetioual ratio can be designed. Fig ‘ue 7.15 shows an example. The aerodynamic drag factor i between 0,46 and 0,8 for conductor diameters betwee 20 and 40 a Conductors made of formed wires are applied where low wind forees together with 1 crosssectional area as high as possible is requieed [7.18], For such conductors, a Standard is under approval procedure at IEC and CENELEC [7.4] 7.1.10.5 Compacted conductors Compacted conductors are manufactured by stranding at first the conductor with layers ‘of round wires asa conventional ALx/STys or pure ALx conductor and finally compact- 1g them through rollers or dies to a cross section with smooth, circular surface, Thi procedure forms the wires of the outer layers to trapezoidal cross sections and reduces the conductor diameter by 8 to 11 9%. The surface becomes smooth and reduces the ‘wind forces and the local peaks of voltage gradients. Additional layers of round wires for formed wires may be stranded aver a compacted core. The production of compacted conductors is restricted to relatively small cross sections 7.1.10.6 Self-damping conductors Aeolian vibrations of conductors may cause damage at high-voltage overhead Tines. ‘Therefore, in Switzerland and Germany, tlf-damping conductors were developed in the 1930's, which consisted of an aluminium hollow conductor made of circular or profile wires with an internally movable steel core (Figure 7.14). In the 1930's, conductors222 7 Selection of conductors scten seen 88 the USA. There, these conductors have been frequently applied (7-47). Conditioned by the ‘onstruction of the conductor, the sef-damping should be large enough as not to lead to dangerous conductor vibration even in ease of high tensile loads of the conductor regions which favour vibrations. However, the conductor damping characteristics ‘cannot prevent the oecurrence of galloping. Further development of such conductor types was suspended in Burope due to their noise TAA0.7 Vibration resistant conductors By occasion of the above mentioned studies made in Germany, which aimed at devel- ‘oping conductors as vibration-inert as possible, designs were investigated having now Circular cross sections. The peculiar profile creates air turbulence so that the laminar flow of the wind around the conductor is altered and, asa consequence, a significant re- ‘duction of the vibration amplitude is achieved, Problems concerning fittings, however, prohibited practical application of such vibration-resistent conductors [7-48]. Efforts made to solve problems of conductor vibration and conductor galloping led in the USA to the development of vibration resistant conductors. This type of conductor is formed by left-hand stranding of two single conductors (72 conductors). The resulting cross section has the form of a rotating “eight”. In Germany, this type of T2 conductor was successfully used as a remedy against aerodynamically cansed audible noise emissions ‘on conventional conductors. Due to the conductor shape, no uniform wind flow hap- ps, similarly to Maass’ experience (7-48). The utilization of the conventional fittings for the T2 conductors privileged their application. Inthe beginning of the 1980's, that type of conductor was used in many thousands kilometres of Hines (7-49), specially in the USA. Oval conductors are formed by wires of different diameters stranded with each other (soo Figure 7-15) [7.50 7.1.10.8 Low noise conductors In densely populated Japanese areas, noise pollution caused by the wind acting on conductors but not by corona, plays an important role under certain topographic con- ditions. The noise level could be reduced by means of special conductor configurations. These low morse conductors melude several formed wires in their outer layer (Figure 7.16). Here, the benefit of disturbing the laminar flow deseribed by Maass (748) as a conclusion of his experience has been utilized again. In comparison with & conventional al area, the noise level can be redueed by up conductor having the same eros-seti to 15 dB(A) [7.40, 751)7.2 Design with regard to current loading 223 ‘Table 7.18: Permissible conductor temperatures under shortcut condition ‘Typeof Maral “EN SEN Tatar conductor 0805-1, 50341-34 astional “Tale 6 practice Yoo EGO a rmetalic ALT awe ie ore conductor ADE aire tare are 0s are sore Sty: swe Ba" Composite ALI/STye 20°C 160" 200" conductor _ALYSTye 200°C 160" 200°C Tove-oise ALx/ Ty conductor for 8 1000 KV ine Japan 7.1.10.9 Conductors with treated surfaces Conductors with treated surfaces show favourable characteristics in view of current carrying capacity when compared with conventional ones. Blacking of the conductors increases their ampacity, By coating the outer layers with a black polyurethane paint, 2 ‘worth mentioning increase of the emission coefficient to the value of 08 is achieved, as ‘well as an inereased thermal radiation in accordance with Stefan-Boltzmann’s radiation Iwo (see equation (7.23)) [7.52]. Replacement of the existing conductors by the blacked ‘ones results in an increase of the thermal transmission capacity with no need to reinforce the towers. Clean metalic conductors may give rise to objections coming from landscape protector, ‘who may complain about the visual impact caused by new conductors. Therefore, some es have decided to apply a coloured coating on the conductors. In Austria, forex: ‘ample, they have used a green camouflage for conductors of a 380 RV transmission line. ‘Thus, the conductors became nearly invisible against the background landscape (7.52) From the omithological point of view, however, this camouflage is disadvantageous be- canse of the increased danger which the less visible conductors ereate for approaching birds In Australia, eduction ofthe brightness of new conductors was accomplished by a dull {finish The outer layer of the conductor was treated by blazing with a special fine sand, so that a surface roughness between 0,8 and 1,6 jm was obtained. 7.2 Design with regard to current loading 7.2.1 Introduction and requirements According to EN 5034I-1 [7.53], every overhead line should be able to withstand with fan acceptable reliability the electric load due to both operating current and short circuit eurrent. Due to conductor electrical resistance, the operating current and the short-circuit current lead to conductor heating, which would cause a reduction of the ‘mechanical strength if the temperature exceeded a limit value. Figure 7.1 according to [7-19) shows the tensile strength for conductors made of aluminium, aluminium alloy, copper as well as ALL/STIA and AL3/STIA as a function of the temperature. In ‘conformity with [7.8}, conductor materials and eross sections should be chosen so as not to reach any inadmissible temperatures. Neither (7.2) nor [7.53] give any information about the permissible steady-state224 7 Selection of conductors short-term temperatures, They merely refer to national standards and project specifi cations. According to [7.6], the permissible temperatures for ALI/ST1A, ALS/STLA, ALI and AL3 conductors and for copper conductors, under steady-state load, are 80 ‘and 70°C, respectively. In Table 7.13, the permissible temperatures under short-circuit condition are shown according to [76]. Other standards indicate higher permissible temperatures (see clause 8.3.1). ‘The standards mentioned before do not give any indication about the ambient condi- values. Ambient temperatures of 35 to 40°C and aind velocities of 06 t0 1,0 m/s are often used as basis for the evaluation of the current earrying capacity. {As given by equation (2.9), the electrical resistance results in energy losses, which fluence significantly the transmission costs. The conductor design isto keep the maxi ‘mum permissible conductor temperatures below certain limits, and restrict the expected transmission losses. Consequently, conductor design is carried out with the target (0 inimize the transmission costs This is an optimization task, since the losses are re ‘duced and the investment rises as the eross-sectional aren increases [7.5]. "The magnetic field depends on the current as well, but differently from the electrical field it has no influence on the selection of the conductors and will, thus, not be dealt, with here. In clause 2.8.2, information is given on magnet fields 7.2.2 Principles for determination of conductor temperature ‘The determination of the conductor temperature is based on the heat balance at the accordance with (7.5), by ‘conductor, which is influenced ~ Joule heat Ny, due to the = Solar radiation Ns, = Magnetic losses Nie, Ener lose by convection Ny and ~ Bnemy lose by radiation Ny. From these values, the heat balance can be established by’ mee: fa Nyt Ns+ Nw Na —Ne (712) where me is the conductor mass per unit length, ¢ the specific heat, 7 the conductor temperature and dé the derivative in terms of tite, ‘Two eases are of substantial practial interest: = The adiabatic process. Because of the magnitude of the term Ny compared with the other components in equation (7.12), under short-cirenit conditions the latter ean be disregarded. This ease is essentially important for rating of earth wires ‘Therefore, i is dealt with in Chapter 8. In this ease, equation (7.12) can be expressed as me -e:dT jdt = Ny (713) ~ The steady-state condition. The conductor temperature T i constant; so, i (7.12) AT /at will be zero resulting in Ny+ Ns Ny = Net Ne (74) ‘The energy delivered to the conductor by Joule heat, magnetic losses due to AC current and solar radiation is equal to the energy lost by radiation and convection. Th tion determines the steady-state operating current and, thus, represents value for line operation. The evaluation of conductor temperature in the most general unsteady state is dealt with in [7.56]. ‘condi7.2 Design with regard to current loading 225 7.2.8 Design with regard to current carrying capacity ‘The literature includes some approaches for the evaluation of the current earrying capacity, also called ampacity, given by equation (7.14), fora predetermined conductor temperature and given ambient conditions. Some approaches will be mentioned here [7.55], a summary of used approaches is given, which also served as basis for the ‘equations contained in [7.57]. Detailed studies of the subject are described in (7.58), which formed the basis for the current carrying capacities indicated in EN 50182. ‘An account of the measurements on overhead line conductors is presented in (7.59), ‘whereby the tolerances between calculated and measured values are quoted by $ K. ‘The components N; and Nj, which are a function of the current, can be expressed as follows Ny +NM= Rac ly (715) where 1 is the effective current in the conduetor, in Amperes andl Rj gc the AC tance at the temperature T in 2/m, ‘The AC resistance increases, in comparison with the DC resistance, as a result of skin and spiral effects. Skin effet occurs due to the higher inductance ofthe internal layers of wires, because the internal flux density is larger. As the voltage drop in all wires is the same, 4 larger portion of the current flows through the outer conductor layers causing an increase of the effective resistance. ‘The AC resistance My ac is caleulated from Brac ® Rrpe-(1+2/8) for 21 716) and Rene ® Rene (025 +2+3/64) for 221 an with x being a parameter taking care of skin and spiral effects: 2a08 1 VE Tmo te + (78) where ris the conductor radius in mm, f the frequency in His, s the conductivity jn m/O- mm’, po the vacuum permeability (1.256 10-" H/m) and jie the relative Permeability ofthe material (equal to 1 for won-magnatic materials). The spiral effect Significantly influences composite conductors with odd numbers of layers in patient when there is only one aluminium layer. Reference is made to [7.60- Data for typical values of AC resistance ate found in [7.57 ‘The AC resistance Rl, ¢ depends onthe conductor temperature T according to Ripe = Rio[1 + a(T —20)) (rg) where Ry is the DC resistance at 20°C in Q/in and a the temperature coefficient of resistance in K~1. Values for a are given in Table 7.4 In accordance with [758], solar radiation is given by Ng = Doky Noy-sind in W/m, (7.20) where ka isthe absorption coefficient (see Table 7.14), § = arcoos| os h-os( 180° — 9) ‘The solar angle hy is defined by hea US" — for 2235", ay where gis the latitude and » the angle of line direction with the north-south axis In (7.20), D isthe conductor diameter, ky the absorption coefcient and Ny the stan- dard solar radiation, which assumes values between 850 and 1:50 W/m? depending on