The voice of the Genome – Chapter 3.

1 Animal
cells and asexual reproduction
I can distinguish between Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in terms of their structure and ultrastructure:
Living organisms are made up of cells, most of them being familiar cells – animals, plants, protoctists and many fungi
have cells that contain membrane-bounded organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast; these
organisms are known as eukaryotes, made up of eukaryotic cells.
Other organisms, ancient in terms of biology, like blue or green algae have cells of a very different type: prokaryotes.
Prokaryotic cells lack much structure or organisation: they do not have a membrane bound nucleus – the genetic
material is a single strand coiled up in the
centre to form the nucleoid, sometimes
there are extra pieces of genetic material
fragmented through the cell called plasmids.
The cytoplasm contains enzymes, ribosomes
and food-storage granules but lacks other
features such as the Golgi apparatus,
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and
chloroplasts. Respiration therefore takes
place on a special piece of the membrane
called a mesosome and those prokaryotes
that can photosynthesise have a form of
chlorophyll but no chloroplasts to hold it.

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells

small cells (< 5 mm) larger cells (> 10 mm)
always unicellular often multicellular
no nucleus or any membrane-bound organelles, such as always have nucleus and other membrane-bound
mitochondria organelles
DNA is circular, without proteins DNA is linear and associated with proteins to form
chromatin
ribosomes are small (70S) ribosomes are large (80S)
no cytoskeleton always has a cytoskeleton
motility by rigid rotating flagellum made of flagellin motility by flexible waving undulipodium, made of
tubulin
cell division is by binary fission cell division is by mitosis or meiosis
reproduction is always asexual reproduction is asexual or sexual
huge variety of metabolic pathways common metabolic pathways

I can describe the ultrastructure of an animal cell (eukaryotic) and recognise these organelles from EM(electron
microscope) images:
A typical animal cell is surrounded by a cell membrane; inside that membrane is a jelly like liquid called the
cytoplasm, containing a nucleus – the two known together as the protoplasm. The cytoplasm contains what is
needed for the functions of the cell whilst the nucleus is vital to the survival of the cell.
Membranes are important in a cell as an outer boundary, controlling what comes in and out of the cell. As well as
the initial outer-membrane of the cell, there are also intercellular membranes which are vital to the workings of the
cell.
The nucleus – usually the largest organelle in the cell (10-20μm)and can be seen with the light microscope. Electron
microscopes portray how the nucleus, which is normally spherical, is surrounded by a double nuclear membrane
containing nuclear pores. Chemicals pass in and out of these pores so that it can control the events in the cytoplasm.
The nuclear envelope (membrane) is two main substances: nucleic acids and proteins. Acids are (DNA and RNA).
When the DNA is not dividing, the DNA is bonded to the protein to form chromatin, which looks like tiny granules.
The nucleus contains at least one nucleolus – an extra dense area of almost pure DNA and protein. The nucleolus is
involved in the production of ribosomes, cell growth and division.

Lysosome – the function of these organelles are to break down any of the organelles that have been worn out. They
appear as dark, spherical bodies in the cytoplasm containing many digestive enzymes. They frequently fuse with
each other and with a membrane bound vacuole containing either food or a foreign organelle. The enzymes break
down the contents into molecules that can be reused. Lysosomes may fuse with outer cell membrane to release
enzymes outside the cell for destruction of bacteria or in digestion. They can also self-destruct – they may rupture if
the cell is worn out (apoptosis).

Vesicle - A small fluid-filled sac in the cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane. Transports substances in and out of the
cell (via the cell membrane) and between organelles, some are formed by the Golgi apparatus or the endoplasmic
reticulum, while others are formed at the cell surface.

Ribosome – A very small organelle that floats free in the cytoplasm or are attached to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. The ribosome is the site where proteins are made.

Endoplasmic Reticulum – spreads throughout the whole cytoplasm, three dimensional network of cavities, some sac-
like and some tubular. The ER network links with the membrane around the nucleus and makes up a large part of the
transport system within a cell as well as being the site of synthesis of many important chemicals.
Rough ER – EM images portray how much of the outside of the ER is covered with granules called ribosomes. The
function of those ribosomes is to make proteins and the RER isolates to transport these proteins once they have
been made. Some proteins may have to be excreted from the cell as they are digestive enzymes or hormones
(exocytosis) when the cell doesn’t need them. RER has a large surface area and therefore transports and stores many
ribosomes. RER can be found largely in the lining of the gut – for digestive enzymes. Folds and processes proteins
that have been made at the ribosomes
Smooth ER – synthesizes and processes lipids, a system of membranes enclosing a fluid filled space, does not have
ribosomes attached.

The Golgi apparatus (body) – looks like a dense area of cytoplasm. The EM images reveal that the Golgi apparatus is
made up of stacked, parallel, flattened membrane pockets called cisternae, formed by vesicles from the ER fusing
together. Proteins are brought to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles which have pinched off from the RER where they
were made. The vesicles fuse with the membrane sacs of the Golgi apparatus and the protein enters the Golgi stacks.
The proteins travel through the Golgi apparatus and become modified – carbohydrate added to some proteins to
form glycoproteins (e.g. mucus). The Golgi is also involved in producing materials for plant cell walls and insect
cuticles. Some proteins are digestive enzymes that can be enclosed in vesicles to form lysosomes. It processes and
packages new lipids and proteins.

The centrioles – in each cell there is usually a pair of centrioles near the nucleus. Each centriole is made of a bundle
of nine tubules (0.5 μm long by 0.2 μm wide). The centrioles are involved in cell division. When a cell divides the
centrioles pull apart to produce a spindle of microtubules which are involved in the movement of chromosomes
(separation of chromosomes).

Mitochondria – ‘thread granule’ describing tiny rod like structures (1 μm wide by 10 μm long) in the cytoplasm. In
the mitochondria a series of complicated biochemical reactions, energy is released from food by respiration using
oxygen. This energy is in the form of ATP which can be used to drive other functions of the cell. The numbers of
mitochondria present portray how much energy that cell requires. For example, the cells that require little energy
(fat storage cells) have few mitochondria. Any energy demanding cells, like muscle cells will contain large numbers of
mitochondria. The organelle is surrounded by an outer and inner membrane; they contain their own genetic
material, so that when the cell divides mitochondria replicate themselves. The inner membrane is folded to form
cristae surrounded by a fluid matrix.

Simplified table:
Organelle Description (structure) Function

Nucleus A large organelle surrounded by a nuclear envelope Chromatin is made from proteins and DNA. The
(double membrane) which contains many pores. pores allow substances (like RNA) to move
The nucleus contains chromatin and often a between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The
structure called the nucleolus nucleolus makes ribosomes

Lysosome A round organelle surrounded by a single Contains digestive enzymes which are kept
membrane with no clear internal structure separate from the cytoplasm by the surrounding
membrane, but can be used to digest invading
cells or break down worn out components of a
cell
Vesicle A small fluid sac in the cytoplasm, surrounded by a Transports substances in and out of the cell (via
cell membrane cell membrane) and between organelles some
are formed by the Golgi Apparatus or the
endoplasmic reticulum while others are formed
at the cell surface

Ribosome A very small organelle that floats free in the The site where proteins are made
cytoplasm or is attached to the rough (translation)
endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Two types: Smooth ER is a system of sER synthesises and processes lipids. rER
membranes enclosing a fluid filled space. The folds and processes proteins that have been
rough ER is similar but covered in ribosomes made at the ribosomes

Golgi Apparatus A group of fluid filled flattened sacs. Vesicles It processes and packages new lipids and
are often seen at the edges of the sacs proteins; also makes lysosomes

Centriole Hollow cylinders containing of microtubules Involved with the separation of

(tiny protein cylinders) chromosomes during cell division

Mitochondrion They’re usually oval shaped. They have a
double membrane – the inner one is folded to
form structures called cristae. Inside is the
matrix which contains enzymes involved in
respiration
The site of aerobic respiration where ATP is
produced. They’re found in large numbers
in cells that are very active and require a lot
of energy

I can describe how the cells of multicellular organisms can be organised into tissues, tissues into organs and organs
into systems:
Similar cells are organised into tissues:
1. Squamous epithelial tissue is a single layer of flat cells lining a surface. Squamous epithelial tissue is found in many
places, including the alveoli in the lungs.
2. Xylem tissue is a plant tissue with two jobs – it transports water around the plant, and it supports the plant. It
contains xylem vessels and parenchyma cells.

Tissues are organised into Organs:

An organ is a group of tissues that work together towards the same function
The leaf – an example of a plant organ, made up from the following tissues
1. Lower epidermis – contains stomata (holes) to let air in and out for gaseous exchange
2. Spongy Mesophyll – full of spaces to let gases circulate
3. Palisade mesophyll – most photosynthesis occurs here
4. Xylem – carriers water to the leaf
5. Phloem – carries sugar away from the leaf
6. Upper epidermis – covered in a waterproof, waxy cuticle to reduce water loss
The lungs - example of an animal organ, made up of the following tissues
1. Squamous epithelial tissue – surrounds the alveoli (gaseous exchange occurrence)
2. Fibrous connective tissue – helps force air back out of the lungs when exhaling
3. Blood vessels – capillaries surround the alveoli

Organs are organised into Systems:

Organs work together to form organ systems – each system has a particular function:
The respiratory system is made up of all the organs, tissues and cells involved in breathing. The lungs, trachea,
larynx, nose, mouth and diaphragm – all part of respiratory system

I can explain the role of mitosis and the cell cycle for growth and asexual reproduction:
The process of nuclear division is known as mitosis. Asexual reproduction – production of genetically identical
offspring from a single parent cell or organism –and growth are both the result of mitotic cell division. In mitosis the
chromosomes are duplicated and the genetic information is equally shared out between the two daughter cells that
result.
Chromosomes – made up of a mass of coiled threads of DNA and proteins. Not easily seen as they are translucent.
When cells begin to divide the chromosomes condense – becoming much shorter and denser.
The Cell Cycle – the process of cell growth and division: The process whereby multicellular organisms grow and
divide
1. The cell cycle starts when a cell is produced by cell division and ends with the cell dividing to produce two identical
cells
2. The cell cycle consists of a period of cell growth and DNA replication, called interphase, and a period of cell
division, called mitosis.
3. Interphase (cell growth) is sub-divided into three separate growth stages. These are G 1, S and G2.
In multicellular organisms the cell cycle is repeated very frequently in almost all cells during development. Once the
organism has matured, it may slow down or stop completely in some tissues. The cell cycle is controlled by a number
of chemical signals made in response to different genes. The control chemicals are small proteins called cyclins.
These build up and attach to enzymes.
Mitosis – during the process of cell division the chromosomes are duplicated. Along with the remaining contents of
the cell, the chromosomes are divided up in such a way that two identical daughter cells are produced. The events
of mitosis are continuous but the phases are best to be broken down into Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase.
A cell is in interphase for much of the time, said to be the ‘resting phase’ although the normal metabolic processes
of the cell continue and new DNA is produced as the chromosomes replicated. Sufficient new proteins, cytoplasm
and cell organelles are synthesised and prepared for production of the two new cells. The cell’s DNA is unravelled
and replicated, to double its genetic content. ATP content is also increased as cells need the extra energy to divide.

Prophase – The chromosomes condense, getting shorter and fatter. The centrioles start moving to opposite ends of
the cell, forming a network of protein fibres across it called the spindle. The nuclear envelope breaks down and
chromosomes lie free in the cytoplasm. As mitosis begins, the chromosomes are made of two strands joined in the
middle by a centromere. The separate strands are called chromatids. These are two strands because each
chromosome has already made an identical copy of itself during interphase. When mitosis is over, the chromatids
end up as one-strand chromosomes in the new daughter cells.

Metaphase – The chromosomes (each with two chromatids) line up along the middle of the cell and become
attached to the spindle by their centromere. The nuclear membrane has broken down and the centrioles have
moved to opposite poles of the cell, forming a set of microtubules between them which is known as the spindle. The
chromatids jostle about for position on the metaphase plate (equator) of the spindle during metaphase. They
eventually line up along this plate, with each centromere associated with a microtubule of the spindle.
Anaphase - The centromeres divide, separating each pair of sister chromatids. The spindles contract, pulling
chromatids to opposite ends of the cell, centromere first.

Telophase – The chromatids reach the opposite poles on the spindle. They uncoil and become long and thin again.
They’re now called chromosomes again. A nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes so now there
are two nuclei and centrioles reform.

Cytokinesis - The cytoplasm divides and there are now two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the original
cell and to each other. Mitosis is finished and each daughter cell starts the interphase part of the cell cycle to get
ready for the next round of mitosis.

I can describe the stages of mitosis and how to prepare and stain a root tip squash in order to observe them
practically.
1. Cut the tip from a growing root (e.g. garlic). Your root tip should be 5 mm long.
2. Place the root tip on a watch glass and add a few drops of hydrochloric acid
3. Add a few drops of stain so that the chromosomes become darker and so easier to see under a microscope. There
are loads of different stains – toluidine blue, acetic orcein, Schiff’s reagent and Feulgen’s reagent
4. Warm the watch glass (don’t boil the liquid) by passing it slowly through a Bunsen burner flame.
5. Place the root tip on a microscope slide and use a mounted needle to break it open and spread the cells out thinly
6. Add a few more drops of stain and then place a cover slip over it.
7. Squash the cover slip down gently
8. Warm the slide over again for a few seconds. This will intensify the stain.
9. Now look at all stages of mitosis under a light microscope.