chapter 8 chapter” — Production of Power from Heat he mechanical energy us Jear power, the sun is the ultimate soure Of fa im the sun is faage it Except for nuclear power: the 9 A TT reaches the earth fro! s 2, but by mankind. The total rate aetface is small. Energy gathered over a lage rf t which it falls on a square meter o! ¢ sutarees Sere required to make practical its use in any large-scale production of Kk Neveteles, solar photovoltaic cells are used for electric power in small-scale special app! Solar sotatron alco finds direct application for heating water and buildings, for generation of high temperatures in metallurgical applications (solar furnaces), and for evaporating water in the production of salt | The kinetic energy associated with atmospheric winds is increasingly used in favorable locations to produce power by large windmills. The potential energy of tides is another possible source of power, but production from these sources remains small in comparison with world demands for energy. Eventually, such alternatives will become essential. Significant hydroelectric power is generated by conversion of the potential energy of ear eas ia ae Principle be accomplished with an efficiency of 100%. tc and ar cy a ee ame the chemical molec) ene "i lations for this purpose depend on the evolution — .. a battery. Ae ; 5 ‘ontinuous!; trodes. resul Acts With o) y to the elect ting effic *YBEN 0 produce water through elect? chemical conversion, The ment over processes iency anes 4, 8 that first applicati convert chem, AS pre: r h ‘ inSee. 13.10. Pomation, and ay ea cnergy ine i 85%, aconsiderable improve ° ind other y, . This technology has pote” SES. Its theoretical basis is consider 2901, The Steam Power Plant mn In a conventional power plant the molecular energy of fuel is released by a combustion ‘ocess. The function of the work-producing device is to convert part of the heat of com- pian into mechanical energy. In a nuclear power plant the fission process releases energy wae nucleus of the atom as heat, which is then partially converted into work. Thus, the thermodynamic analysis of heat engines, as presented in this chapter, applies equally well to “omventional (fossil-fuel) and nuclear power plants. ‘The steam power plant is a large-scale heat engine in which the working fluid (H20) is in sieady-state flow successively through a pump, a boiler, a turbine, and a condenser in a cyclic recess (SCC. 5.2). The working fluid is separated from the heat source, and heat is transferred ross a physical boundary. In a fossil-fuel-fired plant the combustion gases are separated from the steam by boiler-tube walls. The internal-combustion engine is another form of heat engine, wherein high tempera- tures are attained by conversion of the chemical energy of a fuel directly into internal energy within the work-producing device. Examples are Otto and Diesel engines and the gas turbine.! This chapter is devoted to the analysis of several common heat-engine cycles. Gy Boiler WW, (turbine) Turbine Figure 8.1: Simple steam power plant. Condenser 81 THE STEAM POWER PLANT The Camot-engine cycle, described in Sec. 5.2, operates reversibly and consists of two isother- al Seps connected by two adiabatic steps. In the isothermal step at higher temperature Try, IQ 1 is absorbed by the working fluid of the engine, and in the isothermal step at lower 1 wept of steam power plants and internal-comt Combs ammers, ‘Steam Plant Operation, 6th ed.. ” Engine in Theory and Practice: Thermodynamics, bastion engines can be found in E. B. Woodruff, H. B. Lammers, "McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992; and C. F. Taylor, The Internal Fluid Flow. Performance, MIT Press. Boston, 1984,|APTER 8. Production of Power from 1. Heat CH: 292 .3: The Rankine cycle, Figure 8.2: Camot eyele on a 75 diagram. Figure 8.3: Th cycle. ‘The work produced is |W] = |Qul—|Qcl, temperature Tc, heat |Qcl is discarded by the fu and the thermal efficiency of the Carnot engine is: wt Te (5.8) lQal Tu Clearly, 9 increases as Ty increases and as Te decreases. Although the efficiencies of practical heat engines are lowered by irreversibilities, it is still true that their efficiencies are increased when the average temperature at which heat is absorbed is increased and when the average temperature at which heat is rejected is decreased. re 8.1 shows a simple steady-state steady-flow process in which steam generated in a boiler is expanded in an adiabatic turbine to produce work. The discharge stream from the turbine passes to a condenser from which it is pumped adiabatically back to the boiler. The power produced by the turbine is much greater than the pump requirement, and the net power ‘output is equal to the difference between the rate of heat input i iler 10 e , the rate of heat rejection in the condenser |Oc|. mecca Hace ‘The processes that occur as the workin, represented by lines on the TS diagram of Fi 1 ig fluid flows around the cycle of Fig. 8.1 a . 8.2. The i = represented ass Fig. sequence of lines shown con sanwaled ligald wate” abeonbe rare the sition process taking place in the boiler, whet ees ort 5 ye constant temperature Ty, and produces satural Is a reversible, adiabatic expansion of saturated apoE Ia the two-phis and vay is i ; jon is 23 oy gall and vapor at Tc. This isentropic expansion Y of the Camot cycle j ycle just described j : aS a standard of Sescribed is given reversible lies attend ty bel comparison for Saal ate by Eq. a) tel a ower that take nt Operation of equipmen yam Power plants. HE, 3 in saturated steamy ctuPMent intended to carry out steps? Produce an exhaust with high liquid O™ cycle, it could serve rbinesge Steam Power Plant 293 h eauses severe erosion problems? whic! Even more difficult is the design of a pump that takes jna mixture of liquid and vapor (point 4) and discharges a saturated liquid (point 1). For these iysons, a altemative model cycle js taken as the standard, at least for fossil-fuel-burning “ver plants. It is called the Rankine cycle, and differs from the cycle of Fig. 8.2 in two major Mipects. First, the heating step | ~» 2 is carried well beyond vaporization, so as to produce a superheated Vapor. and second, the cooling step 3 + 4 brings about complete condensation, ‘eling saturated liquid to be pumped to the boiler. The Rankine cycle therefore consists of jhe four steps shown by Fig. 8.3, and described as follows 2 1 + 2 A constant-pressure heating, process in a boiler. The step lies along an isobar (the pressure of the boiler), and consists of three sections: heating of subcooled liquid water (o its saturation temperature, vaporization at constant temperature and pressure, and superheating of the vapor to a temperature well above its saturation temperature. «2+ 3 Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) expansion of vapor in a turbine to the pressure of the condenser. The step normally crosses the saturation curve, producing a wet ex- haust. However, the superheating accomplished in step | —> 2 shifts the vertical line far enough to the right on Fig. 8.3 that the moisture content is not too large. #3 4 A constant-pressure, constant-temperature process in a condenser to produce saturated liquid at point 4. 4-41 Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) pumping of the saturated liquid to the pressure of the boiler, producing compressed (subcooled) liquid. The vertical line (whose length is exaggerated in Fig. 8.3) is very short, because the temperature rise associated with compression of a liquid is small. Figure 8.4: Simple practical power cycle. Power plants can be built to operate on a cycle that departs from the Rankine cycle solely because of the imeversibilities of the work-producing and work-requiring steps. Figure 8.4 |g Nevenbcess, present-day nuclear power plants generate saturated steam and operate with turbines designed to | Saud wt various stages of expansion,Production of Power fom 7 CHAPTER 8. vod _+ Zand 4 — 1. The lines cea ‘The turbine exhaust is toma ethan about 10%, erosion Problems ap e condenser may Occur, but the fect bilities OF S f increasint intent is les: re in the irreve! illustrates the effects of these inetion 7 Tonger vertical, but tend in the ee still wet, but as long as the m the condensat not serious. Slight subcooling © inconsequential. ‘The boiler serves (© cycle, and the condenser trans and potential-energy changes Te case to: lear react ing fuel (or from a nuc 01) to aycle «the surroundings. Neglecting kine transfer heat from relations, Eqs. (2.31) and (2.32), in eige fers heat from t .duces the energy Q=4H (8.2) ganan | BD ir il it . 7.2 and 7.3. ‘Turbine and pump calculations are treated in detail in Secs. -Example 8.1 Steam generated in a power plant at a pressure of 8,600 kPa and a temperature of 500°C is fed to a turbine. Exhaust from the turbine enters a condenser at 10 kPa, where it is condensed to saturated liquid, which is then pumped to the boiler, (a) What is the thermal efficiency of a Rankine cycle operating at these condi- tions? (6) What is the thermal efficiency of a Practical cycle operating at these conditions ithe turbine efficiency and pump efficiency are both 0.757 (c) t ane a Of the power cycle of part (6) is 80,000 kW, what is the steam rate ‘anet are the heat-transter rates in the boiler and condencors Solution 8.1 (Ms =~1.2742 44 ke~! Ws isenteopi Mo. (isentropic) — (AH)s = _} 20. "eover, the enthalpy atthe en 274.2 ki kg-l tof ; of isentropic ©Xpansion, H/ acer | Thus , in Ex. 7.6, is here: B= 74g kgo! = 45.83°C) js: 191.8 kd kgtPlant 4. The Steam Power 295 ‘thus by Bq. (8.2) applied to the condenser, Q(condenser) = Hg — H3 = 191.8~ 2,117.4 — 1,925.6 I ko! where the minus sign signifies that heat flows out of the system The pump operates under essentially the same conditions as the pump of Ex. 7.10, where: W, (isentropic) = (AH)s = 8.7 kgo! Whence, = Hy = Ha + (AH)s = 191.8 4.8.7 = 200.5 kg! The enthalpy of superheated steam at 8,600 kPa and 500°C is: Hy = 3,391.6 kJ kgé! By Eq. (8.2) applied to the boiler, Q(boiler) = H — H, = 3,391.6 — 200.5 = 3,191.1 ki kg! ‘The net work of the Rankine cycle is the sum-of the turbine work-and the pump work: W, (Rankine) = —1,274.248.7 = —1,265.5 kJ kg! This result is of course also: W, (Rankine) = —Q(boiler) — Q(condenser) = —3,191.1 + 1,925.6 = ~1,265.5 KJ kg-! ‘The thermal efficiency of the cycle is: 1W,(Rankine)| _ 1,265.5 Qboiler) 3191.1 = 0.3966 (®) With a turbine efficiency of 0.75, then also from Ex. 7.6: W, (turbine) = AH = —955.6 kJ kg~! Whence Hy = Hy + AH = 3,391.6 — 955.6 = 2,436.0 I kg! For the condenser, 1 Q(condenser) = Hy — Hs = 191.8 — 2,436.0 = —2,244.2 kd kg BY Ex. 7.10 for the pump, W, (pump) = AH = 11.6 KJ kg~! ‘The net work of the cycle is therefore: — W, (net) = —955.6 + 11.6 = —944.0 kJ kg”prER 8. Production of Powe; on . PEE OM Hey 296 : 296 _ Hy = Hi: pan 198+ 16 = 203 4 id 2 Hs : -Hi = 3,391.6 — 203.4 = 3,188.2 kJ kg! 1 = 3,391. Then boiler) = #2 cy of te eyele is therefore: “The thermal efficie [We(net)| 944.0 _ 9.2961 1= Qcpoiler) 3,188. B which may be compared with the result of part (a). (c) For a power rating of 80,000 kW: W,(net) = rit W, (net) . _ We(net) _ —80,000 kJ m= Welnet) 944.0 J kg red or 84.75 kg s ‘Then by Eq. (8.1), Oboiler) = (84.75)(3,188.2) = 270.2 x 10° kJ s~! G(condenser) = (84.75)(—2,244,2) 190.2 x 10° kJ s-! Note that Orboiler) + O(condenser) = — Ww, (net) —————___ The Regenerative Cycle ‘The thermal efficiency of a st reased herm a steam power cycle is j as ‘amperature in the boiler is raised, tt isalse irene increased a wet these same condi ler pressures and t igh of ss Howe sae conditions ete gee ae sia bigh prea “ause they require Westment in Severe conditions are impose ou Moreover, these costs increase ever i 000 kPa ~ Thus, in practice power plants seldom Power plant increases as the press Peratures much above pans The ensation temperature ene the temperature in the condesst the cooling medi ium, usu; must be higher than the temperature b ture Se°graphy. Power plants univers 2% this is con ith mod niversall trolled b i eral oe Pow y y local Tates feedwater : " ‘er plants o, -ondenser a of cla the boiler, is first he ‘ater from the & Modification fe ee i a mm i stages, with stea Y Steam ; Rankine faa rangement eae taken From the ned from the pi, ae being pumped directly bark on this Get four feedwater rei at turbine. This is y done in cr BUTE and described jee is normally done in 5 town in Fig 8 gue States of expansion. * 8 paragraphs Le OPerating conditions indict oe illustrative calculations of man a 2. St typical, and are the basis 0°P= 2,900 kPa P= 1,150 kPa Condenser Feedwater heaters Figure 8.5: Steam power plant with feedwater heating. Ss aed of steam generation in the boiler are the same as in Ex. 8.1: 8,600 kPa ee eieed erie ‘of the turbine, 10 KPa, is also the same. The saturation teemndenan e exhaust steam is therefore 45.83°C. Allowing for slight subcooling of fedvater purnp, wi fix the temperature of the liquid water from the condenses a 45°C. The Hemperature P, Which operates under exactly the conditions of the pump in Ex. 7.10, causes ‘theaters engarnn of about 1°C, making the temperature of the feedwater entering the series Th equal to 46°C. te oe temperature of steam at ature ig ae ‘to which the feedwater can be be ncesign variable, whichis ultimately fixed by ecot Must be chosen before any thermodynamic calculations ct tbe made. We have therefore marly specified a temperature of 226°C for the feedwatet stream entering the boiler. We ial specified that all four feedwater heaters accomplish the same temperature rise. Thus, sacl temperature rise of 226 — 46 = 180°C is vided into four 45°C increments. This tures atthe values shown on FB: 8.5. ssure high enough that its i ata pres ayn” temperature is above that of the ving the ate, We have Hee St minimum temperature difference £0 heat transfer of ; leas un steam pressures such that Breater than the exit temperatures ° the boiler pressure of 8,600 kPa is 300.06°C, and raised in the heaters is certainly less. This tem- nomic considerations. However, a rhea os shown inthe feedwater heaters 0 ed the feedwater streams. THE condensate fromCHAPTER 8. Production of Power fron . Sy 298 _—— . “i ie valve to the barat at : e ioe lower 34 eri fh i series is flashed into the condense, each feedwater heatets ne eral hes sia io en < : collected condens! . and the colle s from the condens He are false the average as allsondensate Fetus ram 1 6 ay, ete esd to Fn the boiler. This ine he his at which heat is added ier. said to operate on a regenerative evel Ee a throttl eases tl Example 8.2 — / Determine the thermal efficiency of the power plant aN eee cen te bine and pump efficiencies of 0.75. If its power rating is Dr i iat is the rate from the boiler and what are the heat-transfer rates in the boiler and Condenser Solution 8.2 Initial calculations are made on the basis of 1 kg of steam entering the turbine from the boiler. The turbine is in effect divided into five sections, as indicated in Fig. 8.5. Because steam is extracted at the end of each section, the flow rate in the \¢ decreases from one section to the next. The amounts of steam extracted from the first four sections are determined by energy balances. ‘This requires enthalpies of the compressed feedwater streams. The effect of pressure at constant temperature on a liquid is given by Eq. (7.25): ASH=V(1-BT)AP (const T) For saturated liquid water at 226°C (499.15 K), the steam tables provide: PM =2598.2kPa HH =9TLSK ke! v= 1,201 em? kee! In addition, at this temperature, B = 1.582 x 10-3 K-! ‘Thus, for a pressure change from the Saturation pressure to 8,600 kPa: Skike! AH = 1.201{1 ~ (1.528 x 10-499, 15)}{8:600 ~ 2,598.2) 105 and _ . me H = H(sat. liq.) + AH = 971.5 +15 = 973.0 kd kg! Sint Calculations yield the enthalpies of the feedwat ~~ ent values are given inthe following table,” St tet “o™P™ 17°C 26 181 HIS kg" for water at ca = and P= 8,600 kPa 9 73.0 7713 57.4 3875 2000‘The Steam Power Plant 1 a ” rhooted . Tio sue - —— rom boil : re 12 5006 "Same Pr Stoam food to section Il P= 2,900 Pe Figure 8.6 W 3,151.2 : “a = 363.68°C Section Lof whe0 ‘Vkg fiquid 5 = 6.8150 turbine and first ime aes feedwater beater. 1= 226°C ot ee H= 9730 r= ere H=™M3 mkg condensate Soturated ii t 2,900 Pa 2 23197°C H= 9995 Consider the first section of the turbine and the first feedwater heater, as shown by Fig. 8.6. The enthalpy and entropy of the steam entering the turbine are found from the tables for superheated steam. The assumption of isentropic expansion of steam in section I of the turbine to 2,900 kPa leads to the result: (AH)s = ~320.5 1d kg™! If we assume that the turbine efficiency is independent of the pressure to which the steam expands, then Eq. (7.16) gives: AH = n(AH)s = (0.15)(-320.5) = —240.4 kg"! AH =-240.415 By Eq. (7.14), woo Inaddition, the enthalpy of steam discharged from this section of the turbine is: H = 3,391.6 — 240.4 = 3,151.2 KI ke! water heater results from the assump- a Oe aay a te and from the assign- tion that kinetic- and ial: changes are negligib! } potential-energy ; ™ents, @ = —W, = 0. Equation (2.30) then reduces to: AnH ts = 0Cm —* 300 Enthalpy: ki kg-1 Entropy: kd kg-1K-1 Steam feed to section I P= 1,150KPe ‘H = 2,987. Figure 8.7: Section I! 2.9878 of turbine and second feedwater heater. 1 kg water n= SITs H=™3 {0.09374 + m) kg condensate ee ‘Saturated liquid one sraiso KPa 1 = 186,05°C n= 7889 oo ‘This equation gives mathematical expression to the requirement that the total en- thalpy change for the process be zero, Thus on the basis of 1 kg of steam entering the turbine (Fig. 8.6): m(999.5 — 3,151.2) + (1)(973.0 — 771.3) = 0 Whence, sm = 0.09374 kg On the basis of 1 kg of steam entering the turbi teri _ es flowing into section ofthe turbine, Sines ¢ —m is the mass of sea Section II of the turbine and th In doing the same eaclaions as for sention ana ae shown in ni steam leaving section II and 1 —m = 0.90626 kg H = 2987813 kp~ 987.8 KI kgé! ‘Then on the basis of | k, BOF Steam enterin, 8 the turbi We) = oo (2,987.8 — 8 3.151.2)(0,90626) = ~148.08 kJPers aqeam Powes Plant 301 tm soergy balance O7 the feedwater heater (Fig. 8.7) gives: arenes : (0.09374 + m)(789.9) — (0.09374)(999.5) — m(2,987.8) + (1)(771.3 — 577.4) =0 whence m = 0.07971 kg ve tat toting the condensate stream does not change its enthalpy. ts and those of similar calculations for the remaining sections of * qhese results ane . ihe turbine are listed in the accompanying table. From the results shown, > Ws = 804.010 and Yim = 0.3055 kg Nee ey Tanner ara Hik} kg"! Ws/k3 PCat mikg of at section for section section steam exit exit State extracted Seal 3151.2 240.40 363.65. Superheated 0.09374 vapor Sec. 2,987.8 148.08 272.48 Superheated 0.07928 vapor Sec. II 2,827.4 132.65 183.84 Superheated 0.06993 vapor Sec.1V 2,651.3 — 133.32 96.00 Wet vapor 0.06257 x = 0.9919 Sec.V 2,435.9 149.59 45.83 Wet vapot x = 0.9378 Thus for every kilogram of steam entering the turbine, the work produced is 8040 k5, and 0.3055 kg of steam is extracted from the turbine for the feedwater heaters, The work required by the pump is exactly the work calculated for the pamp in Ex. 7.10, that is, 11.6 kJ. The net work ‘of the cycle on the basis of 1 KE of steam generated in the boiler is therefore: W, (net) = —804.0 + 11.6 = 792.4 KS On the same basis, the heat added in the boiler is: QO(boiler) = 4H = 3,391.6 — 973.0 = 2,418.6 KI The thermal efficiency of the cycle is therefore: iwy(ned _ 7924 — 03276 1= Qqpoilen) ZAl8.6 8 significant improvement over the valueChe 30,000 5° et) = 3 se Wat _ Because 90,000 __ 100,96 ke 7! x92 0 calculate the he We (ned) _ W, (net) eat-transfer rate in the turbine, used | This is the steam rate (0 the boiler: : Otboile = 7 AH= (100.96)(2.418.6) = 244.2 x 10° KI s iter) = The heat-transfer rate (0 the cooling water in the condenser IS: Ne heat — Qrboiler) - Ws(net) O(condenser) = — (-80.0 x 10°) = 164.2 x 10° kJ s“! = -244.2 x 10° rate is higher than was found in Ex. 8.1, the heat- Although the steam generation because their func- transfer rates in the boiler and condenser are appreciably less, tions are partly taken over by the feedwater heaters. __ ‘8.2 .INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES In a steam power plant, the steam is an i i 3 an i , baring fuel or from a nuclear reactor Tee esa (© Which heat is transferred for : Ii surfaces: (1) for the absorption of heat b is therefore characterized by large heat-transfet Ie wall: i Of heat ae” withstand high temperatures and pres feat absorpti " thin the engi 2 82 internal-combustion engine, example on and the combustion products imposes a limit on the t temperat te ater hand, a fuel is bared working medium, acting for internal, and do not in ; Wwolve heat- a piston j : Pea Moteover, fuel and air fow stexqy en eestiOn engi in low steadily out of en te SALY into an intense cOmPlicat amic &@ steam power Of it; no Work: an internal. tes thermodyn ‘ot i * plant. However, povine Medium und bust i for mi nde king Ai ae 7 et engines. In addition, ee tha ‘aking simple Pie! a cyclic process, as does 5° thal are equivalene ee analyses, one imagines cyclic em, In what fol A in performance 1 imagines cyclic cris to actual internal-com! - ‘at lt