CHAPTER1

SOLARENERGY
Improvementofl iv
ingst andardst hroughoutt he
world requires abundant energy and mat eri al
resources, t ogether wi th a wel l dev eloped
technology. If energy resources decl i
ne, t he
standard of l ivi
ng decl ines i n spi te of how
technologi
cal
lycompet entt heworkf orceis. I
tisnow
generallyacceptedt hatt heex ponentialgrowt hof
energyconsumpt ionwhi chhasbeenex periencedf or
many years can not cont inue indef i
nitely.But
tradit
ionalenergy resources are no l onger as
abundantast heyoncewere,andt heneedt odev el
op
new undepletable andenv ironment all
y accept able
energysourcesi srecognizedbyal lofus.

These renewable energy resources are

at
tracti
vebecause:

1
.Theyarei
nex
haust
ibl
e

2.
Theyarenonpol
lut
ing.

3.Theyaref
ree,
exceptf
ort
hecostofconv
ersi
on.

4.The amount of energy av

ail
abl
ef rom t
hese
resourcesisenought omakeallpeopl
eofthe
planetsel
f-suf
fici
ent
.

Sol
arenergyi saprimecandi dat
et omeett hi
s
chall
enge.Qui
teapartfromitsnon-pol
luti
ngquali
ti
es,
the amount of energy whi ch i s avai
labl
e for
conversi
onisseveralordersofmagni t
udegreater
than allpresent world requirements.We must
proceedtoex ami
net hedevicesandprocessesf or
1
converting solar energy to usefulpurposes ,and
searchf orwaysandmeanst oobtaint hemax i
mum
benefitsfrom t hese.Wenol ongeraskwhet herwe
shouldusesol arenergy,butwhataret hebestways
todoi t.Howev er,thet womaj orprobl emsofusi ng
sol
arenergyaret herelati
velylowi ntensit
yofsolar
radiati
onatt heeart h'
ssurfaceandi tsintermit
tence.

Thev astsolarsuppl yofenergyreachest he

earthi n quantit
ies such that1.4 Kil
owatts pass
througheachsquaremet ernormalt othebeam.The
energyi ntercepted byt heearthi st hi
squant i
ty
multi
pli
edbyt hecross-sect
ionalareaoft heearth,
1
4 2 1
4
1.3x10 m andamount sto1.82X1 0 joule.

Approximat ely34%oft hei ntercept edenergyi s

reflectedbackt ospace,whi l
eabout47%i sabsorbed
att he earth’ ssurf ace and1 9% absorbedi nthe
atmosphere by at mospheri ccomponent ssuch as
dust,clouds,wat erv apor,carbondi oxide,etc.The
energyabsorbedatt hesurf acei sal soret urnedto
theat mospherebyconv ect i
onandradi ati
on.About
2%oft heenergyi sresponsi blef ort heat mospheric
andoceanci rculat i
onsbuti sconv ert edbyf ri
cti
on
to heat and t ogether wi th t he ot her energy
absorbedi nt heat mospherei sradi at edtospaceas
i
nf raredradi ation.Onlyav erysmal l part.,l
essthan
0.01%,iss toredchemi cal
lybyt hephot osyntheti
c
activi
ty of green pl ant s. Howev er, i ti st hi
s
componentof t rapped energy f rom whi ch man
drivesenergybot hf romhi sdai lymet abolicneedsas
wellasf ormostofhi sneedsf orheat ing,mobi l
it
y
andmechani zati
on[ 1].

Egypti
soneoft
hecount
rieswhi
chhassol
ar
2
energyinabundance(durati
onov er4000h/yearand
2
i
ntensi
tyov er950W/ m i nJune-August)
.Thus ,the
useofsolarenergyinEgyptcouldplayausef ulrole
i
ncont ri
butingtomeetingenergyrequi rement sin
themosturbanareasinappropriateci
rcumstances.

1
.1Ut
il
izat
ionofSol
arEnergy:

Solarenergycoul dbeusedi nmanyf iel

dsas
summari zedi n Fig.
1.Theuseofsol ar energyi n
these domai ns wi l
lref lect sev
eraladv antages
incl
uding:
1.Savingf ossil
f uel
.
2.Cleanenv ironment alcondi
ti
ons.
3.Morecul tivatedland.
4.Bett erpopulationdist
ributi
on.

1
.2Appl
icat
ionsofSol
arEnergy;

1
.2.1Sol
arWat
erHeat
ing:
Itis estimated that the household energy
consumpti
on is about 35% of t he totalnational
consumedenergy,andoft hi
spercentageabout50%
i
susedf orheatingwat eratalevell
esst han100oC.
Simply a sol
ar wat er heater i
s a dev i
ce whi ch
absorbssolarradiationandgivesitasheatt othe
water tobe used by t he consumer,and i tmay
consi
stofacol l
ectoronlyoracol lectorwithan
i
nsulatedstoraget ank.However,thel atestisthe
mostcommonone.

Thusthe sol
ar wat
er heater i
scommonl ya
bl
ack
enedmet alplat
ewithattachedmet alt
ubing
andi
susual
lyprovi
dedwi
thaglasscoverandalayer
3
ofinsulati
onbeneatht heplate.Thecollectortubing
isconnect edbypi pi
ngt oat ankthatst oreshot
water f or use duri
ng non-sunny peri ods.When
mount edonarooforot hersui t
abl
esupport ,the
coll
ectorabsorbssolarradi ati
on,bytransf erofthe
resulti
ngheatt othewat erci rcul
ati
ngt hrought he
tubing,hotwaterissuppl i
edt othestoraget ank.In
thi
s syst em, the t echnology needed, t he raw
mat erial
,theski
llofmanuf acturingandeconomi cal
paramet erscanbeachi evedandcompet ewi thother
met hodsusedforwat erheat i
ng.

4
 Typical
ly,suchsyst emshav ecapacitiesrangi
ng
from 1 00t o200l it
ersandadequat elysupplythe
needsofa f amily off our or fiv
e persons .The
temperat ure oft he hotwat er deli
vered ranges
from 50t o70° C.Anaux i
li
aryheat i
ngsyst em i
s
providedforuseoncl oudyorrainydays[ 2].

 MethodsUsedf orWat erHeat i

ng:
I
nthemostcommondesi gnst hest oragetankis
l
ocat edabovet het opoft hecollector.Theelevated
positi
onoft het ankresul tsinnat uralconvecti
on,
wat ercircul
atesf rom thecollectort othetankand
replacedbycol dwat er.Theci rculati
on ofwat er
betweent hecollect orandt hestoraget ankmayt ake
placebyt womeans:

i. Nat uralcirculation
The incli
ned col l
ector is connected tot he
storagetankf rom t het opandbottom insuchaway
thattheheadoft hewat erinthet ankisofhigher
levelt
hant hetopoft hecoll
ectorasshowni nFig.2a.
The mi ni
mum di stance bet ween the top of t he
coll
ectorandt hebaseoft hetanki s30 cm.The
elevat
ed position of t he tank result
si n natural
5
convecti
on.Whenwat eri nthecoll
ectorisheatedby
the absorbed solar radiat
ion i
tf l
ows up due to
densit
ydifferencewhi chisaresultoftemperature
dif
ference,thishotwat erf l
owstot hetopoft he
tankandrepl acedbycoldwat erfrom thebott
om of
thetank.

ii
. Forcedci rcul ation:
Whenl argeamount sofhotwat erarerequi red,
anat uralcircul at i
onsyst em isnotsui tabl e.Large
arraysoff lat-pl atecol l
ect orsaret henusedand
forcedci rculat i
onmai ntai nedwi t hawat erpump.
Therest ricti
ont hatt hest oraget ankshoul dbeata
higherl ev elist husremov ed.Aschemat icdi agram
ofat ypi
cal syst emi sshowni nFi g.2b.Whenev erhot
wat eri swi thdrawnf oruse,col dwat ert akesi ts
placebecauseoft hebal l-f l
oatcont rolpresenti n
thesyst em.Thepumpi soperat edby an on-of f
cont roll
erwhi chsensest hedi f
ferencebet weent he
temperat ure of t he wat er at t he ex it of t he
coll
ect orsandasui tabl el ocat i
oni nsidet hest orage
tank .The pump i s swi tched on whenev er t his
differenceex ceedsacert ainv alueandof fwheni t
fall
sbel owacert ainv al ue.Al so,anon-ret urnv alv
e
maybeusedt oprev entrev erseci rculationofhot
wat erf rom t het opoft het ankt ot hecol lect or,due
tot he back radi at i
on t o sk y duri ng t he ni ght.
Syst emsoft hist ypearewel lsuitedf orpl acesl ik
e
hospi tal
s,hotel s,of ficesandf actori es.

6
Fi
g.2:Sol
arWat
erHeat
er.

1
.2.
2Sol
arDesal
inat
ion:
7
 Thesol arwat erdesal inationprocesshasagood
pointi nitsf avorf orsmal lcommuni ti
es,t owersand
mot elsi nari dandsemi -aridzones,wherebrack i
sh
orsal inewat eri sav ailablebutei theranadequat e
sourceoff reshwat eri sunav ailableort hecostof
freshwat erbroughti nbyt ransporti st oohi gh.
Thus sol ar desal i
nat ion i s recommended where
therei snoot hersourceofenergyt hant hesun.
Solarenergyi susedf ordesal ti
ngseawat erand
brack ishwel l wat er.Thebasi nt ypest illiscommonl y
used.I tconsi st sofashal l
owt ray,f i
ll
edwi thsal tor
brack ishwat erandcov eredbyasl opinggl asscov er
plate.Thesol arradi at ionheat st hewat eri nt he
trayandev aporat esi t .Whent hev aporcomesi n
cont act wi th t he col der surf ace of gl ass ,it
condenses ,f ormi ngf reshwat erwhi chrunsdown
thei nnersurf acei nt hef orm ofdropl etsandcan
be col lectedi n at rough att he l ower edge and
excessbri ne t hathasnotev aporat edi srun t o
wast e as sal t wat er i s supplied t ot he basi n.
Differentdesi gnsofsol ardesal inat i
onuni tsinclude
thecascadet ypeandev aporat i
ngwi cksol arst il
l.
Someoft hesedesi gnsareshowni n f igure3[ 3].

Solar di
sti
ll
ation requires rel ativelyl arge
capitali nvestment per uni t of capaci t
y and a
minimumofoperat ingandmai ntenancecost s.Since
product ivi
ty ofa sol ar st
illisdependenton t he
intensityanddurat ionoft heinsolationi trecei ves ,
itissubj ecttobothdi urnalandseasonalv ariation.
Undergoodradi ati
oncondi t
ionsanout putofabout4
li
tersoff resh water can beobt aineddai ly per
squaremet erofcov er.Thebasi n-typesol arst i
ll
combi nest hesolarenergycol l
ect i
onf unctionand
8
t
hedi
sti
ll
ati
onf
unct
ioni
nasi
ngl
euni
t.

Combined energy-source syst ems,in whi ch

solarenergyt ot hest i
lli
saugment edbywasteheat
from,f orex ampl e,intermit
tentlyoperateddiesel
orgasol i
neengi nes,mayreducet hecostofwat er
producedf rom thest i
ll
.Mult
ipl
ef uncti
onplants,in
whi ch water product ion i
si ntegrated wit
ht he
wat eruse,areal sobeingconsidered,forexampl e,
in an integrat edsyst em forenergy,wat er,and
foodproduct ion.

Mul t
ipurpose systems produci ng some
combinati
onsofwater,
salt
,andpossi
blypower,
can
beconceived.

 Evaluat
ingSolarDi
sti
llat
ion:
Thef ol
lowi
ngcheckl
istispresentedasanaidin
assessingtherelati
vevalueofsolardist
il
lat
ionasa
methodofmeet ingaparticul
arwat erneed.

Gl
ass-Cov
eredEv
aporati
ngpanwi
thref
lect
ing
surf
ace

9
Schemat
icCrossofMul
ti
ple-l
edgeTi
lt
edSt
il
l.

1
0
Basi
nTypeSlappedSol
arSt
il
lEqui
pmentwi
th
chargi
ngsystem.

Schemat
icCrossSect
ionofTi
lt
edWi
ckSt
il
l.

1
1
 Doubl
eBasi
nSt
il
l

Fi
g.(
3)SomeDesi
gnsofSol
arSt
il
ls.

Climat e:I fthesol arradi at ioncl imat eisgood,

i.
e. , sk i
es are general ly cl ear, a sol ar
distill
ationpl anmaybef easi bl e.Product ivi
ty
ofst i
llisadi rectf unct ionofsol arradi ation
recei vedonahori zont al surf ace.
Scal eofneed:Sol ardi st i
llat i
onnow appears
sui t
edt owat errequi rement sonarel at i
vely
smal lscal e,i .e.,l
esst hanabout50, 000gal
3
(200 m )perday.Forl argerdemands ,or
demandst hatareant i
ci pat edt oi ncreasei n
thenearf uture,ot herdesal inat i
onmet hods
aremoreeconomi cal .
Site:Thesi t
ef orthest illi nst allation,besi des
hav ingunobscuredsol arradi at i
on,shoul dbe
near t he wat er users.Brack ish surf ace
wat er,groundwat er,orseawat ermustbe
av ail
able nearby.Compet ing usesf or sites
shoul dal sobeconsi dered.
Est i
mat e of st i
ll si ze: A wel l-desi
gned,
wel l
-const ruct edst il
linagoodcl imat eshoul d
2
produceabout25galperf t ofs ti
ll(1,
0001
2
perm )peryear.Thi syi el d,comparedwi th
annual wat er needs, wi ll gi ve a f i
rst
approx i
mat i
onoft herequi redsol ar-st i
ll
area.
Desi gn:Oneormoredesi gncanbesel ectedor
1
2
dev eloped consi st ent wi thl ocalcondi t i
ons ,
av ailabl emat eri als,andsk ill
soft hel ocalwork
force.
Est i
mat e of mont hly yi eld:Based on t he
sel ect ed desi gn,mont hly yi el
ds of di still
ed
wat er can be est imat ed ei ther f rom
ex peri ment aldat aon si mi l
ar still
si n ot her
locat ionsor t hrough t he use ofest imat i
on
met hodssuchast hoseout li
nedi nt heManual
ofSol arDi st i
ll
at ion[ 5] .Theseyi eldsshoul dbe
basedonmont hlymeanradi ati
onl ev elsand
temperat ures( themostwi delyav ail
abl ef orm
oft hepert inentmet eorol ogicaldat a)suchas
thoseav ailablei nworl dDi stributionofsol ar
radi at ion[ 6] .
Rai nf allcont ribut i
on:I fl ocalcondi tionsand
regul at ionspermi t,rai nf allrunof ff rom t he
glasscov ersoft hest i
llcanberecov ered.Thi s
can be es timat ed f rom av erage mont hly
rai nf alldat a( ifrai nf alli snothi ghlyv ari abl e)
ormi nimum mont hlyrai nf all(i
fiti sv ariabl e),
appl yi ngareasonabl erecov eryf actor.Usef ul
mont hl yrai nfallcol lect edcant henbeaddedt o
still yi eld t o prov ide an est imat e of
mont h-t o-mont h product ion ofusef ulwat er
fromt hest ill
.
Mont hl y needs versus product ion: A
compari sonofmont h-t o-mont hdistri but ionof
wat erproduct i
onandwat erneedswi llindi cat e
wat er-st oragerequi rement s,modi ficat ionsi n
stillsi z e,orpossi bleusesofsuppl ement ary
sources.

Esti
mateofcost:Wi
tht
heforegoingi
nformation,
theappropri
atedat
aonst
illdesi
gns,f
irstcosts,
1
3
 serv ice l i
fe, mai ntenance and operat ing
requi rement s,andlocalinformat iononi nterest
ratesandot hereconomi cf actors ,t hecostof
deli
v eringwat erfrom t hesol arst ill
scanbe
estimat edandcomparedwi thal t
ernat ives.
Other consi derati
ons: consi derat ions not
direct l
yquant i
fi
ableint ermsofcostmayal so
bei mport ant.Thesecoul di nclude,f orex ampl e,
sociologicalandpersonalf actors,resi stancet o
change,di stance ofusers f rom t he pot able
wat er suppl y,prot ection of t he st i
llf rom
vandal i
sm,sal es met hod or ot her cost s of
distributingt hewat er,subsi dies,and/ orf uel
savings.

1
.2.
3SpaceHeat
ing:
Much t raditionalarchi t
ect ure desi gns hav e
ev ol
ved, t o cont rol or mi nimize t emperat ure
fluctuationsint hes tructure.Thishasbeendoneby
designing openi ngs t o control t he mi ssion of
sunlightand desi gni
ng the heatcapaci ty oft he
struct urest omi nimizeundesi rable( low orhi gh)
temperat ures.Modem sci ent
ificdev elopment scan
be appl i
ed t o bui l
ding designs t o cont rol all
temperat ure ex tremes.These i nclude ref lecti
ve
surf aces,cont rolledov erhangs,useofi nsul ati
ng
mat erialsandroofdesi gn.

Thet echnol
ogyofsol arspaceheat ingwhere
wateri st hemedium i
sessent iall
yanex tensi
onof
thet echnologyemployedi n solarwat erheat i
ng,
exceptt hatenergyhast oberecov eredf rom the
tankt hroughaheatex changesurf ace.Coll
ectors
andst orageunit
smuchl argert hant hoseemployed
1
4
insol
arwaterheatersarenecessarytoprovi
dea
subst
anti
alport
ionoftheheatrequi
redi
nat ypi
cal
resi
dencei
nasunnyclimate.

Syst emsempl oyingai rast heheatt ransfer

medium bet weent hecol l
ect orandt hestoragebi n
containingsmal lrock shavebeenusedsuccessf ul
ly.
Solarheati sstoredassensi bleheati
nt herock sand
recov ered,whenneeded,bypassageofai rov erthe
rocksandhencet otheroom.
Mostst udiesindicatethati nt
emperat ecli
mat es,
i
ti snotpract icalt o provide 100% oft he space
heatingrequi rementbysol arenergy.

Aspaceheat i
ngsyst emisill
ust
ratedinFig.4[ 2]
.
Wateri sheatedinthesol arcoll
ector(A)andst ored
i
nt het ank(B).Energyi stransferredt ot heai r
ci
rcul at
ing i n the house by means of t he
water-to-air heatex changer (E)
.Two pumps ( C)
providef orcedcirculati
onbet weent hecollectors
andt het ank,andbet weent hetankandt heheat
exchanger. Prov i
sion is also made f or addi ng
auxil
iaryheat .

Analternati
veapproachtospaceheati
ngisto
heatairdirectl
yinthecoll
ect
ors,asshowninFi
g.5
Theheati sthenstoredinatankpackedwithrock
,
gravelandbabbles.

Incontrasttot heabovemet hods,whichare

oftencall
edactiv
emet hods,spaceheati
ngcanalso
be done by adopti
ng passi
ve methods.A passi
ve
met hod i
s one in which thermalenergy f l
ows
throughalivi
ngspacebynat uralmeanswit
houtthe
helpofamechanicaldevi
celi
keapumporabl ower.A
1
5
diagram ofsuchasyst em i sshowni nFi g.6.The
south-facing walloft he house i s double glaz
ed.
Behind,therei sathick,bl ackconcretewal l,which
absorbst hesun'sradiationandserv esasat hermal
storage.Vents( AandB) ,whi chcanbek eptopenor
closed,areprov i
dedneart het opandbot tom ofthe
storagewal l
.[2]

Duri ngtheday,bot hv ent sAandBarek ept

open.Theai rbetweent heinnergl azi
ngandt hewal l
getsheat edandf l
owsi ntothel iv
ingspacet hrough
thet opv ent.Si
multaneously,thecoolerairfromt he
room i spul l
edoutoft hel i
vingspacet hrought he
bottom v ent.Thus,anat uralcirculati
onpathi sset
up.Someenergyt ransfert ot helivi
ngspaceal so
takespl acebyradi ati
onf rom thei nnersurf aceof
thest oragewal l.Duringt heni ght,bothvent sare
closedandt heenergyt ransf ertakesplaceonl yby
radiation.

I
nmanynew bui l
dings,hybridsystemsusing
both passive and act i
ve met hods are being
consi
dered.Inthisway,thesizeoftheacti
vesyst
em
i
sconsiderablyreduced.Theheati sst
oredinatank
ful
lwithwat er,theheatcanbet ransferredtothe
housebyaf orcedairsystem andawat er-to-air
heatexchanger.

Al
ternati
ve storage systems thathav e been
proposed uti
li
ze chemicalst atetransit
ions.One
exampleisthehydratetransit
ionofsodi
umsul f
at e:

Thistransi
ti
onwhi
choccursatat emperat
ure
o
of32. 3Cabsorbsorreleasesanenergyof5X1 04
cal
/Kg, t hat i
s an energy equal to a 50oC
1
6
t
emperat
urechangef
oranequal
quant
ityofwat
er.

Fi
g.4:Sol
arSpaceHeat
ing

Fi
g.5:SpaceHeat
ingwi
thEnergyst
orage.

1
7
 Fi
g.6:Sol
arSpaceHeati
ngwit
hnat
ural
Air
Ci
rcul
ati
on.

1.
2.4Sol arairconditi
oningandref rigerati
on:
Spacecool i
ngmaybedonewi tht heobjecti
veof
providingcomf ort
ablelivi
ngconditi
onsorofk eepi
ng
af oodproductcol d.Sincetheenergyoft hesuni s
being received as heat ,the obvious choice i
sa
system work ingon t heabsorption ref rigerati
on
cyclewhi chrequi resmostofi tsenergyi nputas
heat[ 2].

Conventional ai r condi tioning i nvol

ves
compressionofv apor,i t
scoolingandcondensat ion
toaliquidandsubsequentv aporizat i
onbyex pansion
int
oaregi onofl owerpressure.Heati swit
hdrawn
fromt heairt obecool edbydrawi ngf romittheheat
neededf orv aporiz at
ionoft hel iquid.Thecycl eis
repeatedbyaret urnoft hev aport oapressureat
whichi tcanbecondensed,rej ect ingt heheatof
vaporizati
onatat emperaturehi ghert hant hatof
thecooledregi on.

Solarairconditi
oningcanbeaccompl i
shedi n
thesamemannerbyconv ersionofsolarenergyt o
the mechani cal form needed t o operat e a
compressor.Theneedf ormechanicalpowerandi ts
relati
vely hi
gh cost from solar energy can be
avoidedbyuseoftheabsorptionrefrigerat
ioncycle.
Int hisprocess,t
hepressureoft heref rigerant
1
8
vaporisrai sedbyheat i
ng,i nsteadofbymechani cal
compression t he v aporized ref ri
gerant, i s
recoveredf rom recycl ingbyabsorpt i
oninasol ute
oftheref ri gerantandasal t.Thelow pressureof
theex pansion/v aporizationregi onismaintainedby
the reduced v apor pressure oft he refrigerant
abovet he absorbent( soluti
on)and t he vapor is
regenerat edbyal l
owingt hesol ut
ionofrefrigerant
andabsorbentt of l
ow intot hegenerat or where
sol
arheati sappl ied.

Adiagramofasi mplesolaroperat edabsorption

refrigerati
on syst
em i s shown i n Fig.7.Wat er
heated inaf l
atplat e col
lect
or array i s passed
through a heatex changer called the generat or,
wherei ttransf
ersheatt oasolutionmi xtureoft he
absorbentand ref rigerant,whi ch isri ch int he
refrigerant.

1
9
 Refrigerant v apor i s boi l
ed of f at a hi gh
pressureandgoest ot hecondenser wherei ti s
condensed i nto hi gh pressure l i
quid. The hi gh
pressurel iqui dist hrot tledt oal ow pressureand
temperat ure i n an ex pansi on val
v e and passes
throught heev aporat orcoi l.Here,theref rigerant
vapor absorbs heat and cool i
ng i st heref ore
obtai ned int he space surroundi ng thiscoi l
.The
ref rigerantv apor is now absorbed back i ntoa
solution mi xture wi t
hdrawn f rom the generat or,
whi ch isweaki n ref rigerantconcent ration,and
then pumped back t ot he generat or, t hereby
compl et
ing t he cycl e. Some of t he common
ref rigerant- absorbentcombi nations used are
ammoni a-wat er and wat er-li
thi
um bromi de,t he
lat
t er being usedessent iallyfor air condi ti
oning
purposes.Typi calv alues f or the coef ficient of
perf ormance( therat iooft heref ri
gerat ingef fect
tot heheatsuppl iedint hegenerat or)v arybet ween
0.5and0. 8[ 2] .

Sol
arcooli
nghasnotbeendev elopedtothesame
extent as solar heat i
ng. The resul t
si ndicate
comparativel
y high costsasagai nstconv entional
compressioncooling.Itdependsont hesupplyofa
sol
arheat edf lui
dt oan absorption refrigeration
cycle,generall
yusi ngthel i
thi
um bromi de/wat er
systemast heabsorbent-refri
gerantmi xture.

20
 Closel
y rel at
ed t o air condit
ioning, solar
refrigeration is generall
y intended f or f ood
preserv at
ion or f or st
orage of biologicaland
medical materi
als.
The refri
gerat
or employs an
ammoni a-absorpt
ioncycl
eandapressuri
zedsol
ar
col
lector.

Cooli
ngf acil
it
iesforagriculturalproductscan
bev i
talinhotclimates.Sol
arabsorpt i
oncoolerscan
meett hisneed.Similartoaref rigeratororaheat
pump,t wof l
uidcyclesare connect edv ia a heat
exchanger.No compressor i s required.Instead,
chemicalconv ersionprocessesint heref rigerant
cycleproducet henecessarycool ingef f
ect.Int he
high temperat ure cycle, thi
s met hod requi res
o
temperat ureof80-1 50Cbutt heycanbeat t
ained
byut i
li
zingsolarenergy.

1.2.
5Solarpowergeneration:
Solarenergyf orpowergenerat ion,ei
therin
thef orm ofelect
rici
tyor mechani calwork,has
beent hesubj
ectofex t
ensi
veresearch.

Eff
ectsaremadet ogenerat
epowerbyuseof
heatengines.Al
loftheseeff
ortshav
ebeenmoreor
l
ess dependent on means of collect
ing and/
or
concentrati
nginci
dentsol
arenergy.

Solar thermalpower cycles can be broadl

y
cl
assi
f i
ed as low,medium and hi
gh temperature
cycl
es[ 2].Low temperaturecycl
esgenerallyuse
fl
atplatecoll
ectorssothatmaxi
mum temperatures
o
are l
imitedt oabout1 00C.Medium temperature

21
cycl
es work atmax imum temperatures rangi
ng
o
from 1
50t o300C,whi l
ehightemperat urecycl
es
o
workatmaximumt emperat
uresabove300C.

Fort helow andmedium t emperatureranges,

thet hermodynamiccyclepref erredistheRanki
ne
cycle.Forthehight emperaturerange,apartfrom
theRank i
necycle,theBraytonandSt i
rli
ngcycl
eare
alsobeingconsi
dered.

Adi
agram forasol
arenergy.Powerpl
antwi
th
t
hermalst
orageisgi
veni
nFi
g.8.

Fi
g.8:Sol
arEnergyPowerPlantwi
thThermal
Storage
 Sol
arpowertowers

I
n sol
ar power t
owersradi
ati
on i
sref
lect
ed
22
from al argenumberoff latmi rrorscov eri
nga
largeareaofl and.I tcan achiev econcentrati
on
ratioaslargeas3000andt husheatawork i
ngflui
d
toex t
remel yhi
ght emperatures.Themi rrorswere
drivenk i
nematicall
yt oreflectthei ncomingsolar
radiati
onf rom thef i
eldtoacent ralboil
erwhere
usefulsteam att emperatureupt o950° Kcouldbe
generated.Thehotf lui
dcanbeusedt odriveaheat
engine system atground l evel.This mightbe a
Braytoncycle,aRank i
necycle,orahybri dofthetwo.
Suchanarrangementi sshowni nFig.9.

Itistobenot edt hatsyst

emsl i
kethecent ral
towerort hesphericalbowlrefl
ect
ori nv
olveahigh
level of t echnol
ogy because of t he large
concentrati
on of radi ati
on and the need f or
sophist
icat
edcontrolsfortracki
ng.

Alternat iv
ely,highpressurest eam forel ectri
c
power generat ion or, wi th preci se equipment ,
extremel yhi gh-temperat ureheatf orchemicaland
met al
lurgicalprocessi ng can t hus be produced.
Concent ratorsi nt hef orm ofaparabol oid(dishes),
parabol i
ccyl i
nders( troughs),andothershapeshav e
beeninv estigated.

Solar pumping is rel ated to solar power

generat i
on.Intheseunitsf l
atplatewaterheaters
supply hotwater t o boi
ler in which propane i
s
vaporizedandfrom whicht hisvaporissuppl
iedtoa
reciprocati
ngengine.

23
24
1
.2.
6Sol
ardryi
ng:
The use of hot ai
rf or drying agricult
ural
productsmaysav easgreatport ionf rom spoi
li
ng.
Besides,thedryi
ngoft hevegetablewasteoft he
i
ndus tri
estobeusedf oranimalf eedingwillbea
goodoutcomeofthesolarhotairdryingsystem.

Dryi
ng ofvariouscropsemploysboth di
rect
exposure t
o sunli
ghtand the use ofai
r passed
throughoroverthemateri
altobedri
ed.

Ofal lthe di rectuses ofsol ar energy,sun

dryingofcropsi sperhapst hemostanci entand
widespread.The cust omary techniques i nvol
ves
spreadingthemat erialtobedriedinat hi
nlayeron
thegroundt oex poseitt osunandwi nd.Inrecent
years,fruitdryinghav ebeenadoptedi nwhichf rui
t
is pl
aced in caref ull
y designed rackst o prov i
de
control
ledex posuret osolarradiati
onandwi ndand
toi mprove mat eri alhandli
ng.I mprov ed process
controlandproductqual i
tyhaveresulted.

I
nrecentyears,t heterm "solardrying"also
hascomet omeant heprocesswherebyagri cul
tural
material
saredri ednotbydi rectex posuretothe
sunandwi nd,rai
n,insect
sandbi rds-butbymeans
ofsol
arheat edai
rinmoreprot ectedsurroundi
ngs.

Themostcommont ypeofsolardryersi st he
cabinetdryer.Thedryerconsist
sofanencl osure
withatransparentcov
er.Thematerialtobedriedis
placedonperforat
edtrays.Sol
arradiat
ionenteri
ng
25
theencl osurei sabsorbedi nt heproducti tsel
fand
thesurroundi ngint ernal surfacesoft heenclosure.
Asaresul t,moisturei sremov edf rom theproduct
andt heairi nsi
dei sheat ed.Suitableopeni ngsatt he
bottom and t op ensure a nat ural circulati
on.
o
Temperat uresrangi ngf rom 50t o80Careusual l
y
attainedandt hedryi ngtimerangesf rom2t o4days.
Typicalproduct swhi chcanbedri edi nsuchdev ices
aredat es,apricots,chil
ies,grapes, etc[2].

Forl argescal edrying,aconv ectiv

edryeri s
used( Fig.10).I
nt hisdryer,thesolarradi ationdoes
notf allont heproductt obedri ed.I nstead,airi s
heatedseparat el
yi nasol arairheat erandt hen
ductedt ot hechamberi nwhicht heproductt obe
driedisst ored.Generally,f
orcedcircul ati
oni sused.
Suchdryersaresui t
ableforf oodgrai nsandmany
other product sl iket ea and t obacco. Modi fied
versionsareal sousedfordryinglumber( Fi
g.1 1
).

Modificati
onsareintroducedtocropdryersand
drying techni ques by Tayeb,A.M.[ 7-11]
.These
modif i
cationsincl
ude:Thesolarcoll
ectordryer,the
solarf l
uidizat
iondryer,thesolarf oam matdrying
technique,dryi ngofsomef ruitsandv eget
ablesin
thef orm ofsheet sandmixedmodedryers .Asketch
forthesedryersi sgi
veninFig.1
2.

Toremai nstableinstorage,agricult
uralcrops
shouldbedri edtoamoi st
urecont entof1 2-1
5%by
weight.Therelati
vehumi dit
yoftheai rthatwil
lbein
equil
ibrium wit
hcropsoft hatmoisturelevelvari
es
from cropt ocropandrangesf rom about48-60%
forfruits,andgrains.Mark eddecreasesinrelati
ve
humidity can be achi eved with rather mi ni
mal
26
i
ncreasesi nairt emperatureandt het emperature
change,neededt oproduceanydesi redchangei n
relat
ivehumidity,canbeascert ai
nedf romstandard
psychometricchart s.Adequat
edryi ngofcropscan
thereforebeachi evedinhumi dcli
mat esbyraising
thet emperatureoft heaircirculati
ngamongt he
i
temst obedried.

There i s no si gnif
icant commerci al
manuf acturer ofsolar crop dryers.They range
from theuseofsol ar-heatedairinmoreorl ess
conventionalairdryerst oacombi nati
onofdirect
dryingandai rdryingbyplacingthemat eri
alstobe
driedinflat-pl
atecol
lect
ordryers.

27
28
 Sol
ardryersshoul dbeusablebyf armerswi th
li
mitedt echni
calsk
illandsmal lcapi
talresources.
Theequi pmentshouldbeassi mpleandcheapas
possibl
e.Becauseofseasonalshort-term use,crop
dryersmayhav etobedesi gnedsoasav arietyof
cropsmat uri
ngatdifferenttimescanbedri edin
sequencebyuseoft hesameequi pment.

Ithasbeenshownt
hattheaddit
ionofasol
arai
r
heater to an unheat
ed air-dryi
ng syst
em can
shortendryingt
imeby50-75%.

1
.2.
7Appl
icat
ionsofsol
arenergyi
nspace:
Theuseofsolarenergyasapowersourcef or
space craf t
,was st
arted in1 958.USA l aunched
VanguardI ,whi
chcontai
nedasmal larrayofsi l
icon
cell
st opowerits5MWbackupt ransmitter.Russian
alsolaunched,i
nthesameyear,asat ell
itethatwas
total
ly powered by solar cel
ls.Thereaf t
er t he
demandf orsol
arcel
lsincreasedrapi dl
yf orspace
use.

Theselectionoft hebestpowersyst em fora

particul
armi ssiondependsprimari
lyonthepower
lev
elrequiredandt helengt
hoft hemissi
on.Ifthe
missionisl
esst hanoneday,powerrequiredmaybe
ofabout1k W,andt henchemicalst
oragebatteries
29
aresui t
abl e.I
ft hemi ssi
oni sbetweenonedayand
onemont hi nduration,powerneededi smore,maybe
oftheorderof1 00k W,fuelcellswouldbet hebest
choice.Ifthemi ssi
oni smoret hanamont h,thenthe
weightoft hefuel f
oranysyst emot herthansolaror
nuclearmak esi tprohibit
ive.Radioacti
veisotopes,
thermoel ectri
c generat ors are used f or some
system goi ngawayf rom thesun.Forl argepower
outputs,useofnucl earreact orwoul dbeabet t
er
choiceandi twil
lbecheapert hansolarcellarrays.

Manyotherconceptsareinvesti
gatedt
hatused
thesunasi t
senergysource.Themostdev el
oped
convertersoftheseweret hethermioni
cdi
odesfor
coupli
ngwithasolarsourceinspace.

The solar thermionic system consists of a

mirror thatconcent rated sol
ar radiati
on ontoa
cavi
tyabs orber.Theemi tt
ersf ort het hermioni
c
di
odeswereposi tionedaroundt hiscavit
yandwere
desi
gnedt ooperateat1700° C.

Diodeswerebui l
tandt estedf
orthissyst
emand
demonst rat edover 3000 hoursofl i
feti
me atan
efficiency of 7. 7%. Nei ther thermioni
c nor
thermoel ect ri
c conv ert
ers ev er demonst rated
higheref ficienci
esthansol arcell
swhencombi ned
withasol arsource.

Thecomplex
ityandcostmaki
ng,depl
oyi
ng,and
sun track
ingwithal i
ghtwei
ght
,accuratemirror
alsomadethesesyst
emsuncompeti
ti
ve.

1
.2.
8Sol
arCook
ing:

30
 Solarcook ersdesi gnsgeneral l
yf alli
ntooneof
twocat egories.Onecat egoryi st hebox -typecooker
which essent iall
y consi sts of a rect angular
enclosurei nsul atedon t hebot tom andsi desand
havingt wogl asscov ersont het op.Sol arradiati
on
enterst hrought hetopandheat supt heenclosure
inwhi cht hef oodt obecook edi spl acedinshallow
vessels.At ypi calsizeav ailablehasan encl osure
about50cm squareand1 2cm deep.Temperat ures
o
around1 00Ccanbeobt ainedi nt hesecook erson
sunnydays.Thet i
met akenf orcook ingdependsupon
thesolarradi ationandv ariesf rom1 /2t o21/
2hours.

Asi ngleglassref l
ectorwhosei ncl
inati
oncanbe
variedissomet i
mesat tachedt othebox-typecooker
[2].Ask etchofsuchacook eri sshowninFig.13.The
additi
onoft hemi rrorhel psinachi ev
ingenclosure
temperat ureswhi charehi gherbyabout1 5to20oC.
Asaresul t
, t
hecook ingti
mei sreduced.Cookerswith
reflectorsonal lfouredgeshav ealsobeenbuilt.

Thesecondcat egoryofsol arcookersdev eloped

aret hoseinwhi cht heradiati
onisconcentrat edbya
paraboloidreflect i
ngsurf ace.Thecook i
ngv esselis
placedatt hef ocusoft heparaboloi
dmi rrorandi s
thusdi rectl
yheat ed.Thesecook ersrequi resome
form oft racking.Temperat ureswel labove200oC
canbeachi evedi nsuchcook ers.Varioust ypesof
reflecti
ngsurf aceshav ebeenused.Thesei nclude
glassmi rrors,al umi num sheetandal uminum f oi
l.
Themai ndisadvant ageofsuchcook ersisthatex cept
for glass,t he ref lecti
vit
y ofal lother surf aces
decreaseswi tht hepassageoft ime.

31
 Fi
g.1
3:BoxTypeCook
erwi
thoneref
lect
or

1
.3I
nci
dentradi
ati
on:

The av erage solar radi ati

on power i nt ensi
ty
outsidet heeart h'
ssurf aceat mosphere( thesol ar
2
const ant)isapprox i
mat ely1 353W/ m f orapl ane
normalt ot heraysoft hesun.Asmal lvariationin
intensity( + or - 3.3%)resul tsf rom t he slightl
y
elli
pticalorbi t of the eart h( refer t of ig.1 4).
Significantseasonalv ariat i
oni nsolarf l
uxperuni t
areaoft heeart h'
ssurf ace,howev er,isduet othe
23.50t i
ltoft heearth’sax isrelativetot heplaneof
itsorbi taboutt hesun.
Thev alueofex tra-t errestrialfluxonanyday
canbecal culatedfromt heequat i
on:

whereni
sthedayoft
heyear[
2].

Radi
ati
on reachi
ng the surf
ace ofthe eart
h
di
ffersfrom t
hatatt heouteratmosphereowi
ngto
32
two i mportant effects: atmospheric ref l
ect i
on
(average ref lecti
vity 35%) and absorpt i
on.
Atmosphericabsorptionreducest heinci
dentf l
uxon
the average by approx i
mat el
y 20%.The av erage
radiati
onreachingt hesurf aceoftheeart hist hus
(1-0.
35)(1
-0.2)or0.52oft hatinci
dentatt heout er
atmosphere.Anav eragev alueofIoatthesurfaceof
2 2
theearthisthus704W/ m( 52%of1353W/ m) .

The absorpt i
on and scat t
ering of i ncident
radiati
oni
sst ronglydependentuponitswav elength.
Itistobenotedt hatthemax i
mumv al
ueof704W/ m2
occursatawav elengthof0. 48 m andt hat99
percentoft hesun’ sradiati
onisobt ainedupt oa
certainwavel engthof4 m.Radi ati
onisscat t
ered
byt hemainat mospheri
cconst i
tuents,oxygenand
nit
rogenmol ecules,aswel lasbywat ervaporand
dust.

Thev ari
ati
oninthedirectsol
arradiat
iondueto
absorpt iondependsmainlyontheactualamountsof
wat erv aporintheatmospherewhichisafuncti
onof
relat i
vehumi di
tyandtheambientairt
emperature.

Sol arenergyisalsodepletedbydustparti
cles
andot hersoli
dpart i
clesmai nl
ysuspendedinthe
atmosphere. This depl et
ion results from a
combinationofscatt
erings,absorpt
ionanddiff
use
refl
ection.

Thecomponentsoft heatmospherescattera
portion ofthe sol
ar radi
ati
on and some ofthis
scatteredradi
ati
onreachesthegroundandiscal
led
dif
fuseradiati
on.

33
 Iti
salsoofinteresttoconsi
dert hetotaldail
y
energydensityincidentonasurf ace,thatis,the
ti
mei nt
egratedpowerdensity(theareaundert he
curvein Fi
g.15.

Fi
g.1
4:TheEarth’
sSolarOrbi
t(Nort
hern
Hemi
sphereSeasons)

34
Fig.15PowerandDai lyEnergyI nci
dentona
HorizontalSurface(EnergyDensi t
yIsDail
y
IntegratedPowerDensi ty)
ImportantDef i
nit
ions:
1
.Beamradi ati
on:(Directradiat
ion)
:
I
sthesol arradi ation recei
vedfrom thesun
wit
houtchangeofdi rection. Thedirect
sol
arradiationreachi ngt heearth'
satmosphere,ID,
maybedet ermi nedbyt heequat i
on:

I
D :ist he directsolar radiat
ion whi
ch i
st he
amountofsol arradi
ationreceivedataplane
perpendiculartothesol
array.
I
o:isthedirectsol arradi at
ionreceiv
edatt he
outerli
mi toftheatmosphere.
35
 :t
otalt
ransmi
ssi
onf
act
or.
m:airmass

2.Airmass( m):Istheopticall
engthofradi
ati
on
throughtheatmosphere,m=lwhenthesunisat
thezeni
th(i
.e.di
rect
lyoverhead)
.

wherezi
sthezeni
thangl
eoft
hesun.
m=i
nfi
nit
yatsunri
seorsunset (1/0= )

3.Z
enit
hangle(z):Theanglebetweenal i
nef rom
t
hesuntothecenteroft
heeart handthenormal
o
t
othesurf
aceoftheeart
h(90 –Al ti
tude).

4.Di
ffuseradiati
on (
D):I tisthesolarradiat
ion
recei
vedf rom the sun aft
er it
sdirecti
on has
beenchangedbyref lect
ionandscat
teri
ngbyt he
atmosphere.

5.Thesolaral ti
tude(Al
)orsun’ sal titudeangl e:Is
the angl e between t he sun's ray and t he
projecti
onoft hatrayonahori zont alsurface.It
isequalt o(90-z)wherez=z enithangl e,i.e.the
anglebet weent hebeam f rom t hesunandt he
verti
cal.Thes ol
aralti
tudecanal sobedef i
nedas
theanglebet weenast rai
ghtlinef rom t hesunt o
thecent eroft heeart handt het angentt ot he
surfaceoftheeart h.

6.Gl
obalradiati
on (
G):Includesal
lthe radiat
ion,
di
rectanddif
fuseinci
dentonahori
zont
alplane.

Therelat
ionshi
pbetweendi
rect
,I0,di
ffuse;D,and
gl
obal
radiati
on,G,
isgi
venby:

36
whereAl
ist
hesol
aral
ti
tudeabov
ethehori
zon.

7. Thesol arconstant(S)
:istheenergyf rom t
he
sun,peruni
ttimereceivedonaunitareaofsurface
perpendi
cul
ar tot he radiati
on in space at t
he
earth’
smeandistancefromt hesun.Ameanv al
ueof
1353W/ m3 4%isnormal l
yt aken,alt
houghv al
ue
outside t
hese li
mits can occasional
ly occur.Thi
s
3 2
valuecorrespondsto428Btu/hf tor4871Kj /m h.

Theval
ueofthenormal i
ncidentradiat
ionatthe
out
erl i
mitoftheat o,
mosphere,I canbeobt ainedby
mult
iplyi
ngthesol
arconstantSbyaf actorr:

Thefact
orri sreferredtoaseart
heccent
rici
ty
fact
orandcanbedetermined

approxi
matelyforanydayoft
heyearbyt
he
f
oll
owingformula:

Whereei st heeccent
rici
tyoftheeart
horbit=
0.016733[1
3] .Anddisthedayoftheyearfrom
Januaryfi
rst.

37
8.The hour angle( ) :The earthi sdevi
dedby
longi
tudi
nall i
nespassi ngt hrought hepol
esi nto
360degreesofci rculararc.Thus1 5degreesof
longi
tudecorrespondst o1/24ofadayor1hourof
timei.
e.,fourmi nut esoft imecorrespondstoone
degree ofl ongi
t ude wi th morning posi
ti
v e and
afternoonnegat ive.I tvariesfrom zeroatlocal
solarnoont oamax imum atsunri seorsunset .
Solarnoonoccurswhent hesuni satthehighest
pointinthesk y,e. g. =+1 5for1 1:
00and =
-37.5 f or 1 4:30. Thus, hour angl es are
symmet ricalwit
hrespectt osol
arnoon,andt he
hourangl esofsunri seandsunsetonagi venday
areidentical
.

9.Thesun’ sdeclinati
on :istheangl ebetweena
li
neconnect ingt hecenteroft hesunandeart h
andt heproj ectionofthatlineont heequatorial
plane.Theseasonalv ari
ationoft hesun'sinci
dent
rayscanbeaccount edforbyav ariati
onin .The
decli
nation angle coul
d be calculated from the
equation:

wheredi sthedayoft heyearf romJ anuaryf i

rst.
In other words the decli
nation i
st he angular
posi
tionofthesunwi t
hrespectt ot
hepl aneofthe
equator,themax imum v al
uef orthedeclinati
on
anglecorrespondstothet i
ltoftheearthaxis.

0. Sl
1 opeofthesurf
ace(s):Theangl
ebet
weent
he
hori
zont
alandt
heplane.

1
1.Thesurfaceazimuthangle( ):I
sthedev i
ati
onat
thenormaltothesurfacefromthelocal
meridian.
38
 Iti st he angle between the south meridi
an,
measuredi nahori z
ontalpl
anewest ward,andthe
direct
ion oft hesun.Thez eropointbeingdue
south,eastposit
iveandwestnegative[13]
.

2. Theangl
1 eofi
ncidenceofbeamradiati
on( )
:Is
t
heanglemeasuredbetweenthebeamandnormal
t
ot hepl
ane
Therelat
ionbetweent heangl
eofi nci
denceof
beamradiati
on( )andotheranglesi
sgivenby:

For fi
xedf l
atplatecollectorswhi ch f
acet he
equat or,thesurf aceazimuthangl e =0andt helast
termdropsout ,foreastfaci
ngsurf aces =-90and
for sout hf aci
ng surfaces =+90.For v erti
cal
surf aces,s=90andt hef i
rstandt hirdtermsdrop
out.Forhori zontalsurfaceswheres=0,onl yt he
firstand t hird terms remai n and t he angl e of
incidence:

Forasurfacesl
opedtothenort
horsout
hbyan
angl
e,s,put( -s)i
nsteadof :

Iti
sofi
nteresttoknowt hattheazi
mut hangl
eis
smallintheearlymorni ngandi ncreasesafter11
o'
clock,whi
lethez eni
thangl eisincreasinginthe
earlymorni
nganddecreasi ngtowardst henoonand
itequalszero when t he sun reaches itszeni
th
39
posi
ti
onwhi
le,
theaz
imut
hangl
echangesi
tssi
gn.

Fromt
herel
ati
on:

t
hesunsethourangl
e, (when =90, =1
)is:

i
.e.
,

I
tfol
lowsal
sot
hatt
hedayl
engt
his:

1
.4SOLARENERGYTECHNOLOGI
ES

Thef ol
lowingsecti
onspresentsomeoft he
technologi
eswhi chareusedf orharnessingsol
ar
energy so t hat its use becomes rel
iabl
e and
economi c.

1
.4.
1Thesol
arcol
lect
ors

 Fl
atPl
ateCol
lect
ors(
FPC)
:
Themostwi delyk nownandunders t
oodmet hod
forconverti
ngsolarenergyi ntoheatisbyt heuseof
af l
atplat
ecollectorforheat i
ngwat er,airorsome
otherfl
uid.Themaj orityoff
latplat
ecol l
ectorshave
fiv
emai ncomponent s
:
1
.At ransparentcov
erwhichmaybeoneormore
sheets of glass or a radi
ation-transmitt
ing
plasti
cf i
lm orsheetpl
acedov ert hecollect
or.
40
 Thiscov eract sasa" HeatTrap"t oreducet he
radiation and conv ecti
on l osses f rom t he
coll
ect or. Meanwhi le, t he gl ass ( or ot her
transparentmat erial)cov erref lect saswel las
absorbsaport ionoft heinci dentradi ation.
2.Tubes,f ins,passagesorchannel si ntegralwi t
h
thecol lectorabsorberpl ateorconnect edtoit,
whichcarryt hewat er,air, orot herf l
uid.
3.Theabsorberpl ate,normal lymet alli
candwi tha
blacksurf ace,al thoughawi dev ari etyofot her
mat erials can be used,part i
cul arly wi th ai
r
heat ers.
4.Insulation,whi chshoul dbeprov i
dedatt heback
andsi dest omi nimizet heheatl osses.
5.Thecasi ngorcont ainerwhi chencl osest heother
component sandprot ectst hesyst em f rom the
weat her.

Themostcommondesi gnconf igurationsoft he

tubesorpassagesareshowni nFi g.1
6( a,b,c,d,e).A
solarcol lectorcomposedoft hesecomponent swi l
l
hav eacrosssect i
onasseeni nFi g.16f .Metalsheet s
ofdi fferentshapes,asgi veninFi g.17arecommon
int he manuf acture off l
atpl at e coll
ectors . A
numberoff latplatecoll
ectorscoul dbeconnect edso
asi tsenergyout putfit
st heenergyrequi rement s.
Connect ionoff latplatecollectorsmaybei nparallel
flow(reuse,ret urn),parallelflow(di rectret urn
)ori nseri es–paral l
elflow.Thisisshowni nFig.18.

Fl
atpl
atecol
lectorscanal
sobecl
assifi
edint
o
t
hreegroupsaccordingtothei
rmainappl
icati
onas
f
oll
ows:
1
.Appl
icat
ionswi
thav
erysmal
lri
sei
ntemperat
ure,

41
 suchasi nswi mmi ngpool swheret hecollect
or
needsnocov erori nsulati
onatt hebacksi de.A
high rat e of flow is mai ntai
ned t oli
mitt he
temperat urerisetoabout2° C.
2.Domest i
cheat ing andot her applicati
onswhere
themax imum t emperat urerequi redi snotmore
than60° C.Insulati
onatt hebackandatl eastone
transparentcov erarenecessary.
3.Appli
cations such as process heat i
ng or the
provisi
on of smal l scal e power, where
temperat uresabov e60° Carenecess ary.

Radiati
onandconv ecti
velossesmaybereduced
bymeansof' 'Heatt rap"formedbyawi ndowofgl ass
or other t rans parent mat erialpl aced over t he
coll
ector.Thegl ass( orothert ransparentmat erial
)
coverref lectsaswel lasabsorbsaport i
onoft he
inci
dentradi ati
on.I fthet ransmissioncoeffici
entof
onepl aneofgl assi s ,t heradiat i
onreachi ngt he
coll
ector,i ft he ef fectof mul tiple refl
ection is
ignored,is f or(n)panesofgl ass.

Assumingthecol
lect
orpl at
ebehav
esasanideal
blackbody,theabsorbedpowerPA,isequalt
ot hat
transmitt
edthroughtheglass:

Forequili
brium,theabsorbedpoweri sequalto
thesum oft heout putandl ostpower.Hence,the
fol
lowi
ngef fi
ciencyi sobtainedf orasteady-st
ate
col
lector in whi ch the ef fect of the sli
ght
temperaturei ncreaseoft hegl asscausedbyt he
i
ncidentabsorbedpoweri signored.
,

42
43
Fi
g.1 6:The common Design Conf
igurat
ions of
TubesandPassagesi
naSol
arColl
ector.

Fi
g.1 6:The common Desi
gn Conf
igurat
ions of
Tubes and Passages i n a Sol ar
Col
lect
or.
(cont
inue)

44
45
 Fig.1
8:FlowPathsi nLiqui
d-typeColl
ect
orArrays
(a)Parall
elFl
ow, reverse–return.
(b)Parall
elFl
ow, di
rect–return.
(c)SeriesParal
lelFlow.

Thermal
anal
ysi
soft
hesol
arcol
lect
or:

TheabsorbedenergyPAi
saf
unct
ionof
:

1.The rat e of i nci

dent solar radiat
ion on the
collector,andt heangl eofi nci
denceofthesun's
raysont hecollector.
2.Theabsorbi ti
vityoft heabsorbingsurf acefor
solarradi ati
on.
3.Thet ransmi ssi
v i
tyofthetransparentcover.
4.Lossesduet odirtsonthet ransparentcov
er.
5.Shadi ngoft heabsorbi ngpl at
ebyt hecollect
or
sidewal lsandcov ersupports.

Til
ting t he solar col lector t of ace the sun,
increasest he inci
dentf luxper uni tarea oft he
coll
ector.Ift hecollect ortrack sthesun, t
hatis,i
fits
orientation iscont inuallychangedt hroughoutt he
daysoast of acet hesun,t hei ncidentradiation
remainsconst antt hroughoutt he dayl i
ghthours .
When i gnori ng atmospheri c ef fects,t he energy
variati
onf romat rack ingcollectorwoul dbedueonl y
tot hev ariat i
onint hedai lycollectiont ime[ 1
2].A
frequent ly used col lecti
on scheme i st ot i
ltt he
coll
ectors oast orecei vemax imumradi at
ionatnoon
46
andl eaveitfixedinthisposi t
ionduringt heday.This
necessi t
atesadai l
ychangeoft heelevationangle.A
sti
llf urther simpli
ficat i
on useful f or comf ort
heatingi safixedcoll
ect or,sayaport i
onoft heroof
orientedt ooptimi
zet he energy coll
ect ion i
nt he
winterwhent hegreatesti nputisneeded.

Thermal l
ossesf romt hesyst emdependon:
1.Theav eraget emperat ureoft heabsorbi ngpl ate,
tc.
2.Theemi ssivi
tyoft heabsorbi ngplate.
3.The ambi ent ai r t emperat ure, effect i
ve sk y
temperat ureandwi ndv el
oci
t y.
4.Thenumberoft ransparentcov erpl atesandt he
space bet ween t hem.The heatl osses can be
devided intof rontl osses QF,whi ch consi stof
specifi
cheatconduct ionandconv ecti
onl ossesand
radiati
on l osses,back l osses due t ot hermal
conductiont hroughi nsulati
onQB andedgel osses
QEThust het otalthermal l
ossesQLisequal to:

WhereAi
stheareaoft
hecol
lect
or

I
ft he average t
emperat
ure Tm of t
he
absorberi
sdefi
nedby:

Thenetrateofusef ulheatcoll
ectioninsucha
system per unitareaoft hecol
lector,Qu,ist he
dif
ference between the amountofsol ar energy
absorbedinsi
det hecoll
ectorandtheout wardheat
los
srate.

47
 Onebasi cequat i
onex pressest heusefulheat
coll
ected,Qu,
peruni tarea,i
nt ermsoft wooperat
ing
variabl
es,thei ncidentsolarradiati
onnormalt othe
coll
ector, Pi and t he t emperature di f
ference
betweent hemeant emperatureoft heheatremov al
flui
di nthecol lector,Tm,andt hesurroundingair
temperature, TS:

whereFi saf actorrelatedtothedesignoft he

collector plate and t he ef f
ectiv
eness of heat
transf er from t he coll
ector platetot he heat
remov al fl
uid. The t ransmitt
ance-absorptance
product takes account of t he compl ex
i
nt eraction of opt i
cal properti
es in t he solar
radi at
ionwav el
ength.

Theheatl osscoeffi
cient, ,ri sesv eryrapidly
wit
hi ncreasingwi ndvel
ocityiftherearenocov er,
butisl essdependentwhent hecoll
ect orhasatl east
one cov er.Al llossesare linearl
y rel ated t
ot he
di
fference i nt emperature bet ween t he col
lector
andt heambi entsurroundings

WhereULi
stheov
eral
ll
osscoef
fici
ent
, m2.
W/

Thecol
lect
oref
fici
ency, i
sthen:

 Concent
rat
ingcol
lect
ors:

Parabol
icref
lect
orsaref
requent
lyusedt
o
48
concentratesol
arenergy.Theact i
veportionofthe
coll
ectorcontai
ningtheheatt ransferflui
dcan,ifa
highdegreeofconcent rationisutili
zed,berather
smallcomparedt othet ot
alareaf rom whichthe
inci
dentfluxi
sintercept
ed.

The refl
ect
or surf ace should have a high
refl
ecti
vit
y,butt he di
mensi onaltol
erance ofthe
surfaceneedonl
ybesuf f i
cientforallt
hereflect
ed
inci
dentenergytobefocusedont hetarget
.

Concentrati
ngcol l
ect orsmaybei n,thef orm of
acylindri
cal,spheri calordi shesasshowni nFig.19.
(a,b,c,d) .I n ot her cases,t he collector is
manuf acturedf rom t hreeconcent ricglasst ubes.
Thecent raltubecont ainst heheattransf erf l
uid
whil
et heev acuat edspacebet weentheout ertwo
tubes reduces heatl osses.This arrangementi s
shown i n Fi g. 1 9e . Charact eri
sti
call
y, t heir
effi
ciencyisintheorderof50%.

fPi/i
I st heav eragepowerdensityi
ncidenton
t
heacti
veort argetregion,aconcent
rat
ionratioX
maybedef
inedasf ol
lows:

Theef
fici
encymaybenowex
pressedi
ntermsofPi

Heatlossescanbereducedbyev acuatingthe
porti
onadj acenttothetubecontaini
ngt hework i
ng
fl
uid,sot
hatonl yradi
ati
onlossesaresignif
icant
.

49
(
b)Parabol
icconcent
rat
or

50
 (
c)ACompoundParabol
icConcent
rat
or

(
d)Hi
ghTemperat
ureParabol
icCol
lect
or
1
.4.2Thesol
arPonds:
Asolarpondi sabodyofsal inewat er,about1
m deep.I nwhicht heconcent rat ioni ncreaseswi t
h
depth.Inanat uralpondwhensol arradi ati
onheat s
thewat erbelowthesurf acetheact i
onofconv ecti
on
currentcausest he heat ed wat er t ori se tot he
surfaceandt hepondt emperat urenormal l
yf oll
ows
themeant emperat ureoft hesurroundi ng.Asol ar
pondcontainsconcent rationsofdi ssolv edsaltswhich
graduallyincrease wi tht his dept h causing t he
densit
yoft hewatert oincreaset owardst hebaseof
the pond,whi ch is of ten bl ack .Sol ar radiati
on
penetratestot hebase,heat i
ngt hewat eratt hi
s
51
lowerlevel,butanyconv ect ionmi xi
ngissuppressed
by t he density gradient .Heat l osses f rom t he
surfacearereducedcomparedwi thanat uralpond,
andt hetemperat ureatt hebot tom ofthepondmay
o
reach80-90Cwhi l
et het opremai nsat25oC.Whi l
e
there are dailyf l
uctuations i n both ambi entai r
temperat ure andi nthe upper wat er l
ayers ,t he
temperat ureatt hebot t
om oft hepondwhereheat
would be ex t
ract ed,remai ns f ai
rly uniform.The
bottom l
ayerofbri necoul dt henbewi t
hdrawnf rom
thepondandusedf orpowergenerat i
onasseeni n
Fig.20.To mai ntai
nt he concent rati
on gradi ent
againsttheslowupwarddi ff usionofsalt,thesurf ace
mustbe sl i
ght l
y“ washed”wi thf resh wat er and
concentratedbri nesuppl i
edatt hebottom.

Asolarpondi sbot
hamassiveheatcol
lect
orand
heat storage system, and, compared with a
conv
entionalcol
lect
orandheatst ore,i
srelati
vel
y
i
nexpensive.

52
 Fi
g.20:TheSol
arPond.

1
.4.3Thermal
StorageofSol
arEnergy
Storageofsol arenergyi simport antfort he
future success of sol ar energy ut ili
zati
on. I n
general ,thermalenergyst orageof fersameansof
effectingsi gnif
icantcostsav i
ngsandconserv ation
ofpremi umf uels.Withoutstorage,solarenergyhas
tobeusedassoonasi tisrecei vedandprev ious
lecturesi nt hisfieldhaveemphasi zedthatstoragei s
an import antaspectofsol ar energy conv ersion
becauseoft heint ermittentnatureofsol arenergy;
solarenergyi srecei vedf oronlypartoft he24
-hour-peri odandi tsintensi
tyisreducedbycl oud[ 1]
.

Energyi
ngeneral,maybestoredi
nmanyways,
e.
g.,mechanicalenergy,ki
net
icenergy,chemi
cal
energy,andt
hermalenergy.

Ifsol
arenergyi stoberel i
abl
e,theneedf or
storagecannotbeav oi
ded,sol
arenergycannotbe
storedinit
select
romagnet i
cform.Itmustfirstbe
convertedi
ntoanotherform.Assumingthatt
heend
53
productwoul
dbeel ect
rici
ty,sol
arenergycouldbe
storedaf
teri
tisconvertedi
ntoelect
rici
tyorbef
ore.

Solarenergycoul dbest oredi nthef orm of

thermalenergy.Si nceinsomuchofoureconomyi t
isproducedandt ransf
erredasheat ,thepotential
for storage of solar thermalenergy shoul d be
studiedindetai
l.Thermalenergyst oragedealswith
storingofenergybyheat ing,melti
ngorv apori
zinga
mat eri
al,the energy becomi ng avai
labl
e as heat
whent heprocessisreversed.

Sol
arenergycoul dal
sobeuti
li
zedtoproducea
fuelthatcouldbeusedondemand.Onesuchf uel
,
hydrogen,coul
dreplacegasol
inei
nautomobil
es,air
planes,
andothervehicl
es.

Sol
arenergycouldbeusedt opumpwat
ert oa
hi
gherl ev
elandstoreitbehindadam t
obeusedas
hydraul
icenergyasrequired.

One i mportant charact eristi

c of a st orage
system ist helengthoft i
meduri ngwhi chenergy
couldbek eptstoredwi thaccept ablelosses.I
fsolar
energyi sconv ertedint oaf uelsuchashydrogen,
therewi l
lbenot i
melimi tt
ot hest orage.Storagein
thef orm ofheatlastsf orveryshortt i
mesbecause
oflossesbyradi at
ion,conductionandconv ecti
on.

Anot
hercharact eri
sti
cofast oragesystem is
i
tsv ol
umeperuni tenergyst ored.Thesmallerthe
vol
ume,thebet
teri sthestoragesystem.Therefore,
agoodsystem shouldhav eal ongtimeandasmal l
vol
umeperunitofst oredenergy.

54
  St
orageint
hef
orm ofheat(sensi
bleheat
st
orage)
:

Themajorprobl
em isthesel
ecti
onofmaterial
s
hav
ingsui
tabl
ethermo-chemicalcharact
eri
sti
csin
whi
chsol
arenergyintheformofheatcanbestored.

St ori
ng by causing a mat eri
alto raise i
n
temperat ure is cal
led sensi
ble heatstorage.Its
effectivenessdependsont hespecifi
cheat,and,if
the v olume isimportant ,on the densi
ty of t
he
mat erial.

Lowt emperat urest oragei simport antforsol ar

applications.Low t emperat ure t hermalenergy
storagemaybedef inedt omeant hest orageofheat
that ent ers and l eaves t he reserv oir at
o
temperat uresbel ow1 20C.St orageoft histypemay
permi tef f i
cientut i
li
zationofheatt hatot herwi se
woul dhav e been part i
ally or ent i
rel y wast ed.I n
principle,lowt emperat uret hermalenergyst orage
permi tst hest orageofheatobt ainedf rom sol ar
radiat i
on f rom day t oni ghtor f rom summer t o
wint er.I t permi tst he st orage of col df or ai r
condi ti
oningpurpos esf rom ni ghtt odayor f rom
wint er tosummer.On di urnalbasi s,t hest orage
efficiencymaybewel labov e90%,whi l
eonaseasonal
basisi t wi l
lusual ly not be much abov e 70%.
Furt hermore,l ow temperat ure t hermalenergy
storagepresent snosignifi
cantmat erial problems .

The mostgenerall
y used are the wat
er and
rock-pi
lesensi
bleheatstoragesystems.Inthese
syst
ems,heatlossfrom t
hest oragetankmustbe
55
mi
nimi
zedwi
thgoodi
nsul
ati
on.

Onecanstore41 f1m3ofwat
90Kji eri
sheated
o
by 1Cwhi lenearl
yhal
foft
hatcanbestoredby
usi
ngrockpi
le.

a.Waterstoragesystems:
Water,beinginexpensi
veandwi delyavai
lable,
canbeef f
ecti
vel
yusedt ostoresensi
bleheat.The
tot
alheatcapacit
yQSofast orageuni
tisdef
inedas:

WhereT1andT2 aret heoperat i

ngt emperat ure
li
mitsandm i st hemassoft hest oragemedi a.For
water syst ems t he operat ing temperat ures are
li
mitedbyt hef ormat i
onofwat erv aporandbyt he
systemappl icat
ionrequi rement s.
Wateritselfappearsat tracti
v easast oragemedi um
forasol arpowerpl antwhi chusesawat erst eam
system.Int hiscaset heheatcapaci tyofl i
quidwat er
isusedtost oretheheatandat emperat urei ncrease
during ex traction woul d hav e t o be accept ed.
Accumulatordesi gnshav ebeenproposedi nwhi ch
steam generat edi nthesol arperused.Goodheat
transfer woul dres ul
ti nt he condensat esoft he
steam t hereby rai si
ng t he wat er t emperat ure
accommodat edint hecontainer.

b.Packedbedstoragesystems:
Inthesesystems,pebblebedsorrockpi lesare
usedbecauseheatt ransfercoeffi
cientbetweent he
airandsolidishigh,thecostofmat eriali
slowand
theconductivi
tyofbedi sveryl owwhenai rf l
owis
notpresent .Thatmi nimizes heatl oss from the
storageunit
.
56
 Since the heat transfer coef f
icient i
s high
between t he pebbles and air,t he t emperature
dif
ferencebet weentheai randt hepack edbedi s
minimi zedonbothheataddingt oort akingofff rom
thestoragesyst em.
Awel l-desi
gnedbedhaspart i
clesizess mallenough
tomi nimizetemperaturegradi ent
si nt heparticles
andinpract i
cerockequivalentdiamet ersof1t o5
cmareused.

 PhaseChangeSt oragesyst ems:

Forsomet i
me,st oragemat eri alswhi chundergo
achangei nphase,cal ledphasechangemat erial
s
(PCM's), hav e been v i
ewed as an at tracti
ve
alternat i
vet osensibleheatst oragemedi a.These
mat erialsabsorbal argequant ityofheatduri ngthe
phase change and t hen rel ease i tata const ant
temperat ureast heprocessi srev ersed.Thephase
transition general ly occurs ov er a narrow
temperat ure range whi ch,i n pri nciple,can be
mat ched t oi nduce requi rement s.Any rev ersi
ble
changeofphasecanbeusedf ort hermalenergy
storage, but because of v olume consi deration
li
quid/gast ransi
tionsarenotgeneral l
yconsi dered
practical,whi lesolid/solidt ransi tionst endt ohav e
smal l
er heat soft ransi t
ion.Sol id/ l
iquidt ransit
ion
(melting/freez i
ng) hav e been t he f ocus of al l
practicali nvesti
gat i
onsandwi l
lbet heonl yphase
changest oragemodedi scussedhere.

St
oragemat
eri
alsel
ect
ion:

Themat
eri
alst
hataret
obeusedf
orphase
57
changest oragemustsat isfyt hef ollowingcondi t
ions:
1.Themat eri alshoul dhav eamel tingpoi ntwi thina
suitablet emperat urerange.For s olar heat i
ng
o
appl i
cationst hisrangemustbe55 1 0 C.For
solarcool ingt hisrangei s5t o15° C.
2.The mat eri alshoul d hav el arge heatef fusion.
Wat erhasoneoft hehi ghestheatoff usi
onbuti ts
temperat urei st ool owf ormostappl icati
ons .
3.Themat erialshoul dmel tcompl etelyataf ixed
temperat ureorwi t hinav erynarrow rangeof
temperat ure.Ot herwi se,changesi nt hechemi cal
composi tionoft hemat erialwi lloccurbecauseof
the di fference i n densi ti
es bet ween sol id and
li
qui dphasescausi ngt heheatst oragecapaci tyt o
decrease.
4.Themat erialshoul dnotsupercool .I tshoul dnot
coolbel ow i tsf reez i
ng poi ntwi thoutf reez ing.
Supercool i
ng changest he energy-t emperat ure
behav ioroft hest oragemat erial.Toov ercome
this,nucl eat i
ngagent sareused.
5.Themat eri alshoul dbest able.Thati s,itmustbe
rev ersibleov erav eryl argenumberofcycl es
withoutseri ousdef ormat i
on.
6.Themat erialshoul dbei nert .Thati s,shoul dnot
interactwi thitscont ainer.
7.Thecostofmat eri alandi tscont ainersmustbe
reasonabl e.
8.Themat eri alshoul dhav enonf lammabl eandnon
toxicpropert ies.
9.The mat eri al shoul d hav e a hi gh t hermal
conduct ivity,al ow v aporpressureandarapi d
rat eofcryst all
ization.

Twogeneralcl
assesofstoragemateri
alare
consi
deredmostat
tract
ivef
orsolaruse:
58
1.OrganicCompounds:
Manyorgani ccompoundsarepot entialPCM's,
basedont heirmel tingpoi ntsandheat soft ransi
tion.
However,t helistofcompoundsi srapi dl
yreduced
whent hoset hatareei therunst abl
eort oocostlyare
excl
uded.Paraf f i
n's (saturatedhydrocarbons ),
some cryst al
li
ne pol ymers ( plasti
cs),and some
naturall
y occurri ng organi c acids are t he most
practi
calcompoundsf ort hermalst oragesyst ems,
becauset heyarerel ati
v elyinexpensive.Theorgani c
PCM'sdonothav etobepurechemi cal
si fthemixture
propertiesarewi thint hedesi redrangeanddonot
changeov ert i
me.Mi xturesoforgani ccompounds
tend to hav e broader mel ti
ng ranges,howev er,
spreading t he heat of t ransiti
on ov er a large
temperat urerange.

Ingeneral
,organicPCM'
shavethreel
imi
tat
ions:
l
ow thermalconductivi
ty,flammabi
li
ty,and hi
gh
v
olumechangesduringmelti
ng.

2.Sal tHydrates:
Thephasechangebehav i
orofsal thydratePCMs
ismorecompl ext han thatoforgani ccompounds
becausehydrat i
on-dehydrati
onoccurs,rat herthan
simpl emelti
ng-freezing.Commonsal thydratesused
are sodi um sulfate decahydrate( Glauber'
s sal t
)
(l
at ent heat 1 20 Bt u/l
b.)
; cal cium chl oride
hex ahydrate( l
atentheat75 Bt u/l
b.);and sodium
thiosulphate(l
atentheat90Bt u/l
b.)
.

Cont
ainment:
Thedesi
gnofsuit
ablecont
ainmentvessel
sf or
t
hermal storage medi
a presents consi
derable
59
engineeringdiff
iculti
es.Thetypicalexpansionwhen
changingf rom soli
dt oliqui
dwoul dbeabout20%,
whichmustbeaccommodat edwi thoutrupturi
ngt he
container. Furthermore i nt he solid statet he
transportofheatf rom thei
nt eriorofthest orage
materi al
tothecontainerwalloccursbyconduct ion.

The t emperat ure diff

erence across t he
sol
idif
iedmat erialshoul
dbek eptsmal
lt omini
mi z
e
the temperat ure change of the t
ransfer fluid
between the condit i
onsofdeposi
ti
ng energy and
ext
ract i
ngenergyf romthest
oragemedium.

Thephasechangemat erialsmustbehousedi n
suitablecontainerssot hatt hemel tremainsinpl ace.
Mat erial
smaybecont ai
neddi rectl
yi ntanks,ori n
manysmal lcont ainerst hatareencl osedinal arge
insulated tank.The pri mary cont ai
ner mustnot
reactwi tht he st orage mat erial
,and ex pansion
duringphasechangemustbeal lowed.Thesize,shape
and mat erialsel ection for the PCM cont ainer i s
dictated by heat t ransf er ef fi
ciency,corrosi on
resistance,andcost .Met alsandpl asticshavebot h
beenused.

Heattransfer:
Heattrans portedf rom t hesolarcoll
ectorby
eitherl i
quidorai rist ransf erredt othePCM by
either i ndirect ( heat ex changers) or di rect
(i
mmi sci
ble f l
uids) heat t ransf er mechani sms.
Suf fi
cient surface area k eeps t he temperat ure
di
f ferencebet weent hework ingf l
uidandthePCMt o
a mi ni
mum,t ot ake adv antage of t he constant
storaget emperat ure.Therat eofheatt ransf eris
determi nedbyt hedesi gnoft hesol arsystem,but
60
shouldgeneral
lybel
argeenought
oful
lycharget
he
storagemediumduri
ngoneday.

Tomai ntai
nt heov eral
lheattransf errat eto
andf rom organic-based PCMsatt hedesi redlevel
,
thePCM mustbecont ai
nedinrelati
velyt hinlayers
betweenheatt ransf ersurfaces.Theheatt ransfer
problem islesssev ere f or t
he wat er-basedsal t
hydrates because t heirthermalconduct i
vit
yi s
greater.

Desi
gnofsal
thydrat
essyst
ems:

Thedesignofactivesol
arst oragesystemsusing
sal
thydrat esi ncl
udest echniquesf or prevent
ing
performance loss from mel ting and sub cool
ing
problems.Tominimizesubcooling,twoapproachesto
helpnucleat
ionhavebeent ried:theadditi
onofsmall
quant i
tyofachemi calnucleatingagentt othePCM
andt heuseofacoldfinger.

Nucleat
ingagentsaresubst ancesuponwhi ch
thePCM cryst alswi
lldeposi
twithlitt
leornosub
cool
ing.Crystalswi
thshapesandspacingssimil
art o
thePCM,butwi thahighermelti
ngpoint,areusedt o
Nucleatethehydrati
onreacti
on.Borax,forexampl e,
i
s an ex cell
ent nucleat
or for sodium sul fate
decahydrate.

Whent hePCM i
sst oredinbulkform,asi mpler
nucl
eat i
on methodist he use ofa coldf i
nger.A
surfacewi t
hinthestoragecont ai
nerismaintained
ata cool er t
emperature than the maximum sub
cool
ingtemperatureneedst opromotenucleati
onso
that some PCM crystals are always present to
61
i
nit
iat
ethesol
idi
fi
cat
ionoft
heremai
ningPCM.

Somet i
mest here isprecipitati
on int he mel t
phaseasobserv edwithsodium sulfatedecahydrat e,
andt hisisamoreseri ousproblem becausei tcan
resulti n a conti
nuall ossofl atentheatst orage
capaci t
y.Thi ck
enershel p preventset tl
ing oft he
precipitated anhydrous saltint he melt ,so that
surfing subsequentf reezing and the saltmore
compl etel
yrecryst al
li
zesast hehydrate.Bot hclays
and si li
ca gel deri v
at i
ves have been used as
thi
ckenersf orthi
sapplicati
on.

Thet hirdapproachtopreventstoragelossfrom
themel tingmat eriali
stopack agethePCM i nv ery
thi
n hori zontaltrays.Ift he sett
ling di
stance is
suffi
cient l
y short , t hen t he re-dissolvi
ng /
re-cryst al
liz
ati
on processescan proceedt onear
completion.

 St
oragei
nthef
ormoff
uel
:

Therearemanyf ormsi nwhi chs ol

arenergy
couldbestoredthroughchemi cal
react ors.Chemi
cal
storageinvol
vesanendot hermicrev ersi
blereact
ion
which can be reversed when requi red togivea
releaseoftheheat (heat+A+B=C+
D).

Themat erialproducedcanof tenbestoredcold

(wi
thnol ossesandcanal sooftenbet ransported
easi
ly.Theproduct sofreactioncanbeseparat ed
andstored.Inthi
scaset hereact
iondoesnothav eto
bereversibl
e.Anex ampleist
hef ormati
onofox ygen
62
andhydrogen.I
fwater(steam)i
sheatedupt
oabout
o
3000 Korabov e,hydrogenandox ygenwi
llst
art
di
ssoci
ati
on

wherethesubst
ancesareingaseousf
orm,and
X1,
X2,andX3arethemol
ef ract
ions.

Ifsol
arenergyi sfirstconvertedintoelect
rici
ty,
watercoul dbeel ectrolyzedt oproducehydrogen.
Hence,i ti s speci
ally sui t
ed for coupl i
ng with
ocean-thermal,wind,hydro,andphot ov ol
taicforms
ofsolarenergys i
nceint hesecasesthesol arenergy
isusuall
yoralwaysconv ertedtoel
ectricit
y.

I
nt he phot ov olt
aic react ion,sun's photons,
undercert ai
nci rcumst ances,canbeabsorbedby
wat er molecules,andwhen t he energy absorbed
reachesacert ai
nl evel( 68.3Kcal /
moleofwat er),
hydrogencanberel eased.Hydrogenproducedf rom
solarenergybyt heabov emet hodsment i
onedcanbe
stored,canbeus edasaf uel,canbeusedt oproduce
electrici
ty and can be t ransmi tt
ed ov er long
distanceseconomi call
y.

Solarenergycoul dbeusedbyt heanaerobi

c
ferment at
ionofalgaefortheproducti
onofmethane
(CH4).Methaneisst abl
eatroom t emperatureand
react swithoxygent oprovidehightemperatures,
releasingthest
oredenergyint hermalform:

Comparisonofstoragesystemstypes:
Themainproblemsassociat
edwithwat
er
storagesyst
emsare:
63
1.Corrosi onforlongoperationperi
ods.
2.Volumeoft hestoredsystem maybev erylarge
for l arge heat capacit
ies and therefore the
wat ersyst embecomi ngveryheavy.
3.With l arge st orage uni t
s t here i s al so
strat i
ficati
on problems and because of t his
cont rolsarerequired.
4.Scalef ormat i
onwi t
hsuchsystems.
With rock -pi
le storage syst ems t here is no
corrosionandscal ef ormingprobl emsbutv ol
umeof
thesyst em mi ghtincreasewi thani ncreasei ncost
.
On the other handby t he use ofphase-change
storage systems,l arge volumesrequi red by the
other two t ypes are el i
mi nated.Because oft he
chemicalinteract i
onoft hest oragemat erialandthe
container,storagemat eri
al l
osesitsenergyst orage
characteristicsafteraperi odoft i
me.

Themosteconomi caltypeisthewat erstorage

system.Ont heot herhandwat erst oragesystems
occupyav ol
ume200t imesmoret hant hev ol
ume
occupiedbyt hephasechangesyst em andithasan
amort i
zat
ionperi odwhichisfourt i
mesmoret han
theamortizationperi
odofphasechangesyst ems.

Rock -pil
e systems hav el arger amort i
zati
on
periods because t hey hav e no corrosi on and
deformat i
onproblems,butwi ththeirv ol
umesbeing
l
arge, t
hei rtot
ali
niti
alcost
sarev eryhigh.
Phasechangesyst emsaret hemostex pensi
ve
butal sot hemostcompactt ypeshav i
ngleastusage
periods because of mat erial deformation and
degradat ionprobl
ems.

64
1
.4.4PHOTOVOLTAI
CCELLS:
“Phot ov oltaic”isacombi nat ionoft hescient i
f i
c
terms" phot o"meani nglight,and" voltaic"meani ng
voltage. Semi conduct or mat eri al
s hav e a
charact eri sticwherei nanel ect roncanberai sedt o
anew pot ent i
alasrel ati
vet oi tsf ormerposi t i
on.
Theseel ect ronsaret henact ivatedf romt hevalence
bandi nt ot heconduct i
onband.Thesedi ffuset ot he
junct i
onandf orm apot enti
aldi fferenceacrossi t
.
This pot ent i
aldi fference can t hen be appl ied as
electricalenergy acrossa l oad.St riking a phot o
voltai
c( PV)cel lcreat es voltage whi ch produces
directel ectriccurrent .When i ndiv i
dualcel lsare
wired t oget her an " array" i s creat ed, whi ch,
dependi ngoni tssi ze,canproduceenoughel ectricity
topoweranent i
rehouse.Thusel ectricitycouldbe
madedi rect lyf rom sunl ightusi ngsl icesofsi l
icon;
oneoft heeart h'smostabundantmi neral s-coat ed
ononesi dewi thcadmi umsulf i
det of ormasol arcel l
.
Thisconf igurat i
oni sshowni nFi g.21

Solar cel l
s are based on t he propert i
es of
certaincryst alsolidst hatenabl esthesemat erialst o
supplyanel ect riccurrentcapabl eofperf ormi ng
usefulworkwhent hemat eriali
sex posedtosunl ight.
The desi gn consi sts of a waf er of cryst alli
ne
material ( semi conduct ors) t o whi ch two met al
contactsaref astened.Thecont act sareoft wotypes:
"P"type,hav ing f i
xed negat ive and free posi ti
ve
charge,and" n"t ypehav ingf i
xedposi t
iveandf ree
negativecharges( positi
veelectrodeonbacksurf ace
andnegat i
v eelect rodeonf rontsurf ace).Ift hen
andp–t ypesemi conduct orsarebroughtt ogether,a
p-nj unctionwi thpot entialbarrieri sformed.When
65
phot ons of t he sun are absorbed i nt he semi
conduct or,t heycreat ef reeel ectronswi thhi gher
energi es t han t he el ectrons whi ch prov ide the
bondi ng i nt he base cryst al.These el ectronswi ll
diffuset hrought hep-nj unct i
on.Thust heremust
beanel ectricf i
eldt oi nducet hesehi gherenergy
elect ronst of low outoft hesemi -conduct ort odo
usef ulwork .Theel ectricf ieldi nmostsol arcel l
sis
prov ided by a j unct ion of mat eri
al s whi ch hav e
different el ect rical propert ies. The current
produced wi llbe proport i
onalt ot he number of
phot onsabsorbed,andt hev oltagewi lldependont he
heightoft hebarri er,whi chi sal waysl esst hant he
widthoft heenergygapi nt hesemi conduct or.Itis
i
nt erest i
ngt onot et hatinaphot ov oltaicj unct i
on
thecurrentf l
owsi nt herev ersedi rect i
onandt he
voltagei sint hef orwarddi rect ionf ort heusualp-n
junct ion.Thecurrenti sdirect lyproport ionalt othe
flux,whi l
et hev ol
t agei sdependentont hel ogoft he
flux.Thev oltagecharact eri sticsshow asat urat i
on
voltage at hi gh f l
ux densi ti
es, whi ch i s quite
conv eni entf or chargi ng st orage bat teries .Since
thev oltagei si nsensi ti
v etot hel ightl evel,chargi ng
canbemai nt ainedev ent hought hel i
ghtf luctuates
consi derabl y.

66
Fi
g.21
:Typi
cal
Charact
eri
sti
csofJ
unct
ionSol
arCel
l.

Cel l Fabricat ion:

Growi ngofpuri fiedsi liconbyl oweri ngasi ngl e
cryst al( seed)i nt o a cruci ble of mol t en si li
con
cont ai ning a desi red amountofdopi ng mat erial .
Mel ting i s af fect ed usi ng an el ectri c arc whi l
e
subj ect ingt hesi l
icon t ohydrogen reduct i
on.The
dopi ngofav erypuresemiconduct orwi thsmal l
traces of i mpuri ties can modi fy i ts el ect rical
propert ies.Thet emperat ureoft hemel tshoul dbe
o
cont rol ledwi thi n 0.1C at1 420° C.Theseedi s
slowl y rot ated and remov ed al l
owing t he mol t
en
sili
cont osol idif yandgrow asi tleav est hemol t
en
surf ace.Asaresul toft hi sprocess,t hef inished
singl esi li
con i ngoti susual lybet ween 5-1 0 cm i n
diamet erandabout75cmor1ml ong.Thi scryst alis
cutwi th di amondsawsi nt ot hin waf erst hatare
around400 thick .About70%oft hei ngoti slosti n
thesawi ngprocess.Met alel ectrodesmadef rom a
Ti-Agsol derareat tachedt ot hef rontandbacksi de
oft hecel l.Ont hef rontsi de,t heel ect rodei si nt he
form ofamet algri dwi thf ingerswhi chpermi tt he
sunl ightt ogot hrough,whi leont hebacksi de,t he
elect rodecompl etely cov erst hesurf ace.An ant i
ref lect orcoat ingofSi Ohav ingat hicknessofabout
0.1 isal soputont het opsurf acet oreducet he
ref lect ion coef ficientof0. 3f or normalpol ished
sili
con. .The di rectcurrentt hereby produced i s
collect edbyt hemet alel ect rodesandf lowst ot he
ex t
ernall oad[ 2].Eachoft hesewaf erswi llproduce
power ofabout0. 5 v wi t ht he currentdi rect ly
proport ionaltoi tsarea.

67
 The i ndi
vidual cel ls are connect ed i n
series-parall
elcombi nat i
onst omeett he vol
tage,
power, and rel iabi
li
ty requi rement
s of t he
particul
arappl i
cation.Allofthecell
sareassembl ed
inpanelst hatareweat hert i
ghtwithaclearf ront
coverusual l
ymadeofpuret hi
nglassorfusedsi
licon
(quartz).

Thecostofphot ovol
tai
ccell
sproductioncanbe
reducedbydeposi ti
ngamorphousoruncryst all
ized
si
li
con inv ery thi
nf ilm or l
ayers.Thisleadst o
relati
vel
yinexpensivecell
sinthesmallpowerrange
wheret hei
rrelativ
elyloweffi
ciency,i
ntheorderof
3-5%,wouldbeofmi norimport
ance.

Bygrowi ngsi li
con cryst alsdi rectlyin ribbon
form i tispossiblet oel iminat ethecost lyprocessof
cutting v ery t hi
n waf ers of si licon from l arge
cyli
nders ofa si ngl e cryst alwhere i thas been
noticedt hatabout70%oft hecryst alislostint he
sawi ngprocess[ 14] .Ribbonl engthsofupt o4m l ong
and 25 mm wi dth, had been obt ained at
manuf acturi
ngrat esf rom25t o150mmpermi nut e.
Widths of ov er 1 00 mm were consi dered t o be
techni cal
lyf easible.An i mport antadv antageov er
other ri bbon growt h met hods whi ch need t he
temperat uret obecont roll
edwi thinonet ent hofa
degree,i sthatt hisprocesscanperf orm rel iabl y
witht emperat urev ariationsgreat erthan1 0°C.

Analternati
vewayt olowerthecostperwat t
forsolarcell
sistoconcent
ratesunl
ightont hecell
s
bymeansofref l
ect
ingsurfacesorlensesasshown
i
nFi g.22a.Concentrati
onrat i
osofonet oovera
thousandcanbeachieved.Butastheincidentpower
68
densit yisi ncreased, thepowerabsorbedbyt hesemi
conduct or al so i ncreases. An i ncrease i n
temperat ure,causedbyt hei ncreasei nabsorbed
power, t ends t o hav e t he opposi t
e ef fect on
eff i
ciency. For hi ghly concent rated radi ati
on
(higherconcent rat i
onrat ios)acool ingoft hephoto
voltaiccel lisrequi red.Butt hisdoesnotappeart obe
al imitingf act or.Recentex peri mentshav eshown
thatsi li
concel lscanbemadet ohav eessent i
all
ythe
sameef ficiencyat1 00sunsast heyhav eatonesun
intensityi ft het emperat urei smai ntai
nedconst ant.
AlsoGal liumArseni de(GaAs)cel lshavedemonst rat
ed
higherenergyconv ersionef fi
cienciest hanthoseof
sil
icon. I ts ef fici
ency reached 1 9.1% under an
il
luminat i
onof1 735suns.Thepresentcost sperwat t
canbeconsi derabl yreducedbecauset heareaoft he
cellsi s reduced i nversely proport ional tot he
concent rat ionrat i
o.

The photo volt

aic panel
s are mount ed on
double-axis t
racers whi ch ori
ent t he panel s
consistentl
ytoward the sun t
hroughoutt he day,
taki
ngi nt
oaccountseasonalchangesoft hesun' s
posi
tion.

Althoughcommerci alphot ov ol
tai
c cel
lsaref ormed
from a si ngl
e semi conduct or crystal, smaller
crystals,formingwhatarek nownaspol ycrystall
ine
mat erials,aremuchl esscost lytoproduce.Hence
effortsare bei ng directedt owardimprov ing the
relativ
elyl ow energyconv ersionefficienci
est hat
charact erizepol
ycrystall
inephot ovol
taiccell
s .

Materi
alsusedi
nsolarcell
s:
Si
ngle cryst
alsil
icon,pol
y cryst
all
ine si
li
con,
69
cadmium sulf
ideandgal l
ium arsenide.Alsoi ndi
um
phosphi
de, cuprous oxide, poly acetylene, zinc
phosphi
de,cuprousselenide,cadmium tel
lurideand
coppersul
fideareusedtoal esserextent.

Ef fici
encyandcharact eristics:
Conversioneffi
ci enciesobt ai
nedf orsi l
iconcel l
s
rangebet ween1 0 and1 5percent .Ani mport ant
propert yoft hemat eri
alaf fectingt heconv ersion
efficiencyist hebandgapenergy( Eg ).Phot onsof
sunlighthav ingenergy( Eg )lesst hant hebandgap
energyarenotusef ullyabsorbed.Ont heot herhand,
phot onsofsunl ighthav i
ngEgreat ert hanEhav e
theirenergypart i
allyut i
lizedwi tht hequant it
y( E-Eg)
beingwast edasheat .Forsi li
con, thev alueofEi s1 20
eV.Thi sisclosetotheopt imum v aluedesi rablef rom
thest andpointofobt ainingmax i
mumef fici
ency[ 2].

Costs:
Af undament alli
mitationt ocostreduct i
oni sthe
factthatmonocryst all
inesi l
iconiscost lytoproduce
and isi naf orm,whi ch does notl end itselft o
conti
nues,aut omatedf abricat i
on processes.Asa
result,nearly70percentoft hesili
coni swast edand
laborcost saresubst ant i
al.Consi derableworki s,
therefore, in progress wi th t he obj ective of
developingcont i
nuesproduct ionprocessesf orcel l
manuf acture.Onesuchprocesscal ledtheEFG( edge
-defi
ned f il
m-f ed growt h)process i s now i n an
advanced st age of dev elopment and t here are
indi
cationsthatifitiscommerci al
ized, t
hecostwoul d
decrease by a f actor of f our or f ive[ 2].Thi s
arrangementi ss howni nFig.22b.

70
(a)Concentrat
orSolarCell
Fig.22:Techni
quesf orReduci
ngt
heCostof
ManufactureSolarCell
.

71
(
b)TheSolarCel
lSil
iconRibonGrowth(EFG-“Edge-
Def
inedFi
lmGrowt h”
)fromCapi
ll
aryDie.

Fi
g.22:Techni
quesf
orReduci
ngt heCostof
Manufact
ureSol
arCell
.(cont
inue)

Usesofphot ovolt
aicCel l
s[4]
Althoughcostly,arraysofsol arcel
lssui
tabl
y
mount ed on panel s are al ready bei ng used
extensivelyt o supply electri
cit
yf or many small
commerci alandagriculturalapplicati
onsinremote
areasf arf rom powerlines.Typicalappli
cati
onsare
asfoll
ows:

1
.Use i n sat
ell
it
e sol ar power stat
ionswhere a
satell
it
e wouldbe pl acedin a geosynchronous
orbitfarabov et heeart h.Thesat el
li
tewould
consistsofav eryl argearrayofphot ov ol
tai
c
cell
s,manysquarek i
lometersin area.Thedc
power generat ed by t he cell
s ,when sol ar
radiati
onfal
lsont hem, woul
dbef edtomicrowave
oscil
lat
orsandl arge antenna wouldbeam t he
72
 outputofoscil
latorstowardst heeart h.Ant
enna
ont heearthwoul dreceivet hemicrowav ebeam
energy,whichwoul dthenbeconv ertedbacktodc
power.Thepri ncipaladvantageclaimedf orthis
conceptisthatt hearrayi nspacewoul dnotbe
subjecttoanyday-ni ghtcyclesandt hatitwould
receiveamuchhi gherintensityofsolarradi
ation
thanoneart h[
1 5].

2.Wat chesandcal culat

orssomet imesuset hemasa
powersource.
3.They are used i n remot e applications, e.
g.
li
ght houses, nav i
gational signals, rai l roads
crossingsi nthemount ainsandev eni ntheoil
industry.
4.Usedi nradi ophonesandhi ghwayemergencycal l
boxes.
5.Inirrigationandpumpi ngstationsinareaswhere
electrici
tycannotreacht ooperatet hepump.
6.Usedi naut omaticweat herforecasting.
7.Usedf orworl d-widecommuni cati
onsf acili
ti
es.

Adv
ant
agesofphot
ovol
tai
ccel
ls:

1.Ithavenomov ingpart stowearout .

2.Ithaveindefi
nitel
ylongl ife.
3.Itrequirenoorl i
ttl
emai ntenance.
4.Itisnonpoll
uti
ng.
5.Ithaveawi derangeofappl i
cati
onsi.
e.from less
thanawat ttoseveral thousandmegawat ts.
6.Itdose notrequi re any addi ti
onalsource of
energy.
7.Itworksquitesatisfactorilywithbeamordi ff
use
radiati
on.

73
 CHAPTER2
OCEANTHERMALENERGYCONVERSI
ON
(
OTEC)
TheWorl d'
soceans,becauseoft heirenormous
si
zeandmass,absorbmostoft heenergyt heearth
receivesfromt hesun.Undernaturalcondit
ions
,this
energyi sdissipatedaswi nd,ev
aporation,andrain,
wavemot ion,oceancurrent sandstorms.

Tropicaloceanscoll
ectand st ore very l
arge
amount sofsolarenergy.Ut i
li
zati
onoft hisenergy
withitsassociatedtemperaturedifferenceandits
conversion into work form the bas i
s of ocean
thermal energyconversi
on(OTEC)systems.

Currentschemestoharnessthi
senergyi
ncl
ude
thedirectuseofheatenergyf oundinthesurf
ace
water int ropi
calregi
ons,the mechani
caluse of
74
ocean current
stopowermassiv
eunder-wat er
turbinesandfl
oat
ingsyst
emst
hatconv
ertwav
esto
elect
rici
ty.

Oceant hermalenergyconv ersion(OTEC)of fers

aneconomi cal,renewable,base-load,non-polluting
powersourcewhi chwi
llhelpmeett heenergyneeds
ofthenat i
ons .Theprincipl
ei ssimple,employi nga
heat engi ne t o produce power by usi ng t he
temperat uredi f
ferencebet weent hewarmsurf ace
water and t he colder deep wat er.The electri cal
energycan begenerat edf rom thev astt hermal
resource ex i
sti
ng int he temperat ure gradi ent
betweent hewarmsurf aceandt hedeepcoldwat ers
oftropicaloceans.

Principleofwork i
ng:
OTEC syst ems ut i
li
ze t he t emperature
differencebet weenwat eratt hesurf aceandt he
lowerl ev elsoft heocean.Thisdif
ferenceisaround
o
20Candoccursov eraf ew hundredmet ers.Itis
seent hatt het emperatureatt hesurfaceisf airl
y
const antf ort hefi
rstfewmet ersbecauseofmi xi
ng.
Subsequent l
y i t decreases and asympt ot
icall
y
approachest hevalueatthelowerlevel
.

Allthesyst emsbei ngproposedf orconstruction

now workon acl osedRank i
ne cycl e anduse low
boi
lingpoi ntwork i
ngf luidsl i
keammoni a,propane,
R-12,R-22,et c.Also,thesesyst emswoul dbelocated
offshore on l arge f l
oat i
ng pl at
f orms or i nside
fl
oat inghul ls.Thewarm surf acewat eri susedf or
suppl yingt heheati nputi nt heboiler,whi l
et hecold
wat erbroughtupf rom t heoceandept hsisusedf or
extract ingt heheati nt hecondenser.Aschemat i
c
75
diagram i
sshowninFig.23.I nthissystem thegasis
evaporatedinanev aporatorusi ngt heheatoft he
surfacewat eroftheocean.Theev aporatedgasis
usedt ooperateat urbi
neconnect edt oanel ect
ro
generator.Thegasoutofturbi neiscondensedusing
coldwateroft hebott
om ocean,apumpi sthenused
topumpt hecondensedgast otheev aporatorandthe
cycleisrepeat
ed.

Fi
g.23:Open-Cycl
eSeaThermal
Plant

Itisobviousthattheef f
ici
encyoft heRank i
ne
cyclewi l
lbelow becauseoft hesmalltemperature
diff
erence bet ween the hot and cold streams .
All
owingf orv erysmalltemperaturedropsof4t o
o
5Cacrosst heboilerandt hecondenser.Itcanbe
shownt hattheRank i
necycleeffici
encyformostof
thef l
uidsunderconsiderat
ionwillrangebetween2
and3percent .

Becauseoft hel
owcycl eeffi
ciency,theheat
tobet ransferredintheboi l
erandcondenseri s
l
arge. In additi
on,the temperature di f
ference
betweentheseawat erandt heworkingf l
uidinthe
heatexchangershastoberest ri
ctedt overysmall
val
ues.Forthesereasons,veryhighf l
owrat esare
76
requiredfortheseawat erbothint
heboi l
erandthe
condenser.Thi s resul
tsin high pumping power
requirementsandi srefl
ectedinthegrosspower
outputswhichare20t o50percenthigherthanthe
netpowerout puts.

Asecondi
mportantconsequenceisthatbot hthe
evaporatorandthecondenseraremuchl argeri n
si
ze t han simil
ar component s in conv entional
practi
ce. Itis also noted t hat t
he mat erials
suggestedfortheseheatex changersaret itanium
oranal l
oyofcopperandnick el
.Thi
sisnecessi t
at ed
becauseofthecorrosi
venatureofseawat er.

The problem of conv eying l

arge vol
umes of
cool
ing wat er from t he lower depths is of
considerableimportance.Threedif
ferentmaterials
,
fi
bergl ass rei nforced pl asti
c, pre-st ressed
concret eandaluminumhav ebeensuggested.

I
n oceans,t he surf ace wat er temperature
o
nev erex ceeds30Cbutatbot tomi tisnotmoret han
o
5C.Thi st emperat uredifferencecan beusedt o
generat e electri
city or produce hydrogen.The
electricitygenerat edisusedasiti sorifthestati
on
isbui l
twi t
hint heocean,t heel ectri
cit
yi srather
used t o el ectrol
yz e water,produci ng hydrogen
which can be easi lytransportedi n pi
pe li
nesor
special shi
ps.

I
ti si
mportantt ostatethatami nimum of15oC
temperaturedifferencecouldbef easi
bleforusing
OTEC.Howev er,t he sel
ect
ion oft he si
teisv ery
i
mport anttotakecareofnav igat
ionint hesel
ected
area.
77
 Probl
emsofOTEC are rel
iabi
li
ty ofmooring,
requiredl
evel
oft
rai
ningandmaintenancecare.

Inthe60t hacl osedcycl ewasi nventedusing

propane.Thesyst em isi l
lust
rat edi nFig.24,where
thegasi sev aporatedi nanev aporat orusi ngthe
heat of the surf ace wat er of t he ocean.The
evaporated gas i s used t o operat eat urbi
ne
connectedtoanel ectrogenerat or.Thegasoutof
turbineiscondensedusi ngcoldwat eroft hebottom
oceanpumpi st henusedt opumpt hecondensedgas
totheevaporatorandt hecycleisrepeat ed.

An examination oft he break-up ofthe OTEC

system costsshowst hatt heheatex changerscost
playsadomi nantrol e.Theycont ri
buteabout30t o
40percentt othet otal.Thusoneapproachcoul dbe
theuseofunconv entionaldesignsandt echnol
ogyin
theheatex changersinordert oreducecost.

78
 Fi
g.24:ACl
osedCycl
e-SeaThermal
PowerPl
ant

CHAPTER3
TIDALPOWER

Ti
desactual
lyoccurbecauseofthechangeof
theat
tract
iveforcesbetweeneart
handsunf rom
onesi
deandbet weenearthandmoonontheother
79
side.I n other words,t ides are caused by t he
interacti
onoft hegrav itat
ional andkinemat i
cf orces
oft heeart h,t hemoonandt hesun.Thesef orces
balancethecent rif
ugal forceoft hewat erduet othe
earth'srotation.Thet i
dalflow,however, dependsnot
only upon grav i
tationalforcesbutal soupon t he
profil
eoft heocean' sbot tom andt hei rregul ariti
es
oft hecont inentalshorel i
nes.I nmanyregi onsa
resonance-like ef fectresul t
si nv ery l arge t i
dal
ranges.

Analternati
vewayoft appi
ngt i
dalenergyi n
riverswoul dbet omak eincomingandoutgoingtides
turnrot ors.Thustheenergyofoceant i
descouldbe
conv erted into elect
rical and other f orms of
industrialenergy.Accordingtothetechniqueshown
i
nFi g.25.

Thedev el
opabletidalpowerwouldbe2%oft hat
avai
labl
efromwat erpower.Thus, conversionoftidal
powercouldnotprov ideageneralsolut i
on.Itcoul d
beausef uladdi
tivet otheenergysuppl yi nspecial
regi
ons,wheret i
desarepart icul
arlyhigh.Sucha
regi
onex i
stsinthenort h–westofAust rali
a.Itsuse
asasupplyforwest ernAustral
ianindustrywoul dbe
mademoreeconomi cthroughelectrol
ysisatsource
andtransmissi
onofenergyashydrogen.

At ypi
calti
dalpatt
ernconsistsoft wohighand
twol ow tidesthatoccur every 24 hoursand50
minutesasshowni nFig.26.Theperiodoft heti
de
dependsupont he29.53dayperiodofrotati
onofthe
moonaboutt heearth'
sdailyrotati
onandupont he
orientati
onoft heearthduringi t
spat hroundthe
sun.Whent hesunandmoonareal mostinli
newith
80
theeart h,t hel argestti
dalrangeex ist,thespri ng
ti
de,wheret hegrav i
tat
ionalforcesofthemoonand
sun act t oget her,ei t
her i n conjunct i
on or i n
opposition,anew moonorf ullmoon,respect iv
el y.
Whent hemoon-sunangl eisarightangl e,thetides
havet heirmi nimum ampl i
tudeandarek nownast he
neapt ides.I nt hiscaset heforcesoft hemoonand
sunarei nquadrat e,thatis,att hef i
rstort hird
quarterphaseoft hemoon.Therat i
obet weent he
greatestspri ngtideandt hesmal l
estneapt i
decan
beupt o3: 1.Theri seandf al
loft heti
dei slimi
tedby
the frict i
onall ossescausedby t he action oft he
waterov ert heseabed.

Intheopenoceant hetidalrange,defi
nedast he
dif
ferencei nampl
itudebetweenl owandhi ghtidesi s
typi
cally aboutone met er.Ov er the continent al
shelves the ti
dalrange increases t o aboutt wo
met ersandinsomeestuariesordeepnarrowbaysi t
canbeupt o16meters.

Mil
lsusi ng tidalcurrent sal ong the coastof
Europedat ef romt he1 1
th.cent ury.Asst eampower
andhydroel ect ri
cpl antsbecamewi de-spread,t he
use of t idal mi ll
s decreased and gradual l
y
di
sappeared. Duet othehi ghercostoff ossilf
uel
sand
skyrocket
ing energy requi rement s,many nat ions
arestudyingt hef easibi
li
tytotidalmill
s.

81
 Fi
g.25:Ti
dal
CurrentPowerDev
ice.

Fi
g.26:ATypi
cal
Tidal
Pat
tern

Ti
dal
PowerSchemes:

Thereareanumberofdi f
ferentschemeswhi ch
can be grouped i nto two mai n combi nati
ons,
dependingonwhet heroneortwobasi nsareused:
1.Si nglebasi
n, generati
ononlyontheebbt ide.
2.Si nglebasi
n, generati
ononlyonthef l
oodt i
de.
3.Si nglebasin,generat i
onwi t
hbot ht heebband
floodti
des.
4.Si ngle basin,generat i
on wi t botht i
des and
82
 pumpedstorage.
5.Doubl
ebasinwithapumpedst
oragesyst
em.

Thedoubl ebasinschemesut il
izet wot idalpools.
Thehi ghpoolwoul dbef i
lledathi ght i
det hrought he
gatesoft hedam,separat ingitfromt heocean,whi l
e
thelowpoolwoul dbeempt iedatl owt ide.Thepool s
wouldbeseparat edbyadam cont ai
ni ngt heel ectric
powerpl ant.Powerwoul dbeobt ainedbyt hef lowof
waterf rom thehi ght ot helow poolt hrought he
turbines.Ev en though l ess oft he pot entialtidal
energy i s uti
li
zed by t his scheme,t he resul t
ant
outputisl essdependentupont het idalperi odt han
thatobt ainedwit hasi ngl etidalpool .Suchat idal
schemei sshowni nFig.27.

Fi
g.27:ATi
dal
PowerDamandTurbi
ne

Thesimpl estsystem usesasinglepoolthati s

empt i
edatl ow tideandfill
edathight i
de.Thef l
ow
achievedduringbot hthefi
ll
ingandempt yi
ngisused
todrivearev ersibl
eturbi
neelectri
cgenerator.Asa
consequence,el ectri
c power is generated twi
ce
duringeacht idalperi
odof1 2hoursand25mi nutes.
83
Whent hetidehasreachedi tsmax imum,spri ngtide,
withi
naharbororbay,t hent heareai sclosedand
opened again atebb t ide (l
ow t ide).The hei ght
dif
ferenceoperat esahydroel ectricgenerat or.This
ispracti
calwhent het i
dei s20f eetorhi gher.The
WoodBridemi llhasabasi nsurf aceareaofsome
2
30,000m andi sfil
ledbyt het idalwat erpassi ng
throughflapgatesint hedam.Thewat erflowsoutat
lowtideanddri v
esa6met erdi amet erwat erwheel
whichpowersf ourset sofmi l
lstones.

Modem proposal
sf orex ploi
t i
ngt i
dalpowerare
basedontheuseoft hest oredpot enti
alenergyina
dam.The use oft he k i
netic energy oft he ti
dal
currentshasbeenl imi
t edtoaf ewv erysmall
-scale
devel
opments.

Anew,l essex pensivemet hodistoconvertthe

oceanenergyi nt oenergyofcompressedai r.Adam
isconstructedt odamal argespaceofocean.I tcoul
d
be fixed or f loating.The energy of t he tide i
s
convertedi ntot he energy ofcompressedai r by
meansofspeci alizedchamberswhi chareputont he
oceanbed.Oceanwat erf rom thedammedregi on
passest hrought hechamberwherei twork sasa
naturalpistoncompressi ngairint heupperpartof
theclosure.Af tert hatt hecompressedai rcanbe
heatedandex pandedt hroughhigh-speedcompact
gasturbinesoranyt ypeofreciprocati
ngengines .

Tidal PowerPri
ncipl
es:
Tidalpowercanbeobt ai
nedf rom theflow of
watercausedbyt heri seandf alloft heti
desi n
partiall
yenclosedcoastalbasi
ns.Thisenergycanbe
84
convertedi ntopotent
ialenergy by encl osing the
basi
nswi thdams.Thiscreatesadi fferencei nwater
l
evelbet weentheoceanandt hebasi n.Theresul ti
ng
fl
owofwat erast hebasinisf i
ll
ingorempt yingcan
be used t o drive a peri odically f luctuati
ng
hydro-electri
c generator.El ectricity conv ersi
on
remov esthegeographicalrestrict
ionspl acedont he
earl
ierusesoft i
dalenergy.

Ifthesurfaceareaofat i
dalbasi nisAm2andi t
i
sassumedt obef i
ll
edathi ght ides.Ifthewat eris
then usedt odrivet he turbi
ne approx i
mat ely si
x
hourslateratlowti
de, theavai
labl ehydrauli
cheadi s
equalt ot he ti
dalrange ( r)
,t hen the max imum
potenti
alenergyav ailabl
eduri ngt heempt yingor
fil
li
ngofthebasinisgivenby:

Ext
ract
ingwaterfrom t
het i
dalpool
,however,
decreasesi
tsl
evel
andhencethehydraul
ichead.

Thet i
derisesandf all
stwiceduringtheti
dalday
of24. 814hours,sothet heoreti
calaveragepoweris
fourt imesthemax i
mum pot entialenergydi
videdby
thet otalt
imei nthetidalperiod,thus,foroneday,
thepoweri s:

Tak
ing as1000kg/m andg=9. 81m/s,t
he
2
t
heoret
ical
averagepowerbecomes:0.
22Ar

Bas
edupont
hiscal
cul
ati
on,at
idalrangeof5
85
m coul d produce an energy of 2. 45X1011J
/km2.
Divi
dingbyt hetidalperi
odof12hoursand25mi nutes
4
(4.
57X1 0 s)yieldsanav eragepowerof5. 48MW/ km
Ifgenerat i
oni sonl yont heebbtide,thefigurei s
halved.Theact ualpowerout puti
supt o25%oft he
theoretical
av erage.

Possibl eI mpact sofTidalSchemes[ 14]:

Itisdi fficulttoquant i
f ythesoci al,i
ndust rialand
env ironment alimpact swhi chanyproposedscheme
coul dhav e.Thesehav ebeenwi delyrev iewedi nt he
l
iterat ureandsomeoft hemai npoi ntsaredi scussed
below:
1.Themi smat choft hepri nci
pal lunardri venperiods
of1 2h,25mi n.and24h,50mi n.wi tht hehuman
(solar)peri odof24h,50mi nt hatopt imum t idal
powergenerat i
oni snotinphasewi t
hdemand.
2.The changi ng t i
dalrange andf low ov er a two
–week peri od, produci ng changi ng power
product ion.
3.Therequi rementf orlargewat erv olumef l
owat
lowneed,necessi tati
ngmanyspeci alconst ruct ed
turbi nesseti nparal lel
.
4.The v ery hi gh capitalcost s ofmostpot ent i
al
installat i
ons.
5.Wat erl evels:Bot hi nthebasi nupst ream oft he
barrageandt oseawardcoul dbechanged.
6.Ti dalf lows:reducet hest rengt hoft hecurrent s
upst reamoft hebarrage.Downst reamandt osea,
theef fect scouldbeex tendedov er50k m.
7.Sedi ment ation:mayoccuri nt hebasi nandcoul d
leadt oasl owsmal lreduct i
oni nbasi nv ol
ume.To
seawardt hesedi mentsprev iousl ysweptoutby
tidalflowsmayst aydeposit ed.
86
8.Mixi
ng:wi lloccurl essi nt hewat erabov ethebasi n
becauseofreducedcurrent sandtidal excursions .
9.Navigation:shi ps coul d be sl owed by passi ng
through l ocks,on t he ot her hand,predi ctable
periodsofdeeperwat ercoul dbeanadv antage.
10. Indust ry:coul d benef i
tduri ng const ruction
butmayhav et oadopthi gherst andardsi ndeali
ng
withpossi bl epolluti
ngl iquideff l
uents.
11Land drai
. nage: coul d be af fected i nside the
barragebecauseofhi gherl owwat erl ev els.
12. Sea def enses:wi llbe l ess li
abl et o storm
damageaf tert heconst ructionofabarrage.
13. Ecos yst em:t heaquat i
cecosyst em wi l
lalways
beaf fectedbyanychangei nturbidityandsal inity.
14. Mi grat oryf ish:wi llf acet heobs t
acl eoft he
barrage,butt heinwardj ourneywi llprobabl ybe
straight f orward t hrough t he sluices i n ebb
generat ionschemes.
1 Recreat
5. i
onalopport uni ti
es:coul dbeenhancedi n
suit
abl elocat ionswi thl esst urbidwat erabov ehe
barrage.

Probl
ems:

1
.Det ermine,for onecubi
cmet er ofwat
er,the
el
evati
onchangewhichcorrespondst
oapotent
ial
energyofoneki
lowatt
-hour.

2.Apumpedwat erst
oragereservoi
rhasasurface
2
areaof1k m andadept hof1 0m.Theaverage
hei
ghtabov
ethelowerreservoi
rmaybeassumed
87
 tobeconstantandequalto100m.Determinet
he
energy st orage capacit
y i n joules and
ki
lowat
t-hoursfort
hisreservoi
r.
3.Supposet wot
idalpool
sareusedforati
dalpower
plant
.Theupperpool,areaAl,i
sfi
ll
edathightide
andthelowerpool,areaA2,i
sempti
edatlowtide.
Thetidal
rangeisR:

a.
Det erminetheenergyt hatcan beobtainedby
empt yingtheupperpoolint
othelowerpoolwhil
e
thegat econnect
ingt
het wopool
stotheoceanare
closed.

b.
Acomparisonwi t
hasi ngl
et i
dalpool
,areaA,i s
desi
red.Assumi ngthatA=Al+A2,t hetotalarea
encl
osedbyt het woti
dalpoolschemes,determine
therati
ooft heenergyobt ainedforeacht idal
peri
od.Note:fort het
wot i
dalpoolsyst
em,energy
canbeex t
ract edonlyoncef oreacht i
dalperiod.
Whatist
hisratioforAl=A2=1/2A?

c.
Whati
stheadv
ant
ageoft
het
wopool
syst
em?

88
 CHAPTER4
WINDENERGY
Oft
het
otalsol
arf
luxabsorbedbyt
heeart
h
approximatel
y20%or2X1 016W isabsorbedby
theearth'satmosphere.Theabsorbedenergy
resultsin a heati
ng oft he atmosphere,a
storage of thermalenergy as wel las a
convecti
v e moti
on of t he at mosphere, a
conversiontoki
neticenergy.

Thus,wi ndsarecausedbecauseoft he
absorpt i
on ofsolar energy on the eart h'
s
surf aceand,t heatmosphereaswel last he
rotat i
onoft heearthaboutitsax i
sandi t
s
motionaroundt hesun[2].Becauseoft hese
factors,alternateheati
ngandcool i
ngcycl es
occur,differencesinpressureareobt ained
andt heairiscausedtomove.

Thepot
ent
ialofwi
ndenergy asasourceof
89
powerisl
arge.Thiscanbejudgedf romthefactthat
theenergyavailabl
einthewi ndsov ertheeart h'
s
7
surfacei
sesti
mat edtobe1.6X10 MWwhi chisqui t
e
enough t
o satisfy a marked port i
on of energy
consumpt
ion on eart h. Besides, the energy
av
ail
abl
eisf
reeandcl
ean.

The f uncti
on of a wi nd mill
,or wi nd
generator,ist oextractthek i
neti
cenergy
from thewi ndandconv erti tt
oanenergy
associ
atedwi thamechani calmoti
onusual l
y
that of a rot ati
ng shaft.This mechanical
energymaybeconv ertedi
nt oot
herf ormsof
energylikeelectri
calenergy.

Recoverabl
ewindenergycomput ati
ons:
Thek i
neti
cenergyofauni tvol
umeofair
(onecubicmeter)dependsuponitsmass,t
hat
i
s,itsdensi
ty.Thekineti
cenergyofonecubic
meterofairmaybeobt ainedfrom:

I
nonesecond,av ol
umeel ementofai rmovesa
distanceofVm.Thet otalvolumecrossi ngaplaneA
squaremet erinareaandori entednormalt othe
velocity vect
or is therefore V cubi c meters
.
Mul ti
plyi
ngtheki
neti
cenergyE,byVyi eldst
herate
atwhi chenergyi
stransferred, t
hatis,
power:

Thisreveal
sthatt
heenergyint
hewi
ndis
a functi
on of ai r densi
ty, t
he area
90
interceptingt hewi nd,andt hewi nd'svelocit
y.
Air densit y decreases wi th alt
itude oft he
locati
on.Wi nd turbi nes wi t
hl arge rot ors
interceptmorewi ndt hant hosewi thsmal ler
rotors and, consequent ly, capt ure more
energy.Energyi ncreasesast hecubeoft he
windv elocity.Ifawi ndsyst emisdesi gnedf or
af ullout putpower,Pm, f oraspeedof ,
speedsi nex cessof wi l
lnotbef ull
yutili
zed.
Alsof orwi ndspeedsl essthan ,t hepower
dropsv eryrapi dly.Forawi ndspeedof0. 46 ,
thepoweri s1 0%ofi t
sf ul
lvalue.

Thecoeffi
cientofperf ormance( Cp)ofa
Windmi l
lisdefinedast herat ioof power
deli
veredby therot or (
p)t ot hemax imum
poweravail
abl
ei nthewind ( Pmax)andisgiven
by:

where =densi
tyofai
r

A=sweptarea
V=v
eloci
tyoft
hewi
nd.
Effi
cienci
es of 20 t o 30% of t he
t
heoret
icall
y predicted were achi
eved by
manyofthemill
stested.

Substant
ialpowers ev
en f or moderat
e wind
v
eloci
ti
es are predi
cted,for example,a 10 m/s
2
v
eloci
tyresul
tsinapowerof600W/ m .
91
 Sincepoweri sproport i
onalt othethird
poweroft hevel
ocity,a26%v elocit
yincrease
resul
tsinadoubli
ngoft hepower.Conv ersel
y,
thepowerdropsv eryrapidlywi t
hadecrease
i
nv el
ocit
y.A26%v el
oci
tydecreaseresul tsin
apowert hati
shalftheini
tialval
ue.

Thewi ndgeneratorconsi
stsoff
ourmain
parts,theturbine,t
hegenerator,t
hetower
andayawi ngsystemt ok
eepthesyst
eminthe
winddirecti
on[2].

Manytypesofwindmil
lshavebeendesi
gnedand
devel
oped[2].Someoft heseare( i
)multi
pleblade
type,
(i
i)sai
ltype,(i
ii
)propel
lertype,(i
v)Savonius
type,and(v)Darri
enstype.T hefirstthreeare
hori
zont
alax i
swindmi l
ls,whilet
helastt wo
haveav ert
icalaxi
s.Sketchesoft
herotorsof
t
hesewi ndmil
lsaswel
lasthef
our-bl
adeDut
chwi
nd
mil
l,areshowninFi
g.28.

Power ist ransmitt

ed through a bev el
gearingt oaverti
calshaftwhichextendedtoa
furthersetofbev el
satgroundl evelandthe
drivewasconnect edtogenerators.
Anotheralternati
vei stogetel ectri
cit
y
using wi nd energy and t hen usi ng this
electri
city i
n wat er electrol
ysi
s t o get
hydrogenwhi chisusedasaf uel.

92
 Recentf uelprice i
ncreases suggestthatat
present wi nd power coul d be economi cal
ly
competiti
ve.Concurrentl
y,poll
uti
onproblems
,v i
sual
pol
luti
onex cepted,
areavoided.

93
 Fi
g.28:TypesofWi
ndmi
ll
Rot
ors

Appl
icat
ionsofwi
ndmi
ll
s:

1.
Generat ing el ect ricityt o be used i na
vari etyofappl icat ions.
2.
Wat er pumpi ng f or t he purposes of
irrigat ion,domest ic uses,and obt aining
salinewat eri nsal twork .
3.
Insai l
ing.
4.
For operat i
ng f lashi ng lights and si gnals
nearoi l drill
ingpl at forms.
5.
Winddri v enbat terychargersareusedt o
operat eradi os, telev isi
onsandot her
appl iancei nremot eareas.
6.
Poweri ngagri cul tural taskse.g.grinders.
7.
Usingt heel ect ri citygenerat edfor
elect rolysi sofwat ert oobtainhydrogen
whichcanbeusedasanenergysource.
8.
Adev elopedappl icat i
oni stheuseofwi nd
energyi nt hewat erchurnheat ingconcept .
Thei deadependsonusi ngwi ndenergyf or
vigorousst irringofwat er.Thisleadst o
elevat ionofi tst emperat ure,andev olution
ofst eamwhi chcanbeusedi nmanyf i
el ds
includingi ndust ry.

St
orageofwi
ndenergy;
94
1.Windenergyi susedf orcompressingai
rin
large reservoirs under ground at hi
gh
pressure.Thecompressedai rcanbeused
to operate a t urbi
ne connected to a
generatorwhenrequi red.
2.Pumpingwat erandst ori
ngi ntanksthen
usingitt
ooperat ehydraul
icturbi
nes.
3.Chargingbatteries.

Probl
emsassociat
edwithut
il
izi
ngwi
nd
energy:

1.
The energy i s availablei n dil
ut ef orm.
Becauseoft hisl argenumberofl argewi nd
turbines i s requi red f or a reasonabl e
outputpower.
2.
The av ail
abili
ty of t he energy v ari
es
considerabl y ov er a day and wi th the
seasons.Fort hisreason,somemeansof
storagehav et obedev isedifacont i
nuous
supplyofpoweri srequi red.
3.
Energy st orage requi res l ead-aci
d
batteries.Thenumberoft imest hatal ead
acidbat terycanbechargedanddi scharged
isli
mited, onet housandcompl etecyclebeing
thetypical batteryl i
fe.
4.
Thebl adescoul dcausearot ati
ngshadow
95
 pattern whi ch mi ght present v isual
problems.
5.Interf erencewi tht el
evisi
onwav es.
6.Noise, part icularlyatlowf requencies.
7.Somet i
mesbl adesdet achandf lyoff.
8.Highini ti
al cost.
9.Maint enancei san i mport antprocessf or
being subj ect t o dust and corrosi on,
meanwhi le,iti sat erribleprocessbecause
ofthehi ghel evationofthet ower.
10.selection oft he sitt
ing needs ex tensive
studiesf ordet ermi ni
ngi t
sat mosphericand
geographi cal characteristi
cs..

Energyavai
labl
efromthewindinanyparticul
ar
l
ocationdependsontheshapeofthel
ocall
andscope,
theheightofthewindmil
labov
egroundlevelandthe
cli
mat i
ccycl
e.

Theeffectofheightofthewindmi l
ltoweront he
performancecanbesi gni
fi
cantandempi ricalpower
l
awi ndiceshavebeenest abli
shedrelati
ngt hemean
windv el
oci
tyvt otheheightH,intheequat i
on .
Av al
ueofa=0. 17istheacceptedval
uef oropen, l
evel
ground,butt hi
srisest o0.25foranurbansi teand
0.33foracitysite.

Awi ndmillwhichhavehighsoli
dit
y,orareaof
blade relat
ivetot ot
alsweptarea,gi v
es a hi
gh
storingtorquebutarel at
ivelowpowercoef
fici
ent,
typical
lyabove0.2.

96
 CHAPTER5

HYDROGENENERGY
Produci
ng hydrogen f or st ori
ng and
transmitti
ng solar energy seems the proper
solut
iont orecentdif
ficul
ti
esofenergyshortage
97
andenv i
ronment alpol
lut
ion.Theavai
labi
li
tyandthe
economicadvantagesofusinghydrocarbonsdi
rectly
as heat,leaves no chance for the uti
li
zat
ion of
hydrogenasenergysource.Ho wever,hydrogen
ispotenti
allyamoref lexi
bleenergycarri er
and energy st orage medi um. I t can be
convertedt ootherf ormsofenergyneeded
byt heuserssuchasmechani cal,el
ect ri
cal
,
andt hermalwi thhighef ficiency.Hydrogen
hasgoodcombust ion charact eristi
csandi s
nonpol l
uti
ngbecauseuponcombust ion,the
onlyproduct sareheatandwat erv apor.It
canbeusedt ofireboilers,rungast urbines
orpowerf uelcell
s.Itcouldal sobeusedf or
groundandai rtransportati
on.

 Hydrogenst
orageandt
ransf
er:

Hydrogen i
seasi
lyst
oredandt
ransport
edin
many forms. Hydrogen can be stored as
compressedgasorinli
quidform at-253°Cin
largecryogeni
ccontai
nersabov egroundor
inlargecontai
nersinrockcovers.Hydrogen
canal sobestoredundergroundingaseous
forminlargegeol
ogei
cal
lyformedreservoirs.
Duringrecentyears,theuseofmet alhydridesf
or
hydrogen storage has been under devel
opment.
Metalhydri
destoragesystemsof feral ow
costandsaf
ehydrogenstorage.Itispossibl
e
topackmorehydrogeninametalhydridethan
inthesamevol
umeofliqui
dhydrogen.

98
 Ammoniacanbeusedasport ablestore
andbackupsourceofhydrogen.Theprocess
of f orming ammonia f rom hydrogen i s
relati
vely easy. On the receiv
ing areas,
break i
ngdownt heammoniatoyieldhydrogen
isalsorel
ativ
elyeasy.

Asf ort hetranspormation ofhydrogen,

evacuated,double-wall
,insulatedcontainers
whichhav ebeenmount edont rail
ertrucks,or
barges can be used.I tispossi bl
et ouse
naturalgas pi pel
ines for transmission of
hydrogengas.

 Usesofhydrogen

1
.Chemi
cal
Technol
ogy:
Suffici
entl
ycheaphydrogencouldbeused
i
nal argenumberofreducti
onreactions,
withcheapenedcostsandpol
lut
iongreatl
y
reducedornegli
ble.

2.Met
all
urgyandref
ini
ng:
Anumberofprocessesmaybecarri edout
morecheaplywi t
hhydrogenthanbyusi ng
reduci
ngagent ssuchascarbonAnot her
reasonforincreasi
ngtheuseofhydrogen
i
st o reduce air pol
lut
ion at present
associ
atedwithmetall
urgi
caland refi
ning
99
 i
ndust
ries.

3.Ef
fluent
s:
The upgradi
ng ofeffl
uent
s could occur
moreeasilywithcheapel
ectri
cit
yand/ or
oxygenavail
abl
eviaahydrogeneconomy.
An in house treatmentofsewage t hrough i
ts
elect
rolyti
c oxidat
ion tocarbon di
oxide,or i
ts
chemicalt reatmenti n a molt
en saltathi gh
temperature (produci
ngO2)maybecome
practi
cal.

4.Wat
er:
Afract
ionofdri
nk i
ngwat erneedscoul dbe
metbytheuseofhydrogenast hemedi um
ofenergy.The end react
ion i
nvol
ved i
st he
product
ionofli
quidwater.Foracommuni t
yat1 0
KW per person,t here coul
d resul
t about 14
gall
onsperpers onperdayoff reshwat er,of
whichabout3wouldbeproducedinthehouse.

5.Transport
ati
on:
Hydrogen could be used i n internal
combusti
on engines,which run wellon
hydrogen after onl
y smal
lmodificati
on.
Trai
ns,li
kewise,coul
dbedrivenfrom fuel
cel
lsrunningongaseousorl
iqui
dhydrogen.

 Hydrogenproduct
ionusi
ngsol
arenergy:
The basic met
hods k
nown f
or hydrogen
producti
onare:

1
00
1
.Di
rectThermal
Process:
Thedissoci
ati
onofwaterint
ohydrogenand
oxygenwi l
lstarti
fwat erisheat
edupt o
about3000Korabov e.
Waterdecomposi
ti
onreacti
oni
s:
(
ingaseousf
orm)
whereXsaremolarfract
ions.

Wat
er should be decomposed at f
airly hi
gh
temperaturecombinedwit
hareducedpressure.The
energyfordissoci
ati
onofH2Ocanbeobt ainedfrom
sol
arenergy. '

An opti
calsystem which coll
ect
s solar
radi
ationandconcent
ratesiti
nasmal larea
can be ut i
li
zed f or t his purpose.
Concentrat
ionrati
omaybeoft heorderof
10,
000.

 Advantagesofthismet hodare:
i
- Hight hermaleffi
ciency.
i
i-Negligibl
eenvironment ali
mpacts,
and
i
ii
-Intermediarychemi calsarenotrequi
red.

Becauseofhightemperat
urerequi rement s,t
his
methodrequi resextensi
ve research for possi
ble
commerci al
appli
cat
ion,

1
01
2.TheThermochmi
cal
process:
I
nt hismet hod,f i
rstwat er andoneor
morechemi calel ementor compoundreact
while heati sbei ng added,resul ti
ng int he
product i
onofhydrogenorox ygenasagasand
a new chemi calcompound.Then i n one or
more chemi calreact ionsthe new chemi cal
compoundoft hef irstreact i
on isreducedt o
its originalcomposi t
ion witht he help of
another i nt ermedi ary chemi caland heat ,
releasingox ygenandhydrogen.Thus,i nput s
are heat ,wat er and some work whi ch i s
requiredt oseparat etheresul t
ingchemical s
andout put sare hydrogen andox ygen and
lowergradeheat .Thei nt
ermedi arychemi cal
element sand/ or compoundsare generat ed
andrecycl ed.Foracompl etet hermochemi cal
hydrogen product ion cycle,t wo or more
chemicalreact ion st eps are needed.For
example:

 Twost
epscycl
e

Sum

1
02
 Threest
epcycl
e:

Sum

Anot
herex
ampl
e:

Sum

3.El
ect
rol
ysi
sofwat
er:

Electrol
ysisofwat erisaccompl ishedby
passing a di rect current bet ween t wo
electrodesi mmersedi nanel ectrolyt einan
aqueousKOHsol uti
onwi thaconcent rationof
20-30%.I nthisunitsteelisusedasacat hode
andni ckel
-platedsteelasananode.Thecel l
compart mentsaredi videdbydiaphragm t hat
prev ent passage of gas i nt
o t he ot her
electrode compart ment s. When suf f
ici
ent
potent iali
sappl i
edbetweent heel ect rodesto
1
03
causeacurrentf
low,ox
ygenisl
iberat
edat
theanodeandhydrogen att
hecathodeas
fol
lows:

Sum

I
nt hismet hod,thesolarenergyi sfirst
convertedt od.
c.electri
calpower,andthent o
hydrogent hroughelectrol
ysisofwater.Thus,
electrol
ysis can be carri ed out in an
electrol
yserpoweredbyaphot ovol
tai
ccell
.

This met hod is especi

all
y suited for
coupli
ng wi th ocean, wi nd, hydro and
photovolt
aicformsofsol arenergysi ncein
thesecasessol arenergycouldbeconv ert
ed
toelectri
cit
y.

4.Thephot
ocat
alyt
icProcess:
Int hi
s process,sun's photons,under
cert ai
n circumstances, are absorbed by
wat er molecules and when t he energy
absorbed reaches a cert ai
n l imit
(68.3 Kcal /Mole of wat er) hydrogen i s
released.Photons i
nt he ul
trav
iol
et range of
radi
ati
onspect
rum possesst
heenergyneededf
or
1
04
t
hedi
rectphot
olysi eri
sofwat nthepresenceofa
catal
yst.Thef uncti
onofsuchacat alystisto
absorbthesol arradiationandthentransmit
the energy t o the wat er i
n order t o
decomposei t
.Twoel ectrodesarerequiredto
separatet he two gases produced and the
reacti
oncanbeex pressedas:

Sum

Photocatal
yst X i s not consumed, but i s
regenerat ed and becomes avail
ablef or reuse.
Bi
ologicalphotocat
alyst
sarealsoi
nex i
stence.

5.Thesteamcat al
yti
creformingprocess:
I
nt hisprocessal i
ghthydrocarbonf eedst
ock
thatrangesf rom methanetoheav ynaphthareact
withsteam int hepresenceofacat alystatabout
o
1500Fand250psi g.Theprincipalreacti
oncanbe
chemical
lyrepresentedas:

1
05
Sum

Thecrude,hydrogenproducedcont ai
nsCO,CO2
and met hane,therefore,the hydrogen produced
requiresaddit
ionalpuri
ficat
ionbyeit
herphysicalor
chemicalmeans.

Among the methods f

or produci
ng hydrogen
f arenergy,t
rom sol hedirectt hermalmet hod
has t he potenti
al of highest t
hermal
eff
ici
ency, foll
owed by thermo chemi
cal
el
ectrolyt
icandphot
olyt
icmet
hod.

Advantages of hydrogen as an energy

source:

. T
1 heuni
versalandrenewabl
ewat
eri
sthe
mainrawmat eri
alf
ori t
sproduct
ion.Ev
en
t
he quantit
y usedf or i
tsproducti
on is
formedagai
nwheni tisburnt
.

2. Thebroadf
iel
dofhydrogenusesshows
t
hatitcanreplaceallki
ndsoffuel.
3. I
tisnonpoll
uti
ng.
4. I
tisconveni
entt ouse.
5. I
tcanbesaf el
yst oredandtransmitt
ed.

Aschemati
cofsol ar/Hydrogenenergysystem
isrepresent
edinFig.30.
Theenergyf ordissoci
ati
onofH2Ocanbeobt ai
ned
fromt hesol
arenergy.
1
06
Anopticalsystem whichcol
lect
ssolarradi
ati
onand
concentratesitint
oasmal lareacanbeutil
izedfor
thi
spurpose.Hi ghtemperaturescanbeobtainedin
opti
cal syst ems s uch as in large furnaces.
Concentrationrati
omaybeoft heorderof1
0,000

I
fthi
ssyst
emcoul
dbesat
isf
ied,
H2canbeproduced.

CHAPTER6
GEOTHERMALENERGY

Geot
hermalenergyi senergyst oredin
t
heeart
h.Iti
sthebestdev
elopedsourceandt
he
onemostcapabl eofv eryconsiderabl
eex pansi
on
over the nex
tf ew decades,bothf or el
ectri
cit
y
generati
onandthermalappli
cat
ions.

Theeart h'
sinnercoreofni ck elandironisnear
o
8000 F( 4427° C)
.Belowt heearth'scrustthemolten
si
li
con,iron,magnesi um magmai sbet ween2300oF
and2700oF.Heatf rom thecorei slostthroughthe
crustandradi atedi ntospace.Si ncethecrustisa
2
poorconduct or,onl yabout40cal ori
es/cm islost
,
whil
eov ert heentireplanetthel ossis0.8Q/y.Heat
1
07
storedint
herocksnearthesurfacecanbeutili
zed
in the geot
hermal regi
ons. This ut
il
ized heat
represent
sabout40Q,i
ftheheatcanberecov ered
toadepthof1
0Km.

Besi des,t heheatf lowatt heeart h'ssurfacei s

now bel i
eved t o be pri mari lyt he resul tof t he
radi oact i
ve decay ofi sotopeswi t hlong hal f-lives
whicharedi stribut edt hroughoutt hecrustandt he
upper mant l
e. Wi t hi
n t he crust ,t he observ ed
heat -produci ng i sotopes are urani um-238,
thori um-232,andpot assi um-40.Normalchemi cal
react i
onsrel easei nsuf ficientenergyt oaccountf or
theheatf l
owwhi chhasbeensust ainedt hroughout
thegeol ogical historyoft heeart h( i
nsuf fi
cientf ora
bil
lion years) .The av erage surf ace heatf l
ow of
2
0.063 W/ m can be produced by an ex ceedingl y
low-v aluerat eofenergyrel ease.I fadept hof1 00
kmi sassumedf ort heheatproduci ngprocess ,the
averagev olume-powerdensi tyrequi redi sonly0. 63
3
W/m .Adensi tyofradi oact i
vei sotopesmeasuredi n
gramsper cubi cmet er ( which correspondst oa
concent rationrat ioofonl yaf ewpart spermi l
lion,a
ratiot ypicallyf oundi nsurf acegrani tes)produces
thisrat eoft hermal energygenerat i
on.
Thust heenergyst oredi nt heeart hcompri ses:
1.heatcont entoft heeart h(f rom magmaand
radi atingmi neral s)
2.Sol arheatst oredi nt heeart h.
3.Rot ati
onal energyoft heeart h.

Conv enti
onal geothermal power compri ses
uti
li
zationofhotsprings.Thetechnol
ogyisdev
eloped
inNewZ ealandwheret hehot(i
.e.morethan100°C)
spri
ngsresourcesoft heworldtobef ul
lydev
eloped
1
08
woul
daddabout2% t
opresentenergy.

Howev er, a new concept i s av ail

able in
geothermalenergyconv ersi on.Itistherecov eryof
energyf romhotrock satdept hsofsev eralmi l
es.I f
thisform ofenergyconv ersi onprov est obebot h
technical
lyf easi
bleandeconomi call
yaccept able,it
maymak eacont ri
butiontot heworl denergysuppl y.
Itwoul dnotberegardedasani nexhaustiblesource
ofenergy,f orast heartifi
ci all
ymadecav iti
esinthe
earthgi veoutheatt owat eri ntroducedi ntothem,
theirsurfacescooldownandanewcav it
yhast obe
madeev eryf ew years(t heol deroneswoul d,of
course,heatupagai novert hesucceedi ngyearsand
bere-usabl e).

Al
thoughtheearth'
sheatcanberegardedasan
i
nf i
nit
esourceofenergy,prol ongedex ploi
tat
ioncan
exhaustageot hermalfield.Geot hermalenergyi s
.therefore,notarenewabl esourceofenergy.I t
wasbel i
evedthattheresidualheati nt hecenterof
theeart hwasthesourceoft henat uralgeothermal
phenomenasuchashotspri ngswi thj et sofsteam
thatcouldbeseenontheeart h' ssurface.

Accordingtosomegeol ogicaltheoriest hecrust

i
snotasol i
dshel lbutconsi st
sofri gidsegment sor
plates which can mov e relativet o each other.
Pressure builds up atpl at e boundari es and the
resulti
ngsuddenmov ementresul tsi neart hquakes
and promot est he mov ementofl arge massesof
mol t
enrock s,
magma, upwardsi ntot heeart h'
scrust,
causingvolcanicactivi
ty.Thet hermalef fectsofthe
i
nt eract
ion bet ween pl ates can ex tend several
hundredk i
lometersf romt heboundari es. Mostofthe
1
09
heatwhi chreachest heeart h'ssurf acedoessoby
conduct ion, but some heat i st ransferred by
conv ection tot he f ree wat er int he out er f ew
kil
omet ersoft hecrust .Thiscanoccurbyt hesi mple
processofgroundwat ersi nkingthroughpermeabl e
rocksuchast heSanst onesorl imestone's,orwhere
therockhasbeenf ractured,i ntothehot terregi ons
andt henci rculati
ngbackt owardst hesurf ace,orby
theheat i
ngoft hegroundwat erbyi ngeniousact ivit
y.
Temperat uresoft hesehydrot hermalf l
uidsint he
rangef rom 1 00° Ct o200° Carecommonandi n
o
placeshav ereached400 C,condi tionswhi chcan
resul tinsomeoft hewat erf l
ashing(changi ngst ate
froml i
quidtov aporwi t
hrapi dreduct i
oninpressure)
itsteamandappeari ngashotspri ngsorgeysers .

Ani mport antdist i

ncti
onmustbemadebet ween
geot hermalareas and a geot hermalf iel
d.Many
thermal areaareassoci at
edwi throckofl oworz ero
permeabi lityandcannotbeex ploitedunderex isti
ng
economi c and operat i
ng condi ti
ons. Geot hermal
fieldscont aint hehotwat erorst eam inpermeabl e
rock f ormat ions and a number of t hese are
operat ingcommerci all
y.Theycanal sobecl assified
intot hreemai ntypes:
i
. Semit hermalf i
elds which can produce hot
wat er att emperat ures up t o100 ° Cf rom
dept hsupt o2k m.
i
i. Wet f ields whi ch produce wat er under
pressureatt emperat uresgreat erthan1 00oC.
When t his wat er reaches t he surf ace,i ts
pressuref all
sandsomef lashesi ntosteam, t
he
remai nderbei ngboi li
ngwat eratat mospheri c
pressure.Suchawetf i
eldisshowni nFig.32
i
ii.Dry f i
el ds which produce dry sat urat ed or
1
10
 superheated st eam at pressures abov
e
atmosphericpressure.

Fi
g. 33, i s a cross sect i
on of a t ypical
hydrot hermalconv ect i
on system.Surf ace wat er
whi chhav eset t
leddownwardt hroughcrack si nt he
crust yrock sareheat edinapermeabl elayerabov e
ahotmagmadeposi t.Hydrost at
icpressureprev ents
thewat erf rom boiling.Sincet heheatedwat eri s
lessdenset hant heent eringcoldwater,itt endst o
rise.Al argehydrot hermalreserv oirconsistingof
hotwat erandrock si sf ormedabov ethemagma.I f
thewat eri sv entedatt hesurf acethroughnat ural
fissures, hot spri ngs or geysers resul t
.
Alternat ively,al ayerofi mpermeablecaprockmay
prev ent t he heat ed wat er f rom reaching t he
surf ace.

Geothermalpower,f or the l
att
er case,i s
obtai
nedbydri lli
ngt hrought hecaprocktoreach
the pressurized hot wat er. I
ft he wat er is
suffi
cientl
yhot,steam wi l
lbeproducedatthebore
hol
e.Thesyst emst hatpresent l
yusegeot hermal
powerareoft histype.

Thetemperat ureandpressureoft hesteam

produced by a geothermalwel ldepend upon t he
producti
onrate;t hegreatert hemassf lowrat eof
thesteam,theloweri tstemperatureandpressure.
Whileal ow flow rat e resultsi n t he highest
temperatureandpressure,t heav ail
ablet hermal
powerwhi chdependsuponbot hflow rat eandt he
energyoft hesteam (it
senthalpy)willalsobesmal l
.
Theopt i
mum f l
ow rat ewi l
lproducet hegreat est
outputpowerforagi veninstal
lati
on.
1
11
 Atthe Geysers,dry steam isproducedata
temperature of approxi
mat el
y1 77°C and at a
pressureof7. 8atmosphere( 1
14psi a)
.Liqui
dsand
suspendedsol
idsareremov edfromt hesteamatthe
wellheadbyacentrif
ugalseparator.

Geot
hermalwel l
sproducingdrysteamarei
deal
forelect
ricpowergeneration.Morecommonarehot
waterwellswhichproducewat er

Fi
g.32:Schemati
cDi
agram ofa“
wet
”Geot
hermal
reservoi
r

1
12
Fi
g.33:AHydrot
hermal
Conv
ect
iveGeot
hermal
Syst
em.

above125°Candcan,atthewellhead,bef l
ashedto
steam. Lower quali
ty geot
hermal f i
elds which
producehotwaterbel
ow125°Caref requentlyused
forhealt
hspas.

Drygeothermalfi
elds(
Fig.34)inwhi
chnowat er
i
s present are anot her pot enti
al source of
geot
hermalenergy.

Aheattransf erflui
d, mostl
ikel
ywat er,wil
lneed
tobeinject
edi ntothef i
eld.Aft
erdrill
ing,fract
uring
ofthefiel
dint hev i
cinit
yoft hewellwi l
lberequired
toimprov et hermalcont actwit hthe f l
uid.Both
hydraul
icf racturi ng similar tot hat used f or
1
13
l
ow-producingoilwell
sandnucl earexpl
osi
veshave
beensuggestedforactiv
atingdrygeot
hermalfi
elds
.
Asecondarycl osedthermodynamicsystem wi
llbe
requi
redforproducingelectri
cpower.

Fi
g.34:ADryGeot
hermal
Fiel
dandPowerPl
ant
.

 LowGradeGeot
hermal
Energy:
Theexi
stenceof" l
owgrade"geothermalenergy
i
swel lk
nown.ItarisesasseeninFig.
32Anaqui ferin
contactwithdeeperhotrock sfi
ndsaf issureinthe
higherimpermeablerocklayerandej ectshotwater
1
14
and steam through t
he surface.Itcan produce
waterupt oatemperatureofabout75° Cbydri l
li
ng
todept
hsofbet ween1.
5and2k m,correspondingtoa
temperaturegradientof30Kperk i
lometer.Such
l
ow gradesourceshav ebeent houghtt ohaveonly
minorimportanceint heUS,af ew percentoft he
energysuppl
yf orafewdecades.

Howev er,thispict urecoul dberev i

sedupwards.
Forex ampl e,the" l
ow"est imatei smadeupont he
basisofhotspri ngsal readyk nown.I ti
snowt hought
thatmanysourcesofhotwat ermayl i
eundet ect ed
near t he earth's surf ace.Among t he ideas put
forward f or ex ploi
ting t his source,i thas been
suggest ed toinj ectwat er i ntot he wetbasal t i
c
magma t o produce hydrogen by di ssociation.A
prospect i
ng met hodf or t hese may be dev el oped.
Correspondi ngl
y,onl yst eamsuf f
icientlyhott odri ve
convent i
onal el ectricity generat i
ng pl ants i s
considered i nt he l ow est i
mat e.Howev er,heat
enginescanbeusedwi thal owboi l
ing,st abl
eorgani c
li
quidt o work wi th, f or i nstance, 70° C heat .
Thermocoupl escoul dbeusedt ocoll
ectt heheat .

 Hi
ghGradeGeot
hermal
Energy:
Nearly al
lof t he eart h consists of mol t
en
o
material
,muchofi ti
ssi l
iceous,atabout900 C.The
ski
n separat i
ng t he surf ace from t he mol t
en
int
eriorisonlyaf ewt ensofmi l
est hick
.Toest i
mate
theamountofenergyev olved,thepl anetmaybe
o
regardedasal umpofl iquidat900 C,undergoi nga
o
temperaturel ossof,say,1 00 C.Theeart hhasa
vol
umeofsome260bi l
lioncubi cmiles.Aspeci
ficheat
1
15
ofabout0. 2 cal
/g/oC can be assumed. ,and an
average densi ty of3.I ft he consumers on t he
surf aceobt ai
nedalltheirenergyf rom theearth's
heatandnumber1 0bill
ionpeople,andallliv
ea1 0k W
exist ence,then the temperat ure wouldt ak
e 0.1
o
bil
lionyearst odrop10C. Thus,geothermal energyis
inex hausti
ble.However,t he extraction ofenergy
fromdeephotrockhasnotyetbeenachi eved.

Thesteamcomi ngfromt heproduct ionwel lsi

nt o
ast raineratt hepowerst ati
onbef oref l
owi ngint o
themai nstopv alves,emergencycheckv al
ves,and
governi ng valves.The st eam is ex pandi
ng i nt he
turbi netorot at et het urbinewheel stowhi cht he
generat orrot ori sdirect l
yconnect ed.Theex haust
steam f rom thet urbineisf edintoadi rectcont act
condenser.Warm wat er,t he mi xture of cool ing
wat erandcondensat ewat er,coll
ect satt hebot tom
oft hecondenserandi sf edt ot hecool i
ngt ower
throught hehotwel lpumps.Thenoncondensabl e
gases( NCG)arecool edt odecreasei tsvolumeand
finally di
scharged t ot he at mosphere t hrough a
steam j eteject or.Thisarrangementi sexplainedi n
Fig.35.

Atypicaldepthoft herockwhi chseparatesus

o
fromt hemagmaat900Ci s40mi les.Adept hofabout
5kmi ssuffici
entt oobtaincontactwi throckat300oC.
Abouthalfoft hisdepthwoul dbei nt hesedimentary
rockandt hesecondhal fingrani te.Adi ffi
cult
yi s
thatalargecav ity,at3mi l
esdept h,woul dhavetobe
made.I ti
sunclearatpresentj usthowbi gthecavit
y
wouldhav etobe.Suggest i
onshav ebeenmadet hat,
foragenerat orofonl y1 0MW,t hecav i
tywouldhave
to be severalk ilometers in diamet er.A nuclear
1
16
explosion seemed t o be a possi bl
e approach t o
formi ngt hecav ity.Thist ypeofenergyshoul dnotbe
regardedasani nex haust i
blesourceofenergy,f or
astheart i
ficial
lymadecav it
iesintheeart hgiv
eout
heatt owat eri ntroducedi ntothem,t heirsurf aces
cooldownandanewcav i
tyhast obemadeev eryf ew
years.Theol deroneswoul d,ofcourse, heatupagai n
over t he succeedi ng years and be re-usabl e.
Howev er,t hismet hodwoul dbecomeeconomi calonl y
ifmanynucl eardev icesweredet onatedsequent ially
inat hree di mensi onalarray.There woul d be
dif
ficult i
esofcont ainingt heradi oactiveproduct s
andt hedet onationwoul dbesoi nt
enset hatitcoul d
notbet ol
erat edinmostpart soft heworl dwithout
fearofcausi ngsubsi dence.

Fi
g.35:AGeothermal
PowerPl
antwi
thal
ow
–condenser.

 Drawback
sofgeot
hermal
energy:

1
17
 Thepossi bleenv ironment alprobl emswhi chcan
ari
se f rom geot hermal ex pl oitat
ion hav e been
i
dentif
iedandcani ncl ude:
1. Thewat erands teamf romt hegeot hermalwel l
s
bringmi neral sandcompoundst ot hesurf ace
thatpol lutet heat mosphere.Si ncet het hermal
efficiencyofageot hermalpowerpl anti smuch
lesst hant hatofaf ossilfuel edpowerpl antwi th
acomparabl eout put ,twot ot hreet imes,more
wat eri sev aporat edbyi tscool ingt ower.Thi s
resul tsinabnormal l
yhi ghl evel
sofmoi sturei n
theat mosphere.Thatport ionoft hecondensed
geot hermalst eam whi chi snotev aporat edi s
highi nmi neralsandot heri mpuri ties.Att he
Geysers,t his wast e wat er ef fluenti s re -
inject edi ntot hef ieldt hroughnon-produci ng
wells.Re-i nj ect ionofwat ermayreducet he
rate ofsurf ace subsi dence.The remov alof
largequant iti
esofst eam ( orhotwat er)f rom
geot hermalf ieldsl ocatedneart hef aultzones
maycauseaddi tional sei
smi cactivity.

2. Another nui sance concurrent wi t

h t he
developmentanduseofgeot hermalpower is
noise,as bot h dril
li
ng and the venting (
or
bleeding)ofst eam from well
sresul tin hi
gh
noisel ev
els.Thenatureofthistypeofenergy
mak eitmorepol l
uti
ngthansol
arorwi ndenergy.
Howev er, geothermall
y produced electri
cit
y
mayresul tinlowerlevel
sofpoll
uti
ont hanthe
poll
ution produced f rom many al t
ernati
ve
sourcesofenergy.
1
18
3. Besi
des,thereistheproblem ofuseofl
andf
or
i
niti
aldri
ll
ingoperat
ions.

4. Thel
ongt
ermv
isual
impact
.

5. Thedevel
opmentofasui
tabl
eheatdi
stri
but
ion
andpi
peli
nesystems.

6. Thereleaseofnoncondensablegaseswhichare
usuall
yv ented t
ot he atmosphere and which
incl
udehydrogensul fi
de,av eryf oulsmel
ling
gas.Also the release of fl
uids and v
arious
chemical
sduringoperation.

7. Thephysi
calef
fect
sont
hegeol
ogi
calst
ruct
ure
ofarea.

 Thermal
Appl
icat
ionsofGeot
hermal
Energy:

Geot
hermalenergymaycov
erawiderangeof
t
hermalappl
icat
ionswhi
chmayi
ncl
ude:
-

1. Useofnat uralspringsforbat hingormedi cal

purposes.
2. Use of geot hermal energy f or i ndustrial
appli
cati
ons e. g.i
nt hecrystall
izationofbori c
acidwhichwasobt ai
nedf rom thenat uralpool s
formedf romcondensedst eamandrai nwat er.
3. Appli
cati
onsf orspaceheat i
ngandcool i
ng.An
auxil
iaryboilercanprov i
deaddi tionalheatat
periodsofhighdemandandt hewhol esyst em i s
connectedt ot hehousingunit sandbui l
dinga
1
19
 pipeli
nesyst em.
4. Greenhouseheat ingincl udi
ngsoilwarming.
5. Dryingoforgani cproduct s.
6. Generat i
ngelectrici
ty( steam engi
necoupl edt o
aDCgenerat or).
7. Heating ofsi dewal ks and streetst o prev ent
frostheav i
ngint hewi nt er(appliedinOregon
state).
8. Operat ingheatpumpswhi chextractsheatf rom
ordinarywel lwater.
9. Injectingwat erint othehotbasal t i
cmagmat o
producehydrogenbydi ssociat
ion.

Probl
ems;
1
. Waterf rom ageot hermaldistri
cts paceheating
o
projectleavest hewel lat76Cataf lowrat eof
20literspersecond.I tisusedt osuppl yheat
o
aboveadat umt emperat ureofabout40C.I fthe
heatingseasonl astsfor1 73days,howmuchoi l
doest heprojectsav ei ftheoverallcombust i
on
effi
ciencyoft heoi lburneris75%?( c.
v.ofoil=
284.70cal/gm)

2. Assumet hesurf acelayersoftheeart hcontain

auniformconcent rationofuranium-238, 1g/m3,
foradept hof1 00k m.Thedecayofurani um to
lead resul t
s i n a t hermal energy of
approximatel
y 50 MeV f or each urani um
disi
ntegrati
on,andt herat eatwhi cht hermal
energyi sproducedi sdeterminedpri maril
yby
9
thehalf-l
if
eofurani um-238, 4.
5x1 0 y.

(
a) Cal
cul
atet
he out
wardheatf
low rat
e att
he
1
20
 earth's surf ace f or t he decay of t he
uranium-238.Assumet hatt hei nwardheatf low
isnegli
gible.
(
b) Assumet hatasi mil
ardensi t
yofurani um-235
5
(hal
f-li
fe of1 .59 x1 0 y)ex ists.Whati st he
correspondingheatf l
owrat e?
(
c) Naturally occurri ng urani um i s o. 71%
uranium-235 by mass,t he remai nder being
essentiall
yuranium-238.Cal culatethesurf ace
3
heatf l
owrat ef orauni f
orm dens i
ty(lg/
m )of
naturallyoccurringurani um.

3. Anupperest imatef orel ectricpowerproduced

fromgeot hermal resourcesf orEgypti sdesired
.Assumet hat5%oft hel andarea( t
otalareaof
threemi ll
ionsquaremi les)cont ainshotrocksat
suff i
cientlyhi gh temperat uresf or producing
power.
(a) Determi net hequant ityofheatt hatcoul dbe
extract edf rom t herock swithin3k m ofeart h'
s
surf ace by reduci ng t heirt emperat ure 20
Celsiusdegrees.Theheatcapaci tyofrock si s
approx i
mat ely 0. 2 cal /g and t heir average
3
densi tyis2. 6g/ cm .Ex presst heresul tinjoules
andwat t-years.
(b) Determi net heel ectricalcapaci tyt hatcouldbe
installedwhi ch woul doperat ef or 100 years.
Assume a t hermalt o elect ricalconv ersion
efficiencyof1 2%.

CHAPTER7
BIO-ENERGY
1
21
 Bi
o-energy may be si
mply def
ined as t
hat
energyproducedfrombi
o-masses.

A bio-mass is an organic mat

erialresulti
ng
fromt hephotochemicalsol
arenergyconv ersi
onand
whichcanbeusedf orenergygenerat i
on.Biomass
canal sobedef i
nedasal lt
ypesofanimalsandplant
mat erial
swhi chcanbeconv ertedintoenergy.I t
i
ncludest reesandshrubs,grasses,al gae,aquati
c
plants,agricult
uraland f orestresidues,energy
cropsandal lf
ormsofwast es.

Thereisasigni
ficantworldwidepot
enti
alforthe
uti
li
zationofbio-energy.I nmanyoft hedevelopi
ng
countries,bi
o-massal readyaccountsforupto90%
oftheirenergyuse.

Therenewedemphasi sonbi ol
ogi
calconversion
systemsarisesf rom thef actthatsol
arenergycan
beconverteddi rectlyint
oast orablefuelandot her
methodsofutili
z i
ngsolarenergyrequi reaseparat e
energystoragesyst em.Thecarbohydrat escanbe
reduced t
ov ery desirablef uelssuch asal cohol
,
hydrogenormet hane,aprocesswhi chcanal sobe
appli
edtoorgani cwastemat erial
swhichresultfrom
foodorwoodproduct i
on.

Thequant i
tiesofbi o-massproducedthroughout
theworl darev eryl arge.Theannualnetproduct i
on
of organi c mat ter has an energy cont ent of
21
some 3. 1X10 j oule,some t en ti
mest he worlds
annual energyus e.
Esti
mat esofhowmuchoft heworl
d'senergydemand
isactuall
ymetbybi omassrangef rom6t o13%[ 1
4].

1
22
 Biol
ogical
Conversi
onofSol
arEnergy
(Phot
osynthesi
s):

Phot osynthesisistheut il
iz at i
onofs ol arenergy
tosynt hesizeorgani cmat erial ,e. g.carbohydrat es,
from carbondi oxideandwat eri nt hepresenceof
chloropl ast.Ox ygen i s also l iberat ed f rom t he
react ionwhi chcoul dberepresent edasshownbel ow.
Photosynt hesisproducescompl exf ormsoforgani c
mat eri alswhi chv aryconsi derabl yi ncomposi t
ion.
Theirav eragecomposi ti
onhowev er,i scl oset ot hat
ofacarbohydrat e.Theel ement arymol ecul e,CH2O,
may be consi dered as t ypicalof t he groups of
molecul esf rom whi chcarbohydrat esaref ormed.
Thecarbohydrat esmaybesugar( C12H22O11)ort he
morecompl exstarchesorcel lulosewhi chaccount
for a l arge port ion oft he liv ing mat eri aloft he
eart h'sbi osphereandt hehi ghl ypol ymeri zedf orms
ofarel at edmolecule,C5H10O5.Thef ormat ionofCH2O
6
requi res an energy of1 12X1 0 cal ori ef or each
kil
ogram-mol eandt hereact ioni srepresent edas
fol
lows:

1
1 06Cal
2X1 /Kgmol
e

CH2O is stabl
e atl ow temperatures,and on
combust i
on,t he reverse ofphotosynthesist
akes
place,i
.e.,onemol eofCH2Obreak sresul t
ingi
nan
6
energyrel easeof112X10 cal
/mole.

.
Photosynt
hesis requi res t he presence of
chl
orophyll
,whichabsorbsv i
sibl
el i
ght
.Photonst
end
toactiv
ate a chlorophyl
lmol ecule,whi
ch inturn
1
23
transfers energy to t
he wat er molecul
es.A
hydrogenatom i
sthenrel
easedandreactswiththe
carbon diox
ide mol
ecul
et o produce water and
oxygen.

Assuming a phot osynthet

ic conv ersion
efficiencyaround1percent ,i
ti sestimatedthata
1000MWpowerpl antmayrequi reanareaofabout
2
1000k m f ort
heenergypl antati
on.Althoughthi
si sa
largearea,i tshoul dnotbedi ffi
cultt oprovi
dei n
mostcount ri
essi ncethel andrequi redneednot
displace agricul
tural land. Some of t he trees
suggest edforusef ort
hispurposeareeucal yptus,
baboonandcasuari nas[
2].

Thus,phot osynt hesisi npl antsisanex ampl eof

biologi calconv ersi onofsol arenergyi nt oast orable
fuelsuchassugarsasi ncaneorbeet ,C12H22O11or
starches, or cel lulose whi ch are energy-ri ch
compounds,whereas,ot her met hods of ut il
izi
ng
solarenergyrequi reaseparat eenergyst orage
syst em.So,i fwepl antf astgrowi ngt reeshav i
nga
highphot osynt het i
cef fi
ciency,wecanharv estand
bumt hemt oproducest eami nasi mil
armannerasi n
thermalpowerst ations,ul ti
mat elyt oproducet he
elect ricpower.Harv estingwoul doccurev eryt hree
tof ouryears.Thet reesareex pectedt oregrowup
to ei ghtt imes f rom t he ex i
st i
ng rootst ruct ure
bef orerepl antingi snecessary.Suchan"energy
plant at i
on"woul dbearenewabl eresourceandan
economi calmeansofharnessi ngsol arenergy.I n
this scheme,sel ected speci es oft rees woul d be
plant edandharv estedov erregul arint ervalsoft ime
onl andaroundt hepowerpl antsot hatf i
rewood
woul d be cont i
nuousl y av ail
able.Compared wi th
1
24
other met hods, bi ological or phot osyntheti
c
conversion ef f
iciencies are much l ower, so,
photo-syntheticconcept sarel essattractive.The
averageef ficiencyofsol arenergyconv ersion i
n
plantsis about1 % and t he overalleffici
ency of
converting sunlightt oel ectri
cit
y wouldbe about
0.3% compared t o1 0% f or photov oltai
c cells.
Photosyntheticef fi
ciencyi sbasedontheamountof
fi
x ed carbon energy produced by t he plant
comparedwi tht het otalincidentsol
arradiati
on.

ConversionofBio-masst
oFuel
sandOt
her
Products[14]:
Bio-massprocessescanbedesignedtoproduce
sol
ids( woodandcharcoal)
,liqui
ds(
oil
sandal cohol
),
gasses( methaneandhydrogen)orel ect
rici
ty.The
variousprocessesforconv ersi
onofbio-massi nt
o
useful f
uelsare:

1.Di
rectcombustion:
Wheret hebio-massi scombustedanditsheatof
combust i
onisusedt oproducehotwaterwhichis
converted i
nto steam and final
lyto el
ectri
cit
y
throughanelect
ro-generator.

2.Anaerobi cferment ati

on:
Itisabi ologi
calprocessinwhi chanaerobicbacteria
conv ertst heorganicmat t
eri ntobio-gas,sl udge
andaf inaleffluent.Int hisprocess,met hanei s
formedandcapt ured.Mostorgani cmat t
ersare
subj ectt onaturalferment ati
oninthepresenceof
moist ureandunderanaerobi ccondit
ions,i
.e.
,inThe
absenceofox ygen.Anex ampleiscompostingwhi ch
is a process f or part i
ally degrading garden
mat erials and f or producing a soil
-condit
ioning
1
25
ferti
li
zer.Anumberofcomposti
ngplantshav
ebeen
construct
ed i
nt he USA and i
n Europe for t
he
treatmentofmuni
cipal
sol
idwastes[
1].

Anaerobi cdigest ioni nat ankorf erment orappears

morepromi singf orconv ertingawi dev arietyof
organi cmat erialst omet haneandcarbondi ox i
de.
Anaerobi cdigest ionhasbeenusedf oral ongt imei n
sept i
ct anksandi nsl udgedi gestiont ank satsewage
treat mentpl ant s.Met hanecoul dbeproducedf rom
thef erment at i
onofAl gae,whi chhasbeengrowni n
nut rient -l
oadedmuni cipalsewage.El ectri ci
tycoul d
thusbeproducedonal argescal eatal owcost .Thi s
met hodwoul dint urnsol vet heprobl em ofsewage
treat menti nlargeci t i
es.ThegrownAl gaearef irst
harv est ed,andt hen t reatedt oyi eldabout5%of
soli
ds.Therestbei ngwat er.Thesol idmat eriali s
subj ect edt oanaerobi cf erment at ion,andatabout
three week s, hal ft he organi c mat erials are
conv ert ed int o met hane.Anaerobi c di gestion i s
essent i
ally a2-st ageprocess.I nt hef irstst age
acid-f ormi ng bact eri a degrade compl ex organi c
mat eri als and conv ert t he f at s, prot eins and
carbohydrat est osimpl eorgani caci ds.I nt hesecond
stage,whi chi scarri edoutsi mul taneousl ywi tht he
firstst age,t heorgani caci dsarebrok endownby
the met hane bact eri ai nto met hane and carbon
dioxide.Cel l
ulosei st hemai n const ituentofpl ant
mat eri alsandofmostsol i
dwast eandt heov erall
processi srepresent edbyt heequat ion:

Akgofdryorganicmaterialyi
elds0.1
3-0.8m3
1
ofmethaneatst andardcondi
tionsoftemperature
andpressure.Themet haneisaccompani edbyan
equalv
olumeofCO2 butitcanbet reatedreadi
lyto
1
26
remov et heCO2,andot hergaseousi mpuri
tiessuch
ashydrogensul fide.Thismethanecoul dbeusedasa
regular f uel to produce t hermal energy and
eventually el
ectrici
ty.Thismet hodhast headded
advantageofproduci ngav aluableby-product,i
.e.
,a
nutrient-richfertil
izerfromt hedigest
edslurry.

Inmostcases,thedi gest
erisbelowgroundl ev el
andt wopipeli
nesleadt oitsbot
tom;onef orfeeding
theanimalwast esl
urry,andt heotherf orthespent
slurry,called sl
udge,t o come outaf ter ithas
undergonef ermentation.Iti
sworthnot ingthatt he
sludge which comesoutret ai
nsal lthe nitrogen,
phosphorus and pot assium and is an ex cellent
fertil
izer.

Many operat ing paramet ers such as

temperature and alk
ali
nit
y ofthe sl
urry,sl
udge
li
quidi
tyandbuildupofscum onthesurfaceoft he
slurryrequiretobecont rol
ledi
nordert oobtain
goodperformance.

Aschemat icdiagram ofananaerobi cdigesti

on
planti sshown i n Fig.36.The organi cmat ter is
shredded and made i nto slurry wi th aqueous
nut ri
ent sandi ntroducedintot hedi gester.Sewage
sl
udge i s a good source of nut rientand f resh
mi crobiol
ogicalinoculum.Themi x
ingofsol i
dwastes
wit h sewage sludge t husav oi
dst he necessity of
adding t hese component s.The rat e of di
gesti
on
dependsont hetemperat ure,butat emperatureof
35° Cseemsopt i
mal forthebacterianormal l
yused.

Bi
o-gasi sami x
tureofmethane(45to70
percent)andcarbondi
oxi
de[2]
.Thecal
ori
fi
cval
ue
1
27
ofbi o-gasrangesf rom1 6,
000t o25, 000k j
/m3Iti s
an ex cell
entf uelf or cook i
ng and l ight ing.When
blendedwi th diesel
,i twi llalsobe a v ery usef ul
alternatef orcompressi on-igniti
onengi nesandcan
yielddieselsavingsof70t o80percent .Themet hane
andCO2escapef romt hel i
quidandarecol lected.The
gasesarescrubbedt oremov eCO2 andi mpuriti
es
suchashydrogensul fide,andt hemet hanei sdried
andcompressed.Theef fl
uentf rom thedi gestersi s
separat ed int
ol i
quidsand sol i
ds.The l iquidsare
ret urnedt othesewaget reatmentpl ant ,whi l
et he
solidsint hef orm ofadensesl udgeareburntor
used f or landf i
ll
.An economi c evaluat ion oft he
processshowedt hatthecostofmet haneproduct i
on
ismoret hancompet it
ivewi ththeant i
ci pat edcostof
nat uralgas.

1
28
 The anaerobict reatmentsyst
em overcomes
manyoft heinconveniencesoft
heaerobi
csoluti
on
andi
ncompari sont
oithas:

a. Lowi nvestmentcost s,asi

tisacompactuni twit
h
fewmov i
ngpart sandrequi resl i
ttl
espace.
b. Low operat ing costs as itproduces i t
s own
energyormore,hasrel at i
velylittl
eresidual
sludge,canrecei v
ehi ghloads( 8-16KgCO2/m3of
the react or vol
ume)and i sv ery f l
exi
blet o
operate, asi
tcanremai nidleupt ooneyear.
c. Env i
ronment aladvantages,asi tprov i
desahigh
degreeofpol l
utantremov al,nonoi seorodors
andonl yusessmal lsurfacearea.

3.Aerobi cferment at i
on:
Wheret hemat eri
alscont ainingstarchesand
si
mpl esugarscanbeusedt oproduceet hylalcohol.
Alcoholf erment ation is wellk nown and i s more
widel y practiced than any ot her microbiologi
cal
process.I tflourishedf orcenturi esbeforet herole
ofyeastprocesswasest abl
ishedbyPast eur.Ethyl
alcohol( ethanol)can be easi l
y produced f rom a
vari etyofsugar cont ainingcrops.Yeastconv ert
hex ose sugars t o et hanol and carbon di ox
ide
accordi ngtot heequat i
on:

1
29
 Alcohol
-tolerant strai
ns of yeast
(
succharomycesCerev isi
ae)areusual l
yused,and
t
he sugars f ermented incl
ude glucose,f
ructose,
mannose,galactose,
sucrose,malt
oseandraf f
inose.

Molasses, a by-product of s ugar cane

product ioncont ai
nsabout55%sugarsandi seasi l
y
andeconomi callyfermentedt oet hanol
.Inat ypical
batchprocess ,mol assesisdil
utedwi thwat ert oa
sugarcont entof20%,mi x
edwi th5%byv olumeofa
yeastcul t
ureandf erment edforabout2daysunt i
l
alcoholcont entreaches8-1 0%.Theal coholist hen
di
st il
led,f ractionatedandrect i
fied.Onegal l
on of
95% al coholcan be obt ained from 2.5 gallonsof
mol asses.[ 1].

Atpresent ,mostBraz i
li
an automobil
es burn
gasohol ,
whichint heircasecont ai
ns10%to80%et hyl
alcohol. But the Braz il
ians are mov i
ng beyond
gasoholt oemployonl yalcoholasamot orfuel
.Thi
si s
desirable. An aut omobile can burn an 80%
alcohol-watermi xture,whi chav oi
dstheexpendi
ture
ofmuchenergyi nt hedistil
lati
onprocessinordert o
get1 00%alcohol.

Pl
antcropswhi chhaveahi ghst archcontent
(f
orex ampl
e,thecerealgrai ns)mustbehydrol yzed
eit
herwi thenz ymesorwi thaci dt oyiel
dsugars
beforeferment ati
ont oalcohol.Thegrai nmashi s
mixedwithwat er,heatedt ogel ati
nizethestarch,
cool
edt o60-65 ° C andenz ymical
ly convert
edt o
sugarswithami x
tureofbarl eymal tandf ungal
amyloseobtai
nedf rom hef ungus,Aspergil
usNiger.
Fermentati
onwi thyeastthenf ol
lows.Therearet wo
1
30
mainby-product
s,carbondi ox
ideof99.8%puri ty,
andspentgrai
nwhichissuit
ableforst
ockf eed.The
economicsoft
heconversi
onofsurpluswheatgrai n
toalcoholwasexamined and itwasf ound tobe
feasi
ble.

Wood i s a compl ex st
ruct ure that includes
cell
ul ose,hemi cell
ulose,and lignin.Cell
ulose isa
polymerofgl ucose,andi tist hef erment ati
onof
glucoset hatgivesri setoalcohol.Butinwood,t he
cell
ul oseisincl oseassoci
ati
onwi t
ht heli
gninwhi ch
tends t o render t he cel
lulose inaccessibl
e t o
biologicalattack.Thus,thefi
rstmaj orproblem isto
freet hecell
ulosefromt heli
gnin.

Like starch,cel lulose mustbe hydrol yzed t o

sugars bef ore i t can be f erment ed t o alcohol.
Cellulose is degraded by mi croorgani sms,whi ch
produceenz ymescal ledcel lulases,butcel l
ulosei s
farmoreresi stantt odegradat i
ont hani sst arch.
Cellulases whi ch can be i solated f rom
microorgani sms hav el itt
le ef fecton cryst all
ine
cell
ul ose,althought heydegradecel lulosewhi chhas
been made more accessi blet ot he enz ymes by
swel li
ngorsol ubil
izati
onbychemi calmet hods.Much
researchi sneededont heenz ymat icdi gesti
onof
cell
ul osei nordert odev elopapract icalmet hodof
conv erting cel l
ulose t o f erment able sugars.
Cellulose can be hydrol yz edt osugarsby st rong
acidssuchassul furicacid( 1-2%H2SO4at250° C) ,but
large amount s ofaci d are requi red and att he
compl etion of hydrol ysis,ex cess aci d must be
neut ralizedbyanal kali.Thus,al thoughcel l
ulosei s
mostpl ent i
fulrenewabl e source,i ti sf ar more
difficultt han st arch and sugar-cont aining pl ant
1
31
material
st oconv ertt oalcoholby ferment at i
on.
Anotherapproachist ousehigh-temperaturest eam
tobreaktheli
gninandcel l
ulosecomplex,andlatert o
exposethecel
lulosetoenzymesort omicroorganism
thatcanspl
ititt
ogl ucose.

4.Pyrol ysis:
Pyrolysisi saprocessofdest ructivedisti
llati
onof
organi cmat erials.Itisalsoconduct edf ororgani c
materi alst oproducegaseousandl iquidfuels.Sucha
processi ssuitedt odrymat erialsandt omat eri
als
which are resi stant to biodegradat i
on.[1].Iti s
carriedouti n a cl osedv esseli n an at mosphere
devoi
d of ox ygen and at t emperat ures f rom
500-900° C.Pyrol ysiswasappl iedcommerci all
yt o
woodf or av eryl ongt i
mef or t heproduct ion of
chemi cals such as met hanol , acet i
c aci d and
turpent ine, i
naddi t
iontocharcoal .

Met hanolisusedex tensi

velyasaf uelf orhigh
perf ormanceraci ngcars.Itisnowconsi deredt obe
an essent ialpartoft he future automobi lef uel
mi x
ture.Ofcoursemuchoft heenergyboundi nthe
bio-massi slostduri
ngitsconversi
ont ousef ulfuels.

The gases produced by pyrol ysis oforgani c

mat erialsareusual lyami xtureofmet hane,carbon
monox ide,carbondi oxi
de,hydrogenandt helower
hydrocarbons.Thel iquidsarehydrocarbonoi lsand
thesolidsaresi milartocharcoal .Thewast ematerial
isreducedi nsizebypassaget hroughashredder.I t
is dried and passed t o an air cl assifi
er where
ferrousmet alsand ot her non-organi c materials
suchasgl assareremov edfromt heprocessstream.
The organi c material
st hen pass t hrough a fi
ne
1
32
grinderbef orebei
ngfedtot hepyrolysi
sreaction
chamber.Thereact i
onproductsareseparatedinto
sol
ids,li
quidsandgases.Agri cul
turalandt i
mber
wastescanbeground,driedandf eddirectl
ytot he
pyrolysi
sreactor.

Pyrol ysi
soforgani cwasteshasbeenst udied
quiteex tensi
velyinanumberofcount ri
es.Yieldsas
highas2 barrel sofoi lpert oneofdryorgani c
mat erialhavebeenreport ed,whi chisequivalentt o
10
1.2X10 Jormoret han60%oft heheatv alueoft he
organi c mat ter. The combust i
ble gases are
suffici
entt ooperatet heplant .Laboratory t ests
hav e shown t hatathi gher temperat ures,gases
insteadofoi lsareproduced,wi thyi el
dsashi ghas
80%oft heorganicmatter.

Organicmateri
alsareparti
all
yconvertedtooil
s
when heated t
ot emperatures of300-400 oC at
pressuresof2000-4000 psii nt he presence of
water, carbon monoxide and a cat alyst. The
equat i
onsare:

Oilyiel
dsequival
entt ot wothi
rdsoft
heheat
v
alueoft heorgani
cmat erialhav
ebeenobt
ainedi
n
l
aboratoryexperi
ments[1].

5.Hydrogasi
fi
cat
ion:

6.Hydrol
ysi
s

7.Hydrogenat
ion
1
33
8.Elect ricity:coul dbeproduceddi rectlybyusi ng
bio-organi c mat ter as t he source of f uelina
bio-chemi cal f uelcell
.Itisinjectedatt hecat hodeas
anox idizerandbi o-organi cmat teratt heanodeas
thef uel.Mi cro-organi smsareempl oyedt ocat al
yze
theox idationoft hefuel.Theel ectrolytei
susual lyan
organi csol ut eoranaqueousmedi um suchasKOH.
Thebact eriacreat enewl ossesbyconsumi ngabout
halfoft hef uel.Thisconsumpt ionisnecessaryf or
theirnut ritional requirement s.Theel ectricalpower
outputofabi ochemi calfuelcellisproportionaltothe
bacteri almet aboli
smrat e.

 Appli
cationsofbiochemi calConversions:
Theanaerobi crout ei sapplicableinalmostal l
food-processingindustriessuchasdai ry,beverages,
mill
ingandt heirderivativeindustries.Examplesare
breweries, sugar pl ants, st arch processi ng,
residenti
alandagrowast esandwast esofsewage.
The agribusinessi sf aced wi tht wo increasingl
y
problems:

i
. Operationalcost
st oremovet
hepol
lutantfrom
thewastewater,and
i
i. Thesevererequi rement
swithregardt othe
envi
ronment.

Arecentl
ydev el
opedsystem.TheBi opaqsystem
hasbeenabl etosolvet heproblemsofenergyand
env i
ronment si mult
aneousl
y.Thi s system mak es
met hanegasf rom animalwast e.Normal l
yslurry
fromcowsaret reat
ed.Thevalueofthegasdepends
mai nlyonthedrymat t
ercont entoftheslurry.The
3
Biopaq system producesabout1 8 m oft he gas
1
34
(cont
aini
ng65t o70%met hane)outof1m3ofani
mal
refuse.Thegascanbeusedf orburningaswel
las
fordrivingenginesgenerati
ngbot htheheatand
powerorelectri
cityonl
y.

TheBi opaqpl antwork sautomat i

call
yandi ssel f
supporting.I tconsi stsoff our mai n component s:
di
gester,gast ank,poweruni tandcont rolsystem.
Somet i
mes,abuf ferstoragebef oret hereact ori s
needed,whenef fluentloadsarei rregularorwhen
pre-acidificati
oni srequired.Thenumberofmov ing
partsisk epttoami ni
mumi nordertoachi ev
esimpl e,
cheapmai ntenance

 Chemi calsfromBi o-masses:

When usi ng bi o-energy t o a greatex tent
,a
substantialfractionofpet rol
eumi sthennotburned
as gasol i
ne but i s conv erted into hi
gh-priced
petrochemi cals.Someday,t hosepetrochemicalsare
notgoi ng t o be av ai
lable,and then high -priced
chemi cal
sf rom bi o-masswi l
lbeabl etocommanda
mark et.

InUSA,unti
l1 950,acetoneandbut anolwere
l
argel
yobtai
nedfromf ermentat
ionofgrain.

Alargeumberofchemi calscanbeproducedby
selecti
v eferment at
ion processes.In somecases,
dif
f erent mi croorgani
sms t urn glucose int
o
dif
f erentproducts.Oneoft heprimeex ampl
esis
Pfi
z er'
sproductionofcit
ricaci d.

Anotherexampleofchemicalsfrom biomass
comesfromBrazi
l.Theyf
oundthatatreegrowingin
Sout
hernBrazi
l,whengroundup,parti
all
ydissol
ves
1
35
i
nwat er.Whenformaldehydei
saddedt
othesol
uti
on,
agoodplast
ici
sf ormed.

Oneot herex ampleofchemi cal

sf rom biomass
comesf rom EastmanKodak .Thatcompanyrecent l
y
announcedpl anstoconst ructamaj orpl anttomak e
aceticanhydride,tobeusedi nthemanuf act
ureof
cell
uloseacetate.Cell
uloseacetatei
srayon,whi chis
usedf orclothi
ngandot herappli
cationssuchasf or
photographicfil
ms .Theacet atecanal sobederi ved
frombi o-mass.

1
36
 CHAPTER8
NUCLEARPOWER

In1902i twasclaimedt hat:"Theat om ofthe

chemist, alt
hough st i
llt he ulti
mat e limit of
subdivi
sionofmatterineveryart i
fi
cialengendered
processisnotthenaturall
imit"
.

In1932Cock crof tandWalt

onbecamet hef i
rstto
spl
ittheatom;conf irmi ngt
heearlypredicti
ons.Audi
Chadwickidentif
iedt heneutron,t
henuclearpart i
cle
withnochargewhi chwast opl
ayav i
talrolelateri
n
chainreactions.

I
n1 938t woGermansdi scoveredt haturanium
235 coul di nteract wi t
h an addi t
ionalneut ron,
absorbing i tand di v
idi
ng int ot wo f ragments of
approx i
mat el
yequalmass,rel easingal argeamount
ofenergyandemi t
tingseveral neutrons
U235+neutron 2fragmentsofapproxi
matelyequal
mass+energy+
neut
rons

1
37
 Themassoft het wof ragment si sal waysless
than t he originalmass.These mi ssing or ( l
ost)
fragment s have been l argelyt rans formed into
kineti
cenergywhi chinturni sconv ertedi ntoheatas
the fission productscol l
ide witht he surroundi ng
atomsandarebroughtt orest .Aneut ronemi tt
ed
duringt hef i
ssionprocesscanst riket henucl eusof
anotherurani um 235at om,rel easingmoreenergy
and emi tti
ng more neut rons. Thi s cont i
nuous
spli
tti
ngprocessi scall
edachai nreact ion.Itcanbe
controlledinanucl earreact ortoproduceast eady
heatout put

I
n1 941agroupofBri ti
sh,nucl
earphysi
cist
s
reportedonthefeasi
bil
it
yofusingnucl
earenergy
asasourceofpower.Thi swassharedwit
hUSAi n
1942 when t he fi
rst nuclear react
or was
construct
ed..

Thusnuclearenergyi st
heenergyrel easedbya
nuclear reaction or by radioacti
ve decay.Thi s
energyi sreleasedbyt hegroupingoft heparticl
es
which mak e up the nucl
eusofan at om.Nucl ear
power is obtained when thi
s released energy is
convertedfirstint
oheatandt henint
oelectrici
ty.

Nucl
earreactorscanprov i
deel
ectri
cit
y,which
woul
dbecomecheaperast hereact
orsincreasein
si
ze.Butwit
hs iz
et here comesthe di
ffi
cult
y of
1
38
thermalpoll
uti
on sothatlargenucl earreactors,
whichatsource,wouldl
eavetobepl acedeitheron
theoceanfarfrompopulat
ioncenters,orinremote
areas,suchasNorthernCanada,SiberiaorCentral
Austral
ia.

Becauseoft heprobl em oftransportati

onv i
a
long distances and because of energy l oss by
conduction,itwouldbecheapert oconvertelect
rical
energy,whi chwi l
lbeaproductofsol arandnuclear
reactors, to hydrogen at t he energy source.
Thereaf t
er t he hydrogen would be t ransmitt
ed
throughpi pesandconv ertedbacktoelectrici
tyat
thesiteofuse( fuelcel
ls)whenusedincombust i
ont o
providemechani calpower.

 SomeBasi
cConcept
s:
Thenucl eusofanat om isnotsol i
d;butconsi stsof
two different k i
nds of part icl
es:t he posit i
vely
chargedprot onsandt he neutralpart i
clescal led
neutrons.The comparat i
vely massive nucleus i s
always positi
v el
y charged and i s surrounded by
negativel
ychargedel ectronswhi chmov ei norbi ts
aroundi t.Thenetel ectricalchargeoft heat om is
zerosot hatf oranypart icul
arat om thenumberof
orbiti
ngel ect
ronsi sexactlyequaltot henumberof
protons.

The number of protons i

s also the atomic
numberoftheelement.Forexample,hydrogenhas
onl
yoneprotoni
ni t
snucl eusandasingleelectron
1
39
andi t
sat omi
cnumberi s. 1
-Uranium has92
protonsand92el ect
ronsanditsatomicnumberi s
92.Thesumoft henumbersofneutronsandprotons
giv
est hemassnumberanddet erminesthemassof
thenucleus.

The at
omic number det erminesthe chemi cal
properti
esofancl ement .Becausethisdependsonly
onthenumberofel ect
rons,int heatom,someat oms
whicharechemi callythesamecanhav edi f
ferent
masses,dependi
ngont henumberofneut ronsinthe
nucleus.

Di
ff erenttypesofchemi cal
lysimilaratomswi th
the same number ofprot onsbutwi t
h different
numbersofneut ronsarecal l
edisotopes.Hydrogen
has t wo nat ural l
y occurri ng isotopes: normal
hydrogen wi th one prot on,mass number 1 ,and
deuterium withoneprot onandoneneut ron,mass
number2.Urani um hast hreenat urall
yoccurri ng
i
sotopes.Eachhas92prot onsbutwi th1 42,143and
146neut ronsinthei rnucleitogivemassnumbersof
234,235and238, respect
ively.

Someoft heheav ycompl ex ,isotopes,suchas

urani um andradium areunst ableandt henucleiof
theirat omst endt osplitort ransf orm intomore
stableat oms.Thesesubst ancesareradi oactiv
eand
thet ransformationprocessi sk nownasradi oact
ive
decay.Duri ng this process t hree mai nt ypes of
nuclearradi at
ionareemi tted,alphapart icl
es,beta
1
40
particles and gamma rays.Al pha part icles are
i
dent icaltothoseoft henucleusoft heheli
um at om,
consist i
ngoft woprot onsandt woneut rons .Bet a
particlesarenegat i
velychargedel ectrons.Gamma
raysareel ectromagnet i
cradiation.Othert ypesof
thi
scl assofradiati
onareradi owav esandv isi
ble
l
ight.The rat e atwhi ch the di f
ferentt ypes of
radioact i
venucleinaturallydecayorchangei ntoa
dif
ferentel ement ,variesenormousl yaccordi ngt o
i
tshal flifet
ime.

Ei
nsteint
heory
Nuclearenergydependsupontheequiv
alence
ofmass and energy predict
ed by Ei
nst
ein1 905
theoryofrelat
ivi
ty.

whereEi nerg,m i ngramsandci st hev eloci

ty
8
ofli
ght =3X1 0 cm/ s
Ifm =0. 2058,amu( atomicmassuni ts),c=t hen
E=931MeV/ amuX0. 2058,amu=1 91.6MeV( mi l
li
on
el
ect ronv ol
t)
The energy produced t hrough t he compl ete
fi
ssion of 1 k il
ogram of U235 i s t heoreticall
y
equivalentt ot hatreleasedduringthecombust i
onof
about2000t onesofoi l.Eachfissi
onrel easesonl y
-1
1 25
3.2X1 0 J ,butak i
logram ofU235contains2.5X1 0
13
atoms, givinganenergyequi val
entt o8X1 0 J .

Naturalurani um contains 0.7% of U235,t he

remaini
ngi sU238.Thisi
snotsui tableforproduci ng
energy because i t absorbs neut rons wi thout
undergoing f
ission.After absorbing aneut ron,a
1
41
processk nown asneutron capture,U238 becomes
U239,which,decaysveryrapidlyintoplutonium 239,
anel ementwhi chdoesnotoccurnat urally.U238 i
s
knownasa" f
erti
le"el
ement ,ast henew cl ement
plutonium 239canbeobt ai
nedf rom i
t.Thisisknown
as " breeding"
.Plutoni
um 239 can al so undergo
fi
ssionbutonl yifi
tisbombardedbyhi ghveloci
tyor
fastneut rons.

Radi
oact
iveDecay:
Themostabundantnatural
lyoccurri
ngi
sot
ope
ofurani
umisthatwithamassnumberof238( ) .
Uranium,as wel las other el ements wit
h at omic
numbersabov ethatoflead(82)i sunst
able,thatis,i
t
tendstodecayt oast abl
eel ementwi thasmal l
er
neutrontoprotonratio.Uraniumdecaysbyemi tt
ing
an alpha parti
cle which is a combi nation of 2
neutronsand2prot ons.Alphadecayreducest he
atomicnumberoft heuraniumat ombyt wo(owingt o
the2protonsoft heemi tt
edal phaparticl
e)and. the
massnumberbyf our(2protons+2neut rons).

Thorium,wit hanatomicnumberof90,i stheresult

ofthisdecay.
Thorium i
sal sounstabl
eandi tdecaysbyemi t
tinga
beta particle;that is a nuclear el
ectron.This
emissionincreasest henumberofprot onsbyone.
Thust heat omicnumberi ncreasesbyoneandt he
1
42
massnumberi
sunchanged

Prot
acti
nium-234isal
sounst
abl
eanddecaysagai
n
byemit
tingabetapart
icl
e.

The new i sot

ope of U-234 proceeds to decay
radi
oacti
vly by emi
tti
ng ei
ther an al
pha or beta
part
icl
eunt i
lastabl
eisot
opeofl
ead, i
sobtained.

Bot
h and decaycanbeaccompani
edbyt
he
emi ssi
on of rays.A gamma ray i
saf orm of
electromagneti
c radi
ati
on si
mil
ar t
o electri
cal
ly
producedXrays.
Thehal fl
ife where isconstantand
i
sspeci
fi
edf
rom:

whereN==numberofat omspresent
e.g.Radium hasanat omicwei ghtofapproxi
mat el
y
226,t hus 226 kg of radium cont ai
n Avogadro'
s
26
number (
No=6. 02X10 )ofat oms.Onegram
21
thereforeconsist
sof2. 66X10 at oms.Knowingthe
half-l
if
eofradiumt obe1 600years, andt hedecay
rat
emaybecal
cul
ated.

e=
Decayrat
1
43
8.
1Commerci
alNucl
earReact
ors:
Nucl earreact orsaredesi gnedt oproduceheat
thatcanbeusedt ogenerat eel ectrici
t y,normal l
yi n
aconv ent i
onalt hermalst eam cycl e.Thepri mary
funct ionoft henucl earreact oristoachi eve,sustain
andcont rolachai nreact i
onbyt hef i
ss ionprocess .
Becausenat uralurani um cont ainsonl y0. 7%oft he
fissileurani um235,t hechanceofatl eastoneoft he
new neut ronsf rom ev eryf i
ssioncausi nganot her
fissioni snothi gh.Somet hermalreact ors,suchas
the Adv anced Gas Cool ed React or and t he
Pressuri zedWat erReact or,useenri chedurani umi n
whi cht heurani um 235cont enthasbeeni ncreased
upt o2 or3%.Al thought heenri chi
ngprocessi s
highlycompl exandenergyi ntensi vei thascert ain
economi cadv antages.

Therearet wowaysofachi ev
ingf issi
on.The
firsti
sbyslowingdownt hef
astmov i
ngneut ronsby
meansofamoderat or,aspeci almat erialint he
reactorcore.I nt hesecondasust ai
nablef i
ssion
chainreacti
oni sachievedwithoutamoderat orbut
withveryhighenri chmentinex cessof20%.Thi sis
thebasisoffastreactordesi
gn.

Inadditiontothemoderatorandthereact
or
core,theot hermainfact
orsofanuclearreact
or
aret hepri marycool
antloopsandpumpsandthe
controlrods.
1
44
 Thefuelcorecontai
nsthefuelelementsinfuel
rods.Thechainreacti
onofthefi
ssionprocesstakes
placeinthecore.Theprimarycool
antloopsextract
theheatgeneratedbyf i
ssi
onandt ransf
eri tt
ot he
steamplant.

Theresearchs ci
ent istsandengi neerswi thin
the indust ry were wel laware t hatsome oft he
technicalprobl emshadnotbeenf ul
lysol ved.For
exampl e,t heyk newduri ngt he1 970sthatv ibrat i
ons
withint hereact orcool ingsyst em werecausedby
highv eloci t
ycool antf lows.I fareact oroperat or
observ es somet hing unusualsuch as ex cessive
temperat urel evelsorv ibrat i
ons,hereducedt he
power out put .The react or owners,const ructors
and gov erni ng saf ely board are i nformed.The
analysti st henask edt odi agnoseandcorrectt he
problem under sev ere saf et
y and economi c
restraint s.Neut ronssl oweddowni nthemoderat or
arecal led" thermal neut rons" ,andthereact orswi th
moderat ors are cal led t hermal react ors . The
moderat ori sal soaf urt herl i
neofdef ensei nt he
reactorsaf et ysyst em.I ft hereactort emperat ure
were t o ri se rapi dly t hrough an unpl anned
accelerat ionoft hechai nreact i
on,themoderat or
would be capabl e ofact ing as a huge heatsi nk
absorbi ngt heex traheatf romt hereactor.

Thecont
rolrodsaremadeofhi ghl
yneut ron
absorbentmateri
alssuch ascadmi
um or boron.
1
45
Mov i
ngthecont rolrodsi noroutoft hereact orcore
controlst he number of neut rons av ail
ablef or
fissi
onandt heamountoft heheatgenerat ed.The
fuelelement si nthecoremustberepl acedwi th
freshelement satregul arinterv als.Amassiv est eel
andconcret est ructurek nownast hecontainment
structuresurroundst hereact orassembl yoff uel,
moderat or,controlrodsandcool antt ocontaint he
internalhighpressuresyst ems.Thi salsoprot ect s
thesurroundi ngenv ironmentf rom anyrel easeof
radioacti
vityintheev entofaseri ousfail
urei nt he
primarycool antci
rcui t
.

The Magnox react or uses graphite as t he

moderat or and CO2 gas as the cool
ant.The CO2
transfersitsheatt owat erinast eam generator.
Thissteam t hen drivesa turbine,coupled to an
electri
cgenerat or.ThefuelforMagnoxreact orsis
uranium met alcladinamagnesi um all
oy( Magnox)
withlowneut ronabsorpti
on.

Theboili
ngwat erreactor(BWR)usesordi nary
wat erast hemoderat orinadirectsystem inwhich
thewat erboilsunderpressureandal soact sasthe
coolant.Thest eam from t
heboil
ingcoolantdrivesa
turbi necoupledt oanelectri
cgenerator.Thef ueli
s
urani um dioxideins i
dez i
rconi
um tubes,k nown as
zircalaycans.

Ani
nherentdangerofboi
li
ngwat
erreact
orsi
sthe
1
46
danger ofdepreci ati
ng radioacti
ve wastesint he
turbine,shoul
daf uelrodrupt ure.Inadditi
on,the
cool
ing wat er becomes mi ldl
y radioact
ive.As a
precaution,a continuously operati
ng purif
icat
ion
system isnormallyempl oyedtoremov eradioact
ive
wastest hatmi
ghtot herwisecoll
ectinthewater.

The pressuri zed water reactor (PWR) uses

ordinarywat erast hemoderator.Thiswat eri
sat
veryhi ghpressureandt hisnecessi
tat
esheav ier
vessels.Thewat eri spumpedtoast eam generator
wherei tsheatistransferredtoasecondarysteam
circuit.Thissteam drivesat urbi
necoupl edtoan
electricgenerator.

Theheatex changerorst eamgenerat oraddst o

thecostandreducest hethermodynami cef fi
ciency.
Ont heot herside,howev er,thereact orcoolanti s
i
solatedfromt heturbine.Superheatedsteamcanbe
producedbyt heheatex changer.Feedwat erheat i
ng,
asusedi nconvent i
onalpowerplants,canbeusedt o
i
ncrease t he thermodynami c effi
ciency of t he
turbinecycle.

Thepressuri zedheav ywat erreact or(PHWR)or

CANDUreact orwasdev elopedi nCanadaanduses
heavywat erast hemoderat orandi naseparat e
pressurized circuitas t he coolant.Heav y wat er
containsdeut erium,whosenucl eiconsi stsofone
proton and one neut ron.The presence of t he
neutronsmeanst hattheheav ywat ercanabsorbno
newneut ronsbutsl owsdownt hefastneut ronsfrom
the urani um 235 act ing as a v ery ef fi
cient
moderator.I nt his react or,each cl uster oft he
1
47
uraniumdioxidefuel el
ement si
splacedi
naseparate
pressuretube.Thepressuret ubesarei nalarge
tankofheav ywat er,call
edtheCalandri
a.Theuseof
the pressure t ubes el i
minat
es the need for a
pressurev essel.Iff ai
lureoccursi nanindi
vidual
pressuretube,t hisisquickl
ydetectedandthetube
i
seasilyreplaced.

The core,either al
one as i
nt he BWR or i
n
conjuncti
onwi t
haheatex changerasi nthePWR,
replacestheboilerofaconv enti
onalfossi
l-f
uel
ed
electri
cpowerplant.

Aschemat
icdiagramf
ort
wooft
hesereact
orsi
s
gi
veninFi
g.37.

1
48
 Fi
g.37:Wat
erCool
edandModerat
edReact
ors

Rol
eofcontrolrodsandmoderatorsand
materi
alofconstruct
ionofbot
h:
High-energyneutronsaresloweddownt hrough
el
ast
ic coll
isi
on pri
marily wi
t h moderator nuclei
nomi
nallyatrest.Foreacht ypeofcol l
isi
on,both
ki
net
icenergyandmoment umareconserv ed.

Typicalmoderatorsincl
udegraphite(carbon),
heavyandlightwat
er,beryll
ium andberyl
li
um oxi
de
andorganicmateri
als

Toreducel ossesofneut rons,t hereact orcore

is surrounded by a neut ron ref l
ect or made of
moderat ort ypemat eri
alswhich, throughscat tering
ofneut rons ,tendt oreturnaport ionofneut rons
thatwoul dotherwi sehavebeenl ost.
Fuelrodswi thdi ameterl esst hanani nchare
common,al t
houghot herfuelelementshapessuchas
slabsmaybeused.
Withoutsuf ficientmoderat or,t hereact orwi l
l
nol ongerbecri ticalandwi l
lt hust end,exceptf or
theresi dualheatgenerat edbyt hedecayoft he
accumul atedwast eproduct s,toshuti t
selfoff.

Thecostofnucl
earel
ect
rici
ty:
The mai
n di
ffi
cul
tyi
sthata nucl
ear power
1
49
stati
onisrelati
vel
yexpensivetobuil
d.Oncebuilt
,iti
s
clai
medt hatit
sfuelandoperatingcostswil
lbemuch
lower than these of a correspondi
ng coal-fi
red
powerst ati
on,whichcost
sperhapshal fasmucht o
bebuilt
.

Thesecondmaj oritem i
nt hecalcul
ati
onofthe
costsofnucl earelect
rici
tyisk nownast heworks
costs.Thi
si ncludesfuelandt ransportcostsand
othercostssuchashandl i
ng,operati
on,repai
rsand
maintenance.

Notonl ythesecost sarei mport antf act or,but

theenri chmentofurani um i sbot hadi ffi
cul tand
ex pensi ve process. Si nce urani um-235 and
urani um-238 are chemi cal lyi dent ical,separat ion
mustbebasedupont hev erysmal lmassdi fference.
The mostcommon means ofseparat ing urani um
isot opesi sbygaseousdi f fusionofurani um f luoride
at l ow pressures .The v elocity of mol ecul es is
inv ersely proport i
onalt ot he square rootoft he
mass.Mol eculesoft hel i
ght eri sot opewi llthust end
tobemov i
ngslight l
yf astert hant hoseoft heheav ier
isot ope.Theref ore,thel ight ermol ecul eswi l
lt endt o
stri keaspeci fiedwal l areaatasl i
ght lygreat errat e
peruni tofconcent rat iont hant heheav i
ermol ecules.
Asaconsequence,urani um 235mol ecul est endt o
diff use t hrough a porous barri er at a sl i
ght l
y
great errat erel ativet ot heirconcent rat iont han
thoseofurani um-238.Di ffusiont hroughaporous
barri ert husresul tsi nasl i
ghtenri chmentoft he
urani um.By repeat i
ng t his process a suf fi
cient
numberoft imes,anydesi reddegreeofenri chment
may be achi eved. Most nucl ear i ndust ry cost
predi ct
ionshav est atedt hatnucl earf uelcost swi ll
1
50
beconst
antoveraconsiderableperiodwhil
ethe
cost
soft
hefossi
lfuel
swi
ll
continuesi
ncreasi
ng.

Saf
et yfeat
uresi
ndesi
gnandoperat
ion:
1
. Di versi
ty
Isachieving a given obj
ectivein dif
ferent
ways.Thepresenceoft hecoolantinthereactor
corecoul dbedet ect
edbyi tsf l
ow rateori ts
pressure. Al ternative measuri ng dev i
ces
operati
ngbyent irelydif
ferentprincipl
escould
alsobeinstal
led.

2. Dupl i
cat ingort rebli
ngequi pment:
Thisact sasani nsuranceagai nstthef ail
ure
ofanysi ngleimportantel ementt ooperat eort o
operatecorrect ly.Iti sacommon pract icet o
inst
allt hreeseparat epumpsofequalcapaci ty
wheref unctional
lyonl yonei srequiredt odot he
job.Eveni fonepumpi sundergoi ngmai ntenance
andanot herf ail
st owork ,t hereisstillat hird
avail
ablet o carry outt he requi red function.
Simil
arly,ex tra li
nes of i nstrumentation are
inst
all
edt oguardagai nstt hepossibleincorrect
operationofasi ngleline.

3. Physicalsegregati
on:
Thephysical
segregat i
onofequi pmentand
systemsisadoptedtolimittheextentoffai
lures
causedbylocali
sedfloodsorf i
restooneoft he
avail
abl
elinesofinst
rument at
ion.

4. Fail
saf
edesi
gn:
Thi
shastheobj ect
iveofensuringthatthe
f
ail
ureofanypieceofequipmentshoul
dalways
1
51
 resultinasafesi t
uat i
on,bothinrespectoft hat
particul
ar it
em of equi pment and wi th no
attendantsafetyimpl i
cati
onsf ortheplantasa
whole.For ex ample,controlrods shoul d drop
downundergrav it
yi ntothereactorcorei ft he
powersupplyf ai
ls,t
husshut ti
ngitoffsafel
y.

8.2FastBreederReact
ors(
FBR)andt
hef
uel
usedin:

As earl y as 1946 itwas appreci ated thata

dif
ferentt ypeofreact orcouldbedev eloped,the
objectofwhi chist oi
ncreasetheamountoff i
ssil
e
mat eri
alav ailabl
e.Alltheplutonium 239( af i
ssil
e
mat eri
al)inusei nt hecivi
lnuclearcycl ehasbeen
producedt hrought heoperati
onoft hermal reactors.
Iti
screat edwhenU238absorbsaneut ron.
Theterm FastBreederReact or(FBR)isusedt o
describe t
hatcl assofreact orswhich usesf ast
neutronswi thauranium basedf uelwhichcontains
upt o30%ofpl utoni
um 239,andwhi chiscapableof
breedingnew f i
ssil
emat erial
.ThecoreofaFBR
containsahighconcentrationoffi
ssi
lematerial
.This
sustai
nsthechainreact i
on.
Amoderat orofl i
quidsodium whi chhasv ery
goodheattransferpropertiesathi
ght emperat ures
isusedast hecool
antint heprimaryci rcui
t.This
radi
o-activ
e sodium transfers heatt o a second
sodi
um circuitwhichint urn transfersheatt oa
conventi
onalsteamplant.Aschematicdi agramf ora
FBRisshowni nFi
g.38.

1
52
 Fi
g.38:Schemat
icDi
agramofFBRPowerpl
ant
.

Onemet hodli
kel
yt obeusedf orstart
ingupaFBRi s
tousesomeoft hepl
ut oni
um accumul at
edf rom the
operationofthermal reactors.Oncethereact orhas
started,itispossibl
et ocreat e new plut
oni um by
surroundi ngthecoreoft heFBRbyabl anketofnon
fissi
leU238,whichisalsoleftoverasspentf uelfrom
thethermal reactor.
 Doubl
ingt
imeoft
hereact
or:

Theti
met akenforaFBRt obreedenoughnew
plut
onium t
ofuelasecondreactorandtheanci
ll
ary
fuelcycleisk nown as t
he doubl
ing t
ime ofthe
1
53
react
or.Itispoi
ntedoutt hatf
astbreederreact
ors
donotbreedfast,theysimplyusefastneut
ronsand
breedratherslowly.Variousesti
matesofdoubli
ng
ti
messuggestt hatt hi
rtyyearswasareasonabl e
fi
gureforassumingi ntheearl
y1980.

Afastreactorprogramwould,i
nt heory,beable
to make optimum use of the energy pot enti
all
y
avail
abl
ei nnaturaluranium.About50t imesmore
energyi stheoreti
call
yav ai
labl
ef rom up-grading
U238i ntheFBRcycl e,comparedwi tht heorigi
nal
energy obtai
ned from using naturalurani um in
thermalreactors.

8.3ResearchandDev
elopmentwi
thFusi
on
Reacti
ons:

Afusi
onreact
ionisoneinwhi chtheli
ghtnuclei
oft
woatomscombinetoformaheav iernucleuswi
th
a rel
ease of energy, fusion reacti
ons occur
nat
ural
lyi
nthesunandthest ars.

Fusi onreact i
onsarev erydi ffi
cultt oachieve
becauset heel ectricchargesoft henucl eicausea
mut ual repul sion. The repel ling f orce can be
overcomei fthenucl eiapproachoneanot heratv ery
highv elocit
ies.Onewayofachi ev i
ngt hi
si stoheata
gaseous mi xture of deut erium and t rit
ium t o
8
temperat ures approachi ng 1 0 K. At hi gh
temperat urest henegat i
velychargedel ectronsina
gasef fect i
velyreachescapev elocityandf lyoff.The
hotgasi stransf ormedt oanassembl yofcharged
particles, an i oniz
ed gas or pl asma whi ch is
1
54
infl
uencedbyel ect
ricandmagnet i
cfiel
ds.Other
plasmaconditionsmustal sobesat i
sfi
edfortherate
ofnuclearfusiont obegreat erthanthetot
alenergy
input.Thesearet hatthepl asmamustbeconf i
ned
foracert ainmi nimum period,about0.5to1second
for thedeut eruim-trit
ium react i
on,andt hatthe
plasmadensityi nnucleiperonecubi cmetershould
besucht hattheproductof :

(
mi nimumt
imeperi
od)x(
plasmadensi
ty)i
sgreat
er t
han
20
1
0.

Therearet hreebasi cstepswhi chmustbet aken

toachieveel ectrici
tygenerat i
onfromcont rol
led
nuclearf usion:
1. Tocreat eandheatpl asmat otemperaturesi n
8
excessof1 0 K.
2. Tohol denoughpl asmaawayf romcont ainer
wallsf orlongenought oall
owabundant
react i
onst ooccur.
3. Todesi gnapract icalfusionreactortoproduce
electricit
yeconomi cal
ly.

Anotheradv antageoff usionenergysyst emsi s

thatnei t
hert hepri maryf uel nort hef inal react ions
product sareradi oactive.Howev er, thei nt ermedi at e
fuel, t
rit
ium, hasahal flifeof1 2. 6yearsandt hehi gh
energyneut ronsrel easedf rom t hef us ionreact ion
wi l
lmak et hest ructureoft hereact orradi oact ive.
Thequant ityofact i
v emat eriali naf usi onreact or
woul dbeupt o1 00t imesl esst hani naf ul l
yf ueled
fissi
onreact or.Anyl ossofcont roloft hereact ion
woul dnotbedangerousasi tissel flimi ting.Fusi on
react ors woul d not generat e pl utoni um di rect ly
althoughi tist heoreticall
ypossi ble.
1
55
 Compari
sonbetweencoal
–fuel
edpl
antand
Nucl
earplant
:

1
-Ov er2mi l
li
ontonsofcoalareconsumedbya1 000
megwat tcoal–f i
redpowerpl ant.Inat hermal
reactorusingUO2 asthef uel
,t hesamepower
outputwouldrequi
reonlyabout35t onsoffuel
.

2-Acoal–f iredpl
antrequi resalargereservepil
e
ofcoalincaseofworkst oppageattheminesorof
transportati
onstoppagesandemergenci es.The
nuclearpowerplantsrequi reonl
yonedeli
veryof
fuelperyear.

3-Thecoal–fi
redpl
antgeneratesthousandsoft
ons
ofashest obe hal
v ed away,whereasnuclear
wastescanberemovedasspentfueloneperyear.

4-Anucl earplantrequi resnocombust ionairand

consequently can be l ocat
ed underground if
desired.Bycont rast,t
hecoalcombus t
ionplantof
thest at
edcapaci tywillgenerat
eabout1 0mi l
li
on
tonsofCO2 per year,accompani edby sev eral
hundredt housandt onsofSO2andNitrogenox i
des
plusashpart i
cles.

5-Therelat
ivel
ylowv olumeofnucl earfuelrequires
permits a nuclear f aci
li
tyt o obt
aini tsf uel
sources economi call
y f rom great di stance,
whereast ransportation cost
sare hi gh where
1
56
 coalmustcomef romlongdist
ances.Theforgoi
ng
comparisonswithcoalappl
yinlargemeasuret o
theotherf ossi
lfuel
s,naturalors ynthet
icgas
andli
quidpetrol
eumproducts.

6-Nuclearpoweressent i
all
yisindependentoffuel
costs, whereas f uel i
s signif
icant cost of
producti
oninfossi
l-fuel
edplants.

 Wast
edisposal(
Managementofradi
oact
ive
wast
e)
Itwasrecogni zedf romt heearl iestdaysoft he
nuclear indust ry t hatnucl ear wast e wasv ery
dangerousandt hatsomeradi oact i
vemat erial s
could be pot entiall
y dangerous f or t housands
years.Therei sani mport antdi sti
nct ionbet ween
the differentl evelsofradi oact i
vityi n nuclear
waste.Thei ndust ryconsi derst hreel evels:high,
int
ermedi ate and l ow.Some l ow medi um l ev el
wastes,such as wat er f rom cool i
ng ponds or
gaseousef fl
uent saret reat edanddi schargedt o
the sea or t ot he at mosphere.Some f ission
product shav eashorthal f -li
f e,onl yaf ewhours ,
and qui ckly decay i nto stabl e non- radi oactive
materi alswhi les ti
llint hereact or.Somehav e
half
-lives of onl yaf ew mont hs and one can
separat el
yst raightf orwardt odealwi thint he
reprocessi ng pl ant as t hey become rel atively
harml ess.

 Soli
dwastes:canbeburnedonlandordi sposedoff
by sea dumping.By the ti
me t hei
r cont ai
ners
corrode,t
helevelofradi
oacti
vit
yi sconsideredto
1
57
 be harmless.The discharge ofthese l
ow l ev
el
wastesisstri
ctl
ycont roll
edandisnotconsidered
to have harmed t he env i
ronment. High-lev
el
nucl
earwast eisthemostdangerousbutex i
stsin
rel
ativ
elysmallquantit
ies.

 Radi
ati
onandheal
th:andt
he“
gry”
I nprincipl
e, damaget ohealthcouldbecausedby
radiat i
on,perhapst hroughex posuret oradioact ive
mat erialsi n minut equant i
ti
es.Ex ternalradiat i
on
mayoccurf romX-ray, gammarays, al
phaorbet aradi at
ion,
neut rons,prot onsorhi ghenergypart i
clesf rom
outer space.The human body may be i rradiat ed
uniforml y;theradi ati
onmaybehi ghl
yconcent rat ed
or rest ri
cted t oal imited area,as i n medi cal
applications.Ifradi oactiv
emat erialisinhaled,i ts
effectdependsoni tspart i
clesize,chemicalnat ure
andt imei nt hebody.Theuni tofabsorbedradi at i
on
dosei st hegray( Gy)def i
nedasanabsorbedenergy
ofonej ouleperk ilogram.

Natural background radi

ation level
s v ary
according to the t ype of local geographical
condit
ionsandontheuseofbuil
dingmaterial
s.

1
58
 CHAPTER9
ENERGYCONSERVATI
ON
Energy conservati
on invol
vesevery one.Our
energy situation is currently worseni
ng, and
learni
ng todealwi t
h problemsofl i
mitedenergy
suppli
es and escalati
ng costs wi
llbe an ongoi
ng
processintheyeart ocome.

Theconstruct
ioncontract
orwi l
lbeexposedto
newwayst oconsi
dertheenergyv al
uesofbuildi
ng
material
sandmet hodsforreduci
ngenergycostsat
theconstruct
ionsi
te.

Thearchitectwil
lgai
ninsightsint
onewdesign
concepts usual l
y ev al
uated by archi t
ectural
consultant
s,whichcanenhancet hepot
ent
ialofnew
structurestouseenergywisel
y.

The desi
gn engi
neer wi
ll di
scov
er useful
met
hodsandi nf
ormat
ionforpl
anni
ngmechanical
1
59
and el
ectri
calsyst
ems t
hatut
il
ize energy more
eff
ici
entl
y.

Buil
ding owners and managers wi l
l be
famili
arizedwithval
uabletechniquesfori denti
fying
and quant if
ying energy consumpt i
on i n their
structures.Theywillal
sodi scoverusefulmet hods
for cutti
ng energy costsand f or evaluating the
economic adv ant
ages and disadvantages of new
energymanagementsyst ems.

Maintenanceengineerswillbesensi
ti
zedtonew,
ef
fect i
ve ways t o operat e t heir equipment
ef
ficientl
y and to mot i
vate personnelto become
moreenergyconsci ous.

Theindustri
almanagerwill
gai
ninsi
ghtsi
ntothe
predict
ive techniques needed f
or long- range
energyplanning.

Fiv
ebasiccri
teria,i
nparti
cular,
wereuti
li
zedto
establi
sh thi
s study’s def
ini
ti
on of t
echnol
ogi
cal
feasibi
li
ty.

Each prospect
ive conservat
ion measure
i
ncl
udedforf
urtheranal
ysi
shadtobe:

1
- Capabl
e of widespread i
nst
all
ati
on present
ly
commercial
lyavail
able.

2- Capable of bei ng used wi thout requi ri

ng
signif
icantchangesinplantproductorproduct
mi x
.(theelimi
nationofhighl
yenergyi ntensi
ve
product swasconsideredtobet echnologi
call
y
infeasibl
e.)
1
60
3- Capabl
eofbei ngi ntroducedwit
houtrequiri
ng
si
gnifi
cant losses in plant producti
on (f
or
example repl
acementofan ol d plantwi
tha
modern,effi
cientplantwasnotconsi
dered)
.

4- Capableofachievingenergyconserv at
ionwith
theconfinesandrequirementsofgovernment al
standards for both product
s and product
ion
processes.

5- Capableofconservi
ngenergywhi chcoul
dbe
el
sewhere used i
nt he processi ng pl
ant( for
example,heat recovered f rom an ef fluent
stream musthaveausef orheat i
nganot her
processst
reamtobet echnologicall
yfeasi
ble).

HeatRecl
amat
ion

Heatrecl
amationi stherecoveryandut il
izati
on
of energy that is ot herwise wasted. Properly
captured,waste heatcan be a subst itutef or a
porti
onoft henew energyt hatwouldnormal l
ybe
required f
or heating,cooli
ng,and domest i
c hot -
water system.Heat recov ery conserv es fuels,
reduceoperati
ngcost s,andreducepeakloads.

Theperf
ormanceofheatrecov
erysyst
em wi
ll
i
nvol
vesomeoforal
lthef
oll
owi
ngfactors
:

 Thetemperaturedi
fferencebet
weent
he
heatsourceandt
heheatsink
.

1
61
  The l
atentheatdif
ference bet
ween t
he
heatsourceandt
hesink
.

 Themassf l
ow multi
pli
edby t
hespeci
fi
c
heatofeachsourceandsink
.

 Theef
fici
encyoft
heheatt
ransf
erdev
ice.

 Theextraenergyrequi
redt
ooperat
ethe
heatrecov
erydevi
ce.

 Thefanorpumpenergyabsorbedasheat
bytheheatt ransferdev
ice(
whicheither
enhancesordetractsf
romperformance).

9.
1.1HeatRecl
aimSources

 Exhaustai r:Inlargebui l
dingsandi nbuil
dings
requiringequi pmenthoods,consi derableenergyi s
l
osti nex haustofcondi ti
onedai r.Ifthecont roll
ed
exhaustex ceeds4000cf mandheat ingdegree-days
exceed2500,and/orcool ingdegree–hoursabov e
o
78F DB ex ceed 8000,heatrecl ai
m i s def
init
ely
o
advised.Ifcool ing degree –hoursabov e 66FWB
exceed1 2,000,eitherthermalwheel sorheatpumps
whichcanrecov erbot hsensibl
eandl atentheatare
justifi
ed.

Ifreclai
mi sindicatedf ort heheatingseason
only,anair-to-wat er-to-ai
rheatpumpt ot ransfer
energyf rom t heex haustt ot heventi
latingintake
can be consi dered. Anot her effecti
ve recl aim
potenti
alforex haustairi ncoldcl
imatesist ousethe
exhaustdirectlyf orboi l
erorf urnacecombust i
on
1
62
ai
rorf
orpreheat
ingoi
l.

 Fl
ueGas:t heenergyt hatgoesupboi l
erand
furnace stackscan be capt ured ef fect
ively wi
th
heatex changersandcanbeusedf orspaceheat i
ng
andpreheat i
ngdomest i
chotwat erorf ortempering
i
ntak eairforventil
ati
onandcombust ion;i
tcanev en
beusedf orabsorptionrefrigeration.Therecl aim
device mustbe abl et o withstand t he corrosi
ve
effectofthef l
uegas.

 Steam Condensate: the condensate ret urn

porti
ons of many st eam syst em exhaust large
quantit
iesofheatint hef orm offl
ashst eam when
the hot condensatei s reduced to at mospheric
pressureint hecondensat ereceiver.Wat erheat
canberecov eredbyi nst
al l
ingaheatex changeri n
thecondensatereturnmai nbeforethereceivert o
reduce t he condensat e t emperat ure t o
o
approxi
mat el
y180F.Theheatrecov eredcanbeused
topreheatwaterorforot herpurposes.SeeFig.39

Thequant ityofheatrecov ereddependsont he

pressureandt emperat urecharact erist
icsoft he
boil
er.Forex ampl e,abui l
dingsyst em mayhav ea
o
condensateret urnv olumeof6gpm at260F.Aheat
exchangercanbei nstall
edt oreducet hecondensate
o
temperaturef rom 260t o180F,andt hequant i
tyof
3
heat recov ered wi l
lbe 240x 1 0 Bt u/h.I nt hi
s
inst
ancet heent iredomest i
chot–wat erl oadofa
typi
calofficebui ldingmi ghtbemett hemaj orpart
of the year by t he heatrecov ered i nt hi
s hot
–condensateheatex changer.

1
63
 Refri
gerantHotGas:A t ypicalref rigerant
machine wi th a wat er cool ed condenser
rejectsapprox i
mat ely1 5,000Bt u/hf oreach
12,
000Bt u/hofref rigerat ion.Anai r–cool ed
condenserrej ectsupt o17,000Bt u/hforeach
12,
000Bt u/hofref rigerat i
on.Upt o5000Bt u/ h
ofthisheatrej ectedf rom ei t
hersyst em can
be recapt ured. To recov er t he heat of
compression,aheatex changercanbei nstalled
inthehot -gasl i
nebet weent hecompressor
and the condenser oft he chi ll
er.A t ypical
arrangementi nconj unct i
onwi t
hadomest i
c
hotwatersyst emisshowni nFi g.40.
1
64
 Cold water i
s circulat
ed through the heat
exchangerbyt hecirculati
ngpump.Whenhot
wateri snotbeingused,wat erispumpedback
through the heatex changer,t he hotwat er
heater,orbot h.Ami x
ingv al
vei sprovi
dedt o
maintainthedesiredtemperature.

Energy can suitabl

y be recl
aimed from
refrigerant-syst
em hotgaswhent hereisa
steady and concurrent demand f or
refrigerati
on and waste heat and when
refrigerati
onsyst
emoperatesf
or750ormore
1
65
 hoursperyear.Caremustbet aken,howev er,
nott oreducesuperheatt oapoi ntwhichallows
liquidslugging,andtheheatex changermustbe
locat ed after the hot gas bypas s or other
unl oading devi
ce.Ift heexchanger i slocat ed
out doors,drainsmustbeprov i
dedt oprev ent
freez i
ng.

 Hotcondenserwat ert ocool

ingt ower:Aheat
exchangerorheatpi pei nthehotcondenser
water line can t emper out door air and
preheat domest i
c hot wat er; with pi
ping
modifi
cation,condenser water can beused
di
rectly i n the coils of ai r –handling
equipmentf orai
rheating.

 Commerci all aundry,hospi tal

,laborat ory,and
ki
t chen wast e wat er:Hotwast e wat er,if
o
abov e 1 20F and av ail
able i n quant i
ti
es
great ert han1 0,000gal /week,canreadi lybe
piped t hrough a shel l –and- t ube heat
exchanger f or any syst em requi ring hot
wat er.Assomet hingofaboot strapsyst em,
coldwat erf ort hesameusecanbepreheat ed
bef ore ent eri ng t he domest i
c hot - wat er
o
heat er,f rom 50t o1 05F,wi thoutex cessi
ve
cost .

Consi
derations must be gi ven t o t he
characteri
sticsoft hewast ewater,particul
arlythe
soapordet ergentcont entoflaundrywast ewat er
and the grease cont entofk i
tchen wast e wat
er.
Pipi
ngormat erialmodi fi
cati
onsmaybenecessary
toenablet heheatex changertohandl ewat erwith
highconcentrationsoft hesei
mpuri t
ies.
1
66
 Soli
dwast e:commerci alandinstit
utionalsoli
d
wastei n an energy source t hatshoul dbe
considered f or on–sit
e capt ure ift he
quant it
yav ail
ablef orinci
nerationisgreat er
than 1 000I b/ day.The cost s of requi red
emission cont rols, howev er, shoul d be
caref ull
yev al
uated.

 Engineex haustandcool i
ngsyst ems:t heheat
exchanger and t he prev enti
on off l
ue gas
condensat ioni mposel i
mitati
onsonrecov ery
ofheatf rom ex haustgas.Therecommended
minimum ex hausttemperat ureis,f orthese
o
reasons, approx imately 250F, and
appli
cati
onsaret ypical
lylimit
edt oengi nes
larger than 50hp.Dependi ng on the ini
tial
exhaustt emperat ure,about50 t o 60% of
avail
abl
eex haustheatcanberemov ed.

 Lights:theenergyofl ight ssuspendedwi t

hin
aspacei nf inall
yi mpart edtot hespaceas
heat,equalt ot heenergyrequi redt opower
thelightandt heballast ,too,iftheli
ghti sof
theelectricaldischarget ype.Wattagetimesa
conversionf actorto3. 41equal sBtuperhour.
A1 00-W l ampi sequi v alentofa341Bt u/h
heater.I fl i
ghtingdemandi ssucht hatt he
spaceisov erheat edthisheatcanbecapt ured
tobeusedel sewhereorcapt uredsimpl yto
reducet hespacecool ingl oad.

 Ai
r cooled condensers: I
n supermarkets
,
grocerystores,oranybuildi
ngwit
h1 5hpor
more of ref rigerat
ed displ
ay cases or
1
67
 storageboxes,andwi thheati
ngdegree-days
ex ceedi
ng 3000, t he air heated by t he
condensersshouldbeuseddi rectl
yf orspace
heat i
ng.When ai r –cool
ed condensers are
located away from spaces requiring heat
,
condenser heat can st il
l be recov ered
throughaductsyst em.

9.
1.2HeatRecl
aimDev
ices

Thermalwheel s:A t hermalwheel ,somet i

mes
call
edaheatwheel ,isarot ati
ngheatex changer
withahi ght hermali nertiacoredri venbyan
elect
ric mot or. A t hermal wheel t ransf ers
energyf rom oneai rst ream t oanotheror,f or
very large boi ler plants,f rom flue gas t o
combust i
on air.The hotandcol dai r streams
mustbe i mmedi at
ely adjacentand paral l
elt o
permitinstal
lationoft het hermalwheel ,andf or
these purpose duct modi f
icati
ons may be
necessary. Two t ypes are av ailable: one
transfers sensi bl
e heat onl y,and t he other
transfersbothsensi bl
eandl atentheat .

Bui
ldingex haustai randout doorai rflowingint he
oppositedi rectioncaneachpasst hroughhal fofa
thermalwheelv i
aseparat ebutadj acentduct s.A
thin cylinder cont aining a heatt ransfer medi um
slowlyrot atesbet ween t het woai rs treams,and
energy absorbed by t he medi um i st ransferred
from one ai r st ream t ot he ot her.For heat i
ng,
incomingl ow–t emperat ureoutdoorai risheat edand
humi difi
edby heatgai nedf rom t he warm,moi st
ex haustai r.Forsummercondi tions,incominghi gh–
temperat ureout doorai riscooldanddehumi di
f i
edas
1
68
i
tgivesupheatandmoist
uretothecoolerex
haust
ai
r.Aschemati
cforathermalwheeli
sshowninFi
g.
41.

Runaround–coi
lsyst
em:thissystemismadeupof
twoormoreex t
endedsurfacefincoi
lsi
nstal
ledi
n
1
69
airductsandi nterconnectedbypi pi
ng.Theheat
exchangerf l
uidofet hyl
enegl ycolandwat eri s
circul
atedthrought hesyst em byapump;heati s
remov edfrom thehotai rstream andisrej ect
ed
intothecoldairstream.SeeFi g.42.Arunaround
–coilsystem maybeempl oyedi nthewi ntert o
recoverheatf rom warm ex haustairforusei n
preheatingcoldoutdoorairandi nsummert ocool
hotout door air by rejecting heatinto cool
er
exhaustair.

Heatpi pesyst em:heatpi pesaref innedt ubes

perpendi cularto,andpinningtogetherasi twere,
adjacentai rduct s.Thet ubesarecont i
nuously
exposedt ot heairstreamofbot hducts.Eacht ube
containsl i
quidrefrigerantwhi chabsorbsheatby
evaporat ionatt hewarm ai rstream endoft he
tubeandwhi chmi grat
esasagast ot hecol dend
ofthet ubewherei tcondensest orel easeheat
int
ot hecol dairstream.Thecondensedl iquidthen
1
70
 runsbackt othehotendoft hetubet ocompl
ete
thecycle.Foreff
ectiveoperati
on,theheattubes
mustslopedownf rom thecoldendt ot
hehotend,
and accurate controlof t he slope must be
provi
ded.Heatpi pesbet ween hotandcol dair
duct
s can be used onl y when t hese are
immediatel
yadjacenttoeachother.

Air–t o-ai
rheatex changers:Thi stypeofheat
exchangers transfers heatdi rectl
yf rom one
airstream toanothert hroughdi rectcontacton
eithersideofamet alheatt ransfersurface.Thi
s
surf acemaybemadeupof
corrugat edpl
ates(commonf orlow-temperature
useinHVACsyst em)ort ubes(commonf orboil
er
fl
ue gas heat t ransfer ) . One t ype of heat
exchangersisgiveninFig.43.

Fi
g.43:Ai
r-t
o-Ai
rHeatEx
changer

1
71
Heatpumpsasheatex changers:Heatpumpsare
heat t ransf er machi nes. Thi s f eature i s
particul
arl y at t
ractive for use wi th l ow-
temperat ureheatsources.Asanex ampl e,heat
o
can be ex tractedf rom 50Fdrai n wat er with
outputt emperat ure high enough f or use f or
domest i
chotwat erorf orai rpreheating.They
havet hecapaci t
yt otransferl at
entheataswel l
assensi bleheat .Theheatpipesareshortl engths
of copper t ubing, sealed at t he ends by
snug-f i
tting cyl i
ndricalwi cks and charge of
refrigerant .Fig.44.

At emperaturedif f
erencebet weent heends
ofapi pecausesl iqui
di nthewi cktomi grat eby
capil
lary acti
on t ot he warmer end where i t
evaporatesandabsorbsheat .Theref rigerant
vaport henreturnst hrought hehol l
owcent erof
thewi cktothecool erendwherei tgivesupt his
heat,condenses,andrepeat sthecycle.Heatpi pe
unitsareoftenhighlyef fi
cient
, and,becauset hey
are s eal
ed and hav e no mov ing part s,
maintenanceismi nimal.

1
72
 Shell
-and –tube heatexchangers:t
hese heat
exchangerscanbeusedt oexchangeheati
nt he
fol
lowingconfi
gurati
ons:
 Liqui
dtoli
quid
 Steamt ol
iqui
d
 Gastoli
quid

Particul
arly f
avorabl
e appli
cati
ons are for
energy capt ure from hot condensat e, hot
refrigerantgas,condenserwater,hotdrainl
ines
fromk it
chensandlaundri
es,andsol
arcol
lect
orfl
uid
l
oops.

Incinerators: Solid wast e burned i n an

incinerator can produce 6000 Bt u/Ib.t hese
incineratorsareoi ljacketedandrai set heoil
o
temperat uretoapprox i
matel y450F.Thehotoi l
canbeusedi naheatex changerasasourceof
either high-or low-temperat ure heat.Typical
applicati
ons are for absorption refrigerati
on,
heat i
ng,anddomestichotwat er.

Wast
e–heatboi
lers:Theseboi
lerscanbeused
1
73
withhigh-temperatureheatrecov erysources ,
suchasengineexhaust,orwiththeex haustfrom
gas turbi
ne employed to drive ref ri
gerati
on
equipmentandel
ectricgenerators.

Heatofl ight:Heat–of -lightsyst emsusespeci al

fluorescentf i
xturest ocapt uremuchoft heheat
that accompani es el ect ric l ighti
ng f or t he
purpose of heat recl aim and reduct i
on of
space-cooling loads.Dry andwetheat -of-l
ight
systemscanprov i
det hef oll
owi ng:
 Coll
ect i
onofex cessi nt eriorbui ldingheat
fort ransf ert ocol derex teriorz ones .
 Reduct ion of i nt eri or sensi ble heat gai n
froml ighting.
I ncrease i n l amp out put ( cool
er l amps
operat eathi gheref f i
ciency.
 Longerbal lastlife.
I mprov ed occupantcomf ort( by reduci ng
overheadradi antt emperat ures).

Thermalst orage:I nmanybui l

dingsundermany
operatingcondi ti
onsex cessenergyi sgenerat ed
which,i f st ored rat her t han ex hausted,can
becomeav aluableresource.I nl argebui ldings
withint erior z onest hatrequi re year- round
cool
ing,t he energy t ypicall
y ex pended t ot he
atmospheret hroughcool ingt owersi nt hewi nter
canbest oredi nwat ert ank sforheat ingduri ng
the nightt i
me andunoccupi edperi ods.Int he
summert hesamest oragesyst em canal l
ow t he
useofsmal ler ref rigeration equi pment ,whi ch
operatedcont inuously,canbui l
dups toredchi ll
ed
waterduri ngunoccupi edperi odt oassi stinpeak
occupi
ed–peri odcooli
ng.
1
74
9.
2Tot
alenergysyst
ems

Totalenergy( TE):ist henamegi ventoon-si t

e
generat ionofel ectrici
tyi fthewast eheatof
generat ioni
srecov eredf orusebybui ldi
ng.The
roleoft otalenergyl iesi nthisrecoveredheat
sinceitsequivalentwoul dhav etobepurchased
inthef orm ofot herf uels.Therecov eredheat
canbeusedf orheat i
ngdomest i
chotwat erfor
temperi ngout doorv entilati
onair,forcooling
withabsorpt i
onref rigerat i
onforspaceheating,
orf orproducingprocessst eam.

Engineeringandeconomi canalysi
s: Thef irst
stepint heanalysi
sisthedeterminati
onoft he
load prof i
le of t he buil
ding, the hourl y
requirement sforwasteheatandelectri
cityon
a48-hbasi sforeachseasonoftheyear,stating
mi ni
mum,av erage,andpeakdemands,andt ot al
consumpt i
on.

The load –prof

il
e curves are essenti
alto
determinetheamountofwast eheatthatcanbe
recovered.Thisamountrepresentstheenergy
anddoll
arsav i
ngsofaTEplant.

The second st ep i n the anal ysis i s

consi
deration ofprime movers.Although the
effi
ciency of reci procat
ing engi nes i s
consi
derablyhigherthanthatofgasturbines,if
thereisconti
nuoususef orwasteheat,thetotal
effi
cienci
esofbot h prime mov erswith heat
1
75
 recov
eryequi
pmentareaboutt
hesame.

The t hird st ep i n t he anal ysi

s i s a
considerat i
onf ort heprocessofheatrecov ery
andst orage.Forgast urbines,thewast eheat
avail
abl eintheex haustgasesheati srecov ered
bymeansofawast e-heatboi l
er.Afterpassi ng
throught heboi l
er,t hegasesaredi schargedt o
the atmosphere.Gast urbinesproduce about
twice as much recov erabl
e heat as
reciprocat i
ngengi nesoft hesamehorsepower,
andat ypicalt urbineyi el
ds7t o13Ibst eam per
3
hour( 15Ib/in steam)perk i
lowattgenerat ed.

Heatst orage systems can be used where

waste requi rement s do not coi nci
de
si
mult aneousl
y with wast e heat avai
labi
li
ty.
Oftent heheatcannotbeusedi mmediat
elybut
can be used at l ater periods when heat
requirementsexceedt heheatavai
labl
e.

Co-generation,wherein a pl
antgenerates
mostofi tselectricpoweronsi t
e,ut i
li
zest
he
waste heat f or thermalpurpose,and sells
excesspowert ot heuti
li
tycompanywheni ts
ownl oadislessthanaveragepeak,canbecost
effecti
ve and energy effect
ivef or botht
he
pl
antandt heut i
li
tycompany.

9.
3EnergyConserv
ati
oni
nIndust
ry:

9.
3.1Energy conserv
ati
on t
echni
quesf
or t
he
foodi
ndust
ry

1
76
A.wasteenergyrecovery:
1-Usewast eheatf rom pl
antequipment( cook
ers
,
dryers,ki
lns
,mechanicalcompressors)
.

2-Recov
eryheati
nwast
eserv
icehotwat
er.

3-Recovery heating or cooli

ng ef fect from
venti
lati
onexhaustairtoprecondi
ti
oni ncoming
venti
lati
onair(e.g.use“heatwheels”orot her
heatexchangerscrossex
changebuil
dingexhaust
airwithmake-upair)
.

4-Reducebuil
dingexhaust
sandt husmak e-upai
ror
recycl
e airf or heat
ing,v enti
lat
ion and ai
r
condi
ti
oningtomax i
mumex tent.

5-Increase regenerati
on i
nf l
uid heat/ cool
ing
recoverybyincreasi
ngsi
zeofheatexchanger.

6-Uselowtemperat
urewast
eef
fluentt
ocooli
nput
streams.

B.I
mprovedel
ect
rical
energyusage

1
-Opt i
mizeplantpowerf act
orsby(i
)de-energizing
excesstransformercapacity,and( i
i)inst
all
ing
capaci
torbankstoincreasepowerfactor.

2-Opt
imi
ze motor si
zesandpumpswi thl
oadst
o
i
mprovepowerfactorandef
fici
ency.

3-Usemoreef
fici
entl
ightsources,i
.e.
,conv
ertt
o
1
77
 fl
uorescent
,mercury,sodi
um,orhi
ghi
ntensi
ty
di
rectli
ghti
ng.

4-Reduce or elimi
nate general li
ghti
ng where
naturalli
ghtprovi
dessuffi
cienti
ll
uminat
ionl
imi
t
higherli
ghti
nglev
elstotaskareasonl
y.

5-Reduce general il
lumi
nat
ion t
o mi
nimum
necessaryf
orsaf
ety.

6-Reduceex
teri
orbuil
dingsandgroundi
ll
umi
nat
ion
tomini
mumsafelev
el.

7-Consider repl
aci
ng el
ectri
c motors wi
th back
pressurestreamturbi
nesanduseexhaustst
eam
forprocessheat.

8-Use mul ti
ple capaci
ty compressors f
or
ref
rigerat
ion.

C.I
ncreasedboi
lerandst
eamef
fici
ency

1
-Mi
nimi
zeboi
lerbl
owdown.

2-Use bet
ter f
eed wat
er t
reat
mentt
o reduce
bl
owdownneed.

3-Recov
erheatf
romhotbl
owdown.

4-Ret
urnmorest
eamcondensat
etoboi
ler.

5-Usefluegasheattopreheatboi
lerf
eedwat
er
andcombust
ionai
r.

1
78
6-Usewasteheatfrom hotf
luegasest
ogenerat
e
l
ow-pressurest
eamorhotwater.

7-Reduce combust
ion airf l
ow to opt
imum and
i
mprovecombustioncontrol
capaci
ty.

8-I
nst
all
andrepai
rst
eamt
raps.

9-Descaleboi
lertubesmorefrequentl
y.
10- Insertturbulatorsorspinnersinboi
lerst
o
increaseheattransfert
owat er.

1
1-Improve oi
latomi
zati
on (use compressed ai
r
ratherthanst
eam).

1
2-Bett
er mai
ntenance ofburners and i
nject
ion
syst
ems.

1
3-Mini
mize use of st
andby boi
lers or boi
lers
operat
ingatl
owpower.

D.Useofi
nsul
ati
on:

1
-Insul
atest
eamandcondensat
eli
nes.

2-Upgradeinsulati
onandlini
nginfurnaces,
boi
lers
,
kil
ns, ovens , cookers and ot her process
equipment.
3-Insulat
ewalls,cei
li
ngs,androof
s.

E.Ref
rigerat
ionandspacecondi
ti
oni
ng:

1
-Mai
ntai
n space t
emperat
ure l
ower duri
ng t
he
1
79
 winter season andhi
gher duri
ng t
hesummer
season.

2-Ai
rcondi
ti
ononl
yspacei
nuse.

3-Reduce ai
r condit
ioni
ng l
oad by ev
aporat
ing
waterfromroof.

4-Shutdownai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngduri
ngnonwork
ing
hours.

5-Reduceheat
ingl
evel
whenbui
ldi
ngi
snoti
nuse.

6-Useprocesswast
eheatf
orspaceheat
ing.

7-Usedoubl
edoorsorcurt
ainsbet
weenheat
edand
cool
edareas.

8-I
nst
all
airseal
saroundt
ruckl
oadi
ngdockdoors
.

9-Keepl
oadi
ngdockdoorscl
osedwhennoti
nuse.

F. Dryers, Evaporat
ors, and ot
her process
equi
pment.

1
-I mprove evaporat
or ef
fici
ency by i
nst
all
ing
addi
ti
onalef
f ect
s.

2-Use mechani cal v apor recompressi

on i
n
evaporat
ionprocess.

3-Useringdryersrat
hert
hanst
rai
ghtt
hrough
dryers.
1
80
4-Use l
arge screw and pneumatic presses t
o
dewat
erproductsbef
oredrying.

5-I
mprov
emai
ntenancei
nheatt
ransf
ersurf
aces.

6-Eli
minate aft
erburners by i
nst
all
ing ot
her
poll
uti
oncont
rolequi
pment.

7-Minimi
zeai
rint
rusi
oni
ntoov
ensanduseofai
r
fans.

8-Mat
chai
rcompressorst
oact
ual
requi
rement
s.

9-Usemicrowav
edryingandcook
ingt
oel
imi
nat
e
l
ongst
eamheat i
ngt
imes.

1
0- Inst
allagi
tat
orsinvacuum panofev
aporat
ors
t
oimproveheattransf
er.

G.General
Energymanagement
:

1
-Sal
vageandre-useprocesswast
e.

2-Useopt
imumsi
zedequi
pment
.

3-Use mostef f
ici
entequi
pmentatits maxi
mum
capaci
tyandlesseff
ici
entequi
pmentonl
ywhen
necessary.

4-Mi
nimiz
eoperati
onofequipmentrequi
redt
obe
mai
ntainedi
nst
andbycondi
ti
on.

1
81
5-Shutdownprocessheat
ingequipmentwhennotin
use,oratleastreducetemperatureofprocess
heati
ngequipmentwhenonstandby.

6-Reduce operat
ing t
ime of equi
pment t
othat
actual
lyrequi
red.

7-Usesmal
lnumberofhi ghoutputuni
tsi
nst
eadof
manysmall
inef
fici
entunit
s.

8-Cl
eanorrepl
acef
il
terregul
arl
y.

9-Conv
ertf
rombat
cht
ocont
inuousoperat
ion.

1
0- Convertf
rom i
ndi
rectt
odi
rectf
iri
ng (
e.g.
,
ov
ens)
.

1
1- Conv
ertliqui
d heat
ers f
rom under f
iri
ng t
o
i
mmersionorsubmersi
onheat
ing.

1
2-Repl
acesteam usebyhi ght
emperat
urewat
er
–eli
minat
esteamlosses.

Other special
ized or Minor Energy
conservat
ion t
echni
ques f
or the food
indust
ry:

A. Wast
eenergyrecovery.
1- Usehotfluegasesinradiantheat
erf
orspace
heat
ing,
ov ens,
dryers,
etc.

2- Heatservi
ce hotwat
er wi
th ai
r condi
ti
oni
ng
exhaust
.
1
82
3- Use by-productheatf rom t
ransf
ormersf
or
serv
icewat erheati
ng.
4- Useovenex haustf
orspaceheati
ng.

5- Recover heati
n domest
ichotwat
er goi
ng t
o
drain.

6- Userecoveredheatfrom l
ighti
ngfixturesfor
usefulpurpose,i.
e.,to operate absorpt
ion
cool
ingequi
pment.

7- Recov
erf
uel
val
uei
nwast
eby-product
.

8- Usehotprocessflui
dstopreheatproduct
sor
materi
algoi
ngint
oovens,
dryers,et
c.

9- Subst
itut
ehotprocessf
lui
dsf
orst
eam.

1
0-Use hotprocess fl
uids t
o preheatincomi
ng
processf
lui
ds,e.
g.,
flui
dmilkpast
euri
zes.

B.I
mproveel
ectri
calenergyuse:
1- Keepl
ampsandreflect
orscl
ean.

2- I
ncreasel
ightref
lect
antofwal
lsandcei
li
ngs
.

3- El
imi
nat
eli
ght
ingont
opofst
ack
edmat
eri
al.

4- Lowerl
ightf
ixt
uresi
nhi
ghcei
li
ngareas
.

5- I
nst
allt
imers on l
ightswi
tches i
nli
ttl
e use

areas.
1
83
6- Usephot
ocel
lcont
rol
inout
doorl
ight
s.

7- Use separat
e swi
tcheson peri
meter l
ight
ing
whichmaybet urnedoffwhennaturalli
ghtis
avail
abl
e.

8- Conserv
e energy by ef
fici
entus
e of wat
er
cool
ersandvendi
ngmachines.

9- Reduce t
he pressure of compressed ai
rto
minimumrequi
red.

1
0-I
nstal
l compressor ai
r i
ntak
es i
n cool
est
l
ocati
ons
.

1
1- El
iminat
eleakesi
ninertgasandcompressedai
r
l
inesandval
ves.

1
2-El
iminat
e compressed ai
r dri
ves f
rom
permanenti
nst
all
ati
ons.

1
3-Donotusecompressedai
rforpersonal
cool
ing.

1
4-Increase el
ectricalconduct
or si
zet
oreduce
dist
ribut
ionlosses.

1
5-Reducel
oadonelect
ricconduct
orst
oreduce
heati
ngl
osses.

1
6-Provi
depapermaint
enanceandl
ubri
cat
ionof
motordri
venequi
pment
.

1
7-Use mul
ti
ple speedmotorsor v
ari
able speed
dri
ves for v ari
abl
e pump, blower and
1
84
 compressorl
oads.

C.I
ncreasedboi
lerandsteamef
fici
ency.
1- Keepboi
lert
ubesclean(wat
ersideandf
iresi
de)
.

2- El
imi
nate l
eaksin high pressure reduci
ng
st
ati
onsandi
nsteaml
ines.

3- Repai
rorrepl
acest
eamt
raps.

4- Recov
erfuelvalueinpoll
utedex
haustai
r,e.
g.,
fl
ammabl
eex haustgases.

5- Heat oi
lt o proper t
emperat
ure f
or good
atomi
zat
ion.

6- Adj
ustburnersf
oref
fici
entoperat
ion.

7- Est
abl
ishburnermai
ntenanceschedul
e.

8- Repl
aceobsol
eteburnerswi
thmoreef
fici
ent

ones
.

9- El
imi
nat
ecombust
ibl
egasi
nfl
uegas.

1
0-Conv
ertcombust
iont
omoreef
fici
entf
uel
.

1
1- Limi
tandcont rolsecondarycombusti
onairin
furnaceoperati
onstot heamountrequi
redfor
properfurnaceoperati
on.

1
2-Repl
ace st
eam j
etson v
acuum s
yst
emswi
th
1
85
 el
ect
ricmot
ordri
venv
acuumpumps.

1
3-Use st
eam pressure reduct
ion t
o generat
e
power.

1
4-Useimmersi
onheat
ingi
ntank
s,mel
ti
ngpot
s,
etc.

D.Useofinsul
ati
on:
1- Increaseinsul
ati
ont
hick
ness.

2- Repai
r f
aul
ty i
nsul
ati
on on st
eam and

condensat
eli
nes.

3- Repai
rfaul
tyi
nsul
ati
oni
nfurnaces,
boi
lers
,et
c.

E. Refri
gerati
onandspaceconditi
oning:
1- Int
erlockheati
ngandai rconditi
oningsyst
ems
topreventsi
multaneousoperat
ion.

2- I
nst
allt
imersonai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngf
orsummer

operat
ion.

3- Shutof
fcool
ing i
fcol
d out
side ai
r wi
llcool

process.

4- Shut of
f ai
r condi
ti
oni
ng i
n wi
nter heat
ing

seasons.
1
86
5- Del
ayturningonheat ingandai
rcondi
ti
oni
ng
equi
pmentunti
lnecessary.

6- Cl
eanaircondi
ti
oningrefri
gerantcondenserto
reducecompressorhorsepowercheckcooling
watertreat
ment.

7- Useheatpumpf
orspacecondi
ti
oni
ng.

8- Useambientairforhotproductcoat
ingrat
her
thanref
rigerantai
r.

9- Eval
uate water-cool
ing vs air cool
ing f
or
speci
fi
c situati
ons, e.g.
, cooli
ng coil
s of
refri
gerat
ioncondenser.

1
0-Useradi
antheat
erforspotheat
ingrat
hert
han
heat
ingent
irearea.

F.Generalenergymanagement
:
1-Consi
dert hreeorfourdaysaround–the-cl
ock
operati
onrathert
hanoneortwoshi
ftsperday.

2-Considerenergyef
fici
encywhenpurchasi
ngnew
equipment.

3-Upgradeobsol
eteorl
it
tleusedequi
pment
.

4-Turnof
fconv
eyors,l
if
ttruck
s,et
c,whennoti
n
use.

5-Turnof
fli
ght
s,el
ect
rict
ypewri
tersandot
her
1
87
 suchasequi
pmentwhennoti
nuse.

6-Turnof
fequi
pmentduri
ngl
unchbreak
s.

7-Schedul
e routine mai
ntenance duri
ng non
operati
ngperi
ods.

8-Usemi
nimumsaf
eov
env
ent
il
ati
on.

9-Opti
mizeproduct
ionlotsi
zeandi
nvent
ori
es,e.
g.,
fi
ll
ovensandcookers.

1
0-Schedul
e back
ing ti
mes of smalland l
arge
component
stomini
mizeuseofenergy.

1
1- Usedryi
ngov en(
batcht ype)onal
ternat
edays
orotheropt i
mum scheduletorunequi pment
wit
hfull
loads.

1
2-Repairfurnacesandov
endoorssot
hatt
hey
sealeff
ici
ency.

1
3-Reduce hot wat
er t
emperat
ure t
o mi
nimum
required.

1
4-Usegrav
ityf
eetwherev
erpossi
ble.

1
5-Cover open t
ank
s withfl
oat
ing i
nsul
ati
on t
o
minimi
zeenergyl
osses.

1
6-Repai
rleak
sinl
inesandv
alv
es.

1
7-El
imi
nat
eleak
sincombust
ibl
egasl
ines
.

1
8-Remov
e unneeded serv
ice l
ines t
o el
imi
nat
e
1
88
 pot
ent
ial
leak
s.

1
9-Cl
eanst
eamcoi
lsi
nprocessi
ngt
ank
s.

20-El
imi
nat
eunusedroofopeni
ngsorabandoned

st
ack
s.

21
-Cl osehol
esandopeni ngsinbui l
dingssuchas
broken windows, unnecessary louvers and
dampers.

22-Periodi
cal
ly cal
ibrat
ethe sensors cont
rol
li
ng
louv
ersanddampersonbuil
dings.

23-Keepdoorsandwindowsshutt
oret
ainheat
edor
aircondi
ti
onedai
r.

24-Repl
aceai
rcurt
aindoorswi
thsol
iddoors
.

25-I
nst
all
stormwi
ndowsanddoors.

26-Reducegl
azedareasi
nbui
ldi
ngs.

27-Shadewi
ndowsf
romsummersun.

28-Usedoubleort ri
plegl
azedwindowstomaintain
hi
gher relati
ve humidi
ty and t
o reduce heat
l
osses.
29-Maint
ainsteamj et
susedforvacuumsystem.

30-Usedi
rectai
rsuppl
ytoex
hausthoods.

31
-Consider i
ntermedi
ateor economysiz
eaut os
andt
rucksforcompanysal
esandplantf
leet
s.
1
89
32-Si
zet
ruck
stoj
ob.

33-Add ai
r shi
elds tol ong di
stance t
ruck
sto
i
ncreasef
uelmileage.

34-Shut down truck engi

nes whi
le l
oadi
ng,
unl
oadi
ng,orwai
ti
ng.

35-Reducedel
iveryschedul
es.

36-Consol
idat
edel
iveri
es.

37-Opt
imizerout
ingofdel
iveryt
ruck
stomi
nimi
ze
mil
eages.

38-Schedule regular maint

enance t
o mai
ntai
n
effi
ciencyoftruckengi
nes.

39-Adjustandmai ntai
nforkl
if
ttruck
sformost
eff
icientoperat
ion.

9.
3.2Descri
pti
on of energy ef
fici
ent
i
mprovementmeasures.
Int hissecti
on,onlythosemaj
orconservat
ion
technologi
esf oundtobewidel
yappl
icabl
eare
discussed.

 Boil
er/Furnace:
Boil
er/f urnacesystemsaret hemostobv i
ous
industry energy operat i
ons to whi ch energy
conservati
ont echni
quescanbeappl i
ed.Sincemost
food and ki
ndred productsindust
ries havelarge
steam and/ or hot wat er requirements. The
1
90
generation of process st eam is suscepti
blet o
appreci
abl e energy losses: radiat
ion and stack
los
ses,v enti
ngofunburnedf uel,needtopreheat
feedwater, and blowdown energy l osses
. Such
conservationispossibl
e,andcoul dbeachievedi n
several
ways:

- Aneconomizer(aheatex changeri nt heboil

er
stackwhichremov esheatf rom stackgasses )
canbeusedt opreheatbot hboilerf eedwater
andt he make up water which isneededt o
compensateforwat erlossesresul tingf rom
incompl
etecondensatereturntot heboilerand
fromblowdown.

- Blowdownref erstotheprocessofdi
scharging
waterwi t
hhi ghconcentrati
onsofimpuriti
esin
ordertoprev entscalebuil
dup,i
tsel
facauseof
boil
erinefficiency.Thi
swat erisreplacedby
waterhav i
ngami ni
mumofdi ssol
vedsoli
ds.The
recoveredstackenergycanbeusedt opreheat
the furnace combust i
on air with an ai r
preheater.

- Addit
ional
ly,
systemsthatempl oyblowdowncan
frequentl
y recov er heat i
nt he blowdown
stream andusei ttoheatt hemak eupwater
stream.Theseconserv at
iontechniquesresul
t
inus i
nglessboil
erf uelbyprov i
dingsensibl
e
heat for materialstreams whi ch must be
heated.

- Boi
ler/f
urnace ef
fici
ency i
mprov
ementcan
1
91
 alsoresul
tfrom usi
ngnomorecombust i
onai
r
thanisrequiredt omai
ntai
nt heproperfuel
–to-ai
rmixtureforcombust
ionpurpose.

- Excessai
rint hecombust i
onprocessremov es
heatfrom t
heplantbycausi ngt hecombustion
processtoheattheunusedai rinthef urnace
chamber whilei nsuffi
cient air resultsi n
incompl
etecombustionandf uelwaste.

- Boil
er fire –t ube or water –tube t
ypes of
boil
ersshoul dbemai ntai
nedasf reeofscales
asispossi ble,forsuchscalebui l
edupont he
tubes causes a decrease in heatt ransfer
effi
ciency and a consequentl ossofov eral
l
boil
eref fi
ciency.

- Another meaning of i ncreasing t he heat

transfer effi
ciency, part i
cularly in small
boil
ers,i
stheuseofspi nnersort urbulat
orsto
i
mprov etheflowofhotcombust i
ongasespast
thesteamtubes.Effectiv
ely,thisincreasesthe
heattransferef fi
ciencybet weencombust ion
gasesandboil
erwat er.

- Ins
ulati
on should be provided in t he
boi
ler/
furnacesyst
emtoprev
entheatlosses
.

- Finely,theus eofidl
ingst
and–byboil
ersat
low powerl ev
elsshoul
dbemi ni
mizedsince
boil
er/ furnacearenotdesignedtooperate
efficientl
yatlowpowerlev
els.

1
92
 Wasteenergyrecovery:
Anyplantair,v
apor,orwateref f
luentst
ream
whosetemperatureisabov epl
antambi entlev
els
maybeasourceofenergyconservat
ion.

Bl
owdown st reams,non-ret urned condensate
streams,ex haustf rom dryers,ov ens,HVACsystem
(heati
ng v enti
lation and air conditi
oning)
,vapors
from cookingandprocessi ngequipment,andcool
ing
exhaustai rf rom ref ri
gerati
on compressorsand
largemot ors–al larepot enti
alsourcesf orenergy
recoveryandi ncreasedenergyconserv ati
oninthe
obtai
ninganddet ailedunderst
andingofheatbalance
forapl antsoast odeterminehowmuchrecov ered
energycoul dbeused.

 Insul
ati
on
Itiswel
l-est
abli
shedthatproperinsul
ati
onwi
ll
conserveenergythati
ssuscepti
bletoheatl
oss.

Allsteam lines and ret urn condensat el ines

shoul dbeproperl yinsulatedtoprev entheatloss .All
hot wat er li
nes used f or processing or pl ant
operat ions should al so be i nsulated. Similarly
furnaces,boi l
ers,k ilns,cooki
ngandot herprocess
equi pmentsuchast hosef orrefri
gerat i
onorpl ant
env i
ronment cont rol t hat require l ower t han
average t emperatures shoul d be i nsulated t o
mi nimizewarmi ng.And,ofcourse,wherepossi ble,
bui l
dingsshouldbeproperl yinsulatedt ominimi ze
theenergyusei nenv ironmentalcontrolswithint he
plant s.

1
93
 Lighti
ng:
Improv edplantelectri
calli
ght
ingmayal sol
ead
to si gnif
icant energy conserv ati
on. Also, by
convert i
ng f rom inef f
ici
ent to more ef fi
cient
l
ighting systemssuch asmercury v apor,sodium
vapor, or f l
uorescent lighti
ng syst
ems. Such
effi
cient l i
ghting is part i
cul
arl
y important i n
refrigeratedareas.

Final
ly, l
ight f
ixt
ures. Shoul
d be cl
eaned
regularlytogi
vethemaximumli
ghtoutput
.

 Motors,Pumps, andot herEl ect ricalEquipment :

Energyconserv ati
onmayal sobereal i
zedbyt he
properi nst
allationofel ectricmot ors.Mostmot or
operat einaf ashi ont hatrequi resbot heffectiveand
realpower,adi f ferencest emmi ngf rom inductive
losseswi thi
nt hewi ndingoft hemot ors.Byinst al
li
ng
a proper si zed capaci tor bank ,t he difference
bet weenrealandef fecti
vepowercanbemi nimized,
i.e.
,t hepowerf act orcanberai sedf rom av alueof
70-80percentupt o90-95percent .Suchachange
improv esel ectricaluse ef ficiency andconserv es
energy.

 EvaporatorsandDryers:
Inmanyf oodi
ndustryprocesses,dryersand
evaporators use considerable energy t
o remov e
productmoi sture.Modernt echnologycanincrease
the ef fi
ciency of such dryi ng operat i
ons
signi
ficantl
y.

1
94
 9.
3.3Energyconserv
ationi
nex
teri
ordesi
gn
andconst
ruct
ion[1
8].

Ithasbecomeobv i
ousthatenergyconservati
on
i
snolongeropt i
onal.Wemustdevelopnewandbetter
waystostretchourenergydol l
ar.Foreconomicas
wel
lasphilosophicalreact
ions,i
tisimperati
vethat
wemoveboldlytoreducewast e.

 Energyint ensi
tyofbui l
dingmat eri
als.
Letusex aminetheenergyperpoundneededt o
fabricatev ariousbui l
dingconst ructi
on materi
als
.
Constructioni sitsel
fal argeconsumerofenergy,
particul
arly when one consi ders t he vari
ous
manuf acturing,assembl y,andt ransporti
ng st
eps
required f or each item of st eel,copper,glass,
concrete,al uminum,i nsul
at i
on,til
e,carpeti
ng,and
soon.

The const
ituents ofan ex ampl e buil
ding are
shown int abl
e( 1).Itisi nterest i
ng t onot ethat
concreteusedi n an ex amplebui l
ding represents
58.7percentoft het otalbuildi
ngwei ghtbutonl y
12.
4percentoft het otal
energyusedt ofabricat
eall
materialsandequi pmentneededt oconst ructt he
buil
ding.Ontheot herhand,st eel,whi chrepresents
only6.8percentoft hebuildi
ng’swei ght,consumes
about69.5percentoft hesamet otal
.

Thedi
stri
buti
onofenergyusedtofabri
catet
he
vari
ous mat eri
als and equi
pment employed i
n
construct
ingthi
sbuildi
ngcanbefoundintable(
2).
1
95
Mat
eri
alandequi
pmentwei
ght
sareal
sonot
ed.

Tabl
e(1
)Di st
ributi
on ofenergy (Em)Used t
o
fabri
cate mat eri
als and equi
pment
employedin construct
ingan exampl
e
buil
ding.

Mat
eri
als %oft otal 1
/2Em+
*
wei ght
Aluminum 0.08 1.
6
Ceili
ngmat erial
s 0.5 0.3
Concrete 58.7 12.4
Concreteblock 27.0 1.
9
Copper 0.2 4.3
Drywall 4.2 0.7
Glass 0.2 1.
2
Insulat
ion 0.04 4.9
Paint 0.04 0.
1
Plumbingfixtures 0.2 2.0
Roofing 2.0 0.5
Steel 6.8 69.5
Vinyl 0.04 0.6
tot
al 1
00. 00

* Tot
alwei
ghtofmat
eri
alsandequi
pment=
240.
0tons
1
96
 + 2
Em =476.
190Bt
u/f
t (541
1.9KJ
/m2)

Tabl
e (
2) Energy conservat
ion of t
ypi
cal
bui
ldi
ngmateri
als:

ToFabricate
Mat
eri
als
Btu/Ib KJ/Kg Btu/unit KJ
/unit
Alumini um 41,
000 19,636
Ceil
ingmat eri
al 1,
500 71 8
Concret e 413 1
98
Concretbl ocks 15,
200/ bl
ock 7,
27/block
8x8x1 6
in(20. 3x
20. 3x40. 6
cm)
Copper 40,000 1
9,157
Drywal l 2,1
60 1 ,034
Glass 12,
600 6,034
Insulat i
on
Duct -1in
(2.45cm) ,
2
3-I b ( 1.
36 51,
400/ ft 584,1
61 m2
/
1
97
 Kg)
2
Densi
ty 7,
700/f
t 87,
51 m2
0/
2
2,
040/f
t 23,
1 m2
84/
Pi
pe-2i n(5cm)
Buildi
ngboard
Paint 4,134 1 ,
979
2
Roof i
ng 6,
945/f
t 3, m2
326/
Steel 13,800 6,
609
Vinyltil
e 8,000 3,831

 Energyuseatt
heconst
ruct
ionsi
te.

The highly competit

ive construction indust ry
canbeex pect edtoreactt ot heeconomi cimpactof
energycost sandav ail
abil
ityproblemsi nvolvi
ngon-
site construction operat ions. Fuel av ailabili
ty
representst heprimaryconcernsi nce,withoutf uel
todriveconst ructi
onequi pment ,ashiftt ohi gher,
labor-i
ntensive(morecost ly)const ructi
onmet hod
wouldberequi red.Becauseani ncreaseoff uel costs
isgenerall
yofsecondaryi mport ant.

Variat
ions in consumpt i
on l evel
s do v ary
si
gni
ficant
lybyconst ructi
ontype.Const ructi
onof
hi
ghwaysandst reetswi l
lconsumet hreet imesas
muchenergyper$1 000ofconst ructi
oncostassay,
si
ngl
e–f amil
yresi
dence.

Fact
orsconsi
deredi
nanal
yzi
ngt
heef
fectof
1
98
cli
maticvari
ati
ons on these energy consumpt i
on
total
sincl
uded equipment warm-up peri ods and
minimumspaceheati
ngandcoolingrequirements.

Aftertheoi lembargo,mostconst ructi

onf irms
ident i
fi
ed t he operat ion and mai ntenance of
const ructi
on equi pment as an area f or sizabl
e
improv ement .Construct
ionequipmentf iveyearsold
operat esatmark edl
yloweref fi
cienciesthannew
equi pment. Procedures t o improv e equi pment
efficiency and bet ter construction equi pment
mai ntenanceareneededt osav
escarcef uel
.

Unfortunat
ely,t hesearef ewopport unit
iesf or
short-term subst ituti
on of t radi
ti
onal energy
sourcei nconst
ruct ion.Limitedopportunit
ies,such
as choice between di esel-or gasoli
ne- powered
equipment,doexist.Itmustberecogni zed,howev er,
that smaller, l
ess ef fi
cient gasoli
ne- powered
constructi
on equipmentmay resul tin more f uel
consumpt i
on than t he l arger, more ef fi
cient
diesel
-poweredequi pment .

 Desi
gnconsi
derat
ionsf
orex
teri
orbui
ldi
ngdesi
gn:

The bui l
ding desi gner shoul d t ake i nto
considerationtheproperbui ldi
ngori entat i
onwi th
respectt othesun.Ex teriorshadingdev ices,suchas
sunhoodsandt rees,canbeusedt ocont rolsolar
radiation. Air space and ef fecti
ve i nsul
ation
materi alsi
nwal lconstructi
oncancont rolheatgai ns
andl ossesf rom conduct i
vet ransfer.Properj oint
desi
gn and adequat e weather stripping can hel p
minimiz e heat gains and l osses caused by t he
1
99
inf
il
t rationofout si
deair.Theuseofgl assinnew
const ructi
on shouldbepl annedcaref ul
ly.Passi
ve
opti
onsandpassi v
e–act i
veoptionstoreduceenergy
consumpt i
on shoul d be consi dered. At t he
const ructi
onsite,areductionormorni ngwarm-up
periodsandequi pmentidli
ngtimecanreduceenergy
wast e.

 Thermal
inert
iaofconst
ruct
ionmat
eri
al

Thetradit
ionalmasonerywal lprov i
desuswi th
anex cel
lentexampleofaheatst oragereserv oi
r.
The so called thermalinert i
a resul tf rom its
inherenthigh density(or mass),whi ch responds
favorabl
yt oconstantvari
ationsint heambi entair
temperatureasi tf l
uct
uatesduri ngeach24hour
cycle

Thegreat ert hemassofwal lsandroof ,the

longeri ttakestoheatorcoolt heexteriorbuildi
ng
env elope.Asaresul t,alight–weightsst ructures,
sincei tcanbeheat eduporcool eddownf ast
erby
theheat i
ng,venti
lating,andaircondi
t i
oning(HVAC)
syst ems.

Theresistanceofanex teriorbuildingelement
to out si
de cyclict emperature changeshasbeen
definedast het hermalinertiaofawal l
.I nconceptit
issomewhatdi fferentthanawal l
’sconductanceorU
2 o
value. Conduct ance ex pressed in Bt u/(h)
(ft)(F)
2
[W/(m) (
K)]
,canbeusedt odetermi net herat eof
heatf l
ow throughamat eri
alwhenat emperature
differenceoneachsi deremai nsconstant( asteady
statecondi t
ions).
200
 Thepropertyofthermalinerti
acanbeusedt o
determinehow fastthe wal lwil
lheatuporcool
down( i
tsdynami cresponse)
.Thisisdependenton
wall thickness, densit
y, specifi
c heat , and
conducti
vit
y.

Since t
he ambient is const
ant
ly changing,
thermalinerti
ais an i
mportantconsiderat
ion i
n
studi
esofheati
ngandcool
ing.

Thecostofheat i
ngandcool ingwi thi
nv ari
ous
building t
ypes is materi
all
y af fected by thermal
inert i
a.Anincreaseinthethermali nert iaofawall
resul tsi
nadecreas einenergycost .Incontrastto
this,areduct i
oni ntheUv alueoft hewal lmay,in
somecases, increasethetot
al annual costofheat
ing
andcool i
ng.

 Sunhoods:Avi
ablepassiveal
ternat
ive:
Theconceptsoft hesunhoodi sbestdescribed
byanalogytoawell-shapedshadetreecov eri
ngan
areaofstruct
uralglassasthesunmov esacrossthe
sky.

Sun hoods t hereby reduce t he sol ar f l

ux
(energy)thatcanent erabui ldi
ngduringhourst hat
correspondt oit
smax imum cool i
ngloads.I tist hi
s
shortspanoft i
me( referredt oast hemax i
mum
coinci
dentcooli
ng–l oadperi odthatest abl
ishedt he
requiredcapacityofbui ldi
ng’smechani calcool i
ng
systems.Sol ar peak s can be t ri
mmed t hrough
carefulstudy ofeach i ndi
vidualbuil
ding –t o-sun
relati
onship.
201
9.
5EnergyConserv
ati
oni
nDomest
icUses[
16]
.

9.
5.1Heat
ing

The most dramatic savi

ng in heati
ng are
obtained qui
te simply: reduce level
s of air
temperatureandhumidit
yandv ent
il
ati
on.

Waysofachi
evi
ngthesesav
ingsaredocument
ed
i
nthefol
lowi
ngparagraphs.

 Setbacki ndoortemperat uresi

nheatingseason
duri ngunoccupiedperiods:
Energy i s conserved by set t
ing back the
temperat urelevelattheset i
mes.Theenergysaved
wil
lv arywi t
ht helengthoft imeandthenumberof
degreest hattemperaturesaresetback.

I
nareaswherei tisnotnecessarytomaintai
n
high temperat
ure duri ng occupied peri
ods,in
corri
dorsandl obbies,for i
nstance,temperat
ure
canbeloweredfurther.

 Act
iongui
del
ines

1
.Reducet hehoursofoccupancytothegreatest
ext
entpossi
bleduringperiodsofsev
erelycold
weather.
202
 2.Adjustautomat
icti
mersoraddt i
meclock
st o
automati
call
ysetbacktemperat
uresfornight
andweekendoperati
on.

3.When bui l
ding are used af ter hours f or
meetings, conferences, cleaning or ot her
scattered acti
vit
ies,reduce t he number of
space occupied and,t othe ex tentpossible,
choose areas int he same sect i
ons of the
buil
ding.Reducethet emperatureandt urnof f
humidifi
ersinallotherpartsoft hebui
lding.

 Reduce indoor t
emperat
ures duri
ng
occupi
edperi
ods.

Maintaini
ngl owerindoort emperat uresduri ng
occupied peri ods conserv es energy, al t
hough
savingsarenotasgreatast hosef orunoccupi ed
hourswhi choccurgeneral l
yint hecoldernight.
Thet emperat urei
nl esscri ti
calareassuchas
corridorsandl obbi
escanbereducedev enl ower.
The t ot
alenergy conserv ed wi l
lbe great esti n
buil
dingswhi ch normally havel it
tleinternalheat
gainorsol arradiati
ont
ohel pwit htheheatingload.

 ActionGuideli
nes.
1.Stores are commonl y ov erheated and
uncomf ortablef
ort ransientpatronswhoare
wearingwi nterclot
hing.Reducet emperature
toal evelt hat is comf ort
ablef or heavy
dressedpat ronsandencouraget hestaffto
dressmorewarml yorprov i
delocalheaters
forthem.
2.Some bui l
dingscont ai
nl arge heatedareas
203
 suchasst oragespacest hatareunoccupied
oroccupiedbyonl yoneort wopeople.Insuch
areasreducet het emperaturet olow level
justsuffici
entt oprev entdamaget oother
systems ( f reezing sprinkl
ers, etc.
) and
providel
ocalradiantheatersforoccupants.

 Av
oidradi
ati
onef
fect
stocol
dsurf
ace.

Incol dcl i
matethetemperat ureofani nteri
or
surface of an ex t
erior wal l or wi ndow i s
considerablyl ower than room t emperature,and
peoplelocatedneart hesurfaceradi ateheatt oit.
Inordert okeepwarm,t heyof tenwi l
lrequest
thatroom t hermostat
ebesethi gher.Ov erheat i
ng
ofthei nt eriorofthesepart icularroomsresul ts,
and heatl oss and energy consumpt i
on increase
accordingly.Af ewsimpleremedi eswi l
lsaveenergy
andatt hesamet imeenhancet hecomf ortoft he
occupant s.

 Act i
onGuideli
nes
1.Encourage those work ing near the ex t
eri or
wallsandwi ndowst owearheav iercl
ot hingi n
thewinter.
2.Closewindowst i
ghtl
yi nthewinter.
3.Rearrangedes ksandt asksurfaceawayf rom
cold exteri
or surf ace.Put ci rcul
ation and
storageincoldlocat
ions.

 Reducel
evel
sofrel
ati
vehumi
dit
y

Humidi
fi
cati
onsystem vapori
zewat erintothe
dryvent
il
ati
ngairtoi
ncreasemoisturecontentand
achi
evethe desi
red rel
ati
ve humidit
y wit
hint he
204
buil
ding.Thi
shumidi
ficat
ionprocessrequiresaheat
i
nputofapprox i
mately1000Bt ut ovaporizeeach
poundofwat er.

Humidifi
cati
onsyst ems,thoughnotuni versall
y
used,areof t
eninstall
edtomai ntainthecomf ortand
healthofoccupantsandprev entdryingandcrack i
ng
ofwood,f urni
ture,andbui l
ding contents.Where
preservati
onofmat eri
alsi
nnotaprobl em,humi di
ty
maybel owered,andf ort hi
ssi tuat
iont hereisno
reasontohumi di
fywhent hebui l
dingisunoccupied.

 Acti
onGui deli
nes
1.Turn offal lhumidi
fi
ersatnightandduring
occupiedcycles.
2.Reducet heamountofi nf
il
trat
ionandout
door
air v entil
ati
on t o reduce humidi
fi
cati
on
requirement s.

 Shout down vent

il
ati
on syst
em duri
ng
unoccupi
edhours
Venti
lation i s responsible f or a l arge
percentage of t he buildi
ng-heati
ng l oad. Col d
outdoor air,introduced for venti
lati
on,mustbe
heatedtoindoort emperatures.Theloadwhi chthese
imposes on t he heat ing system i s di rectl
y
proporti
onal t o t he t emperature di fferential
between i ndoor t emperature and out door
temperatureandt ot hequantityofairi ntroduced
forventil
ation.

 ActionGuidel
ines
1.Ifwi ndows are used to provi
de v
entil
ati
on,
cl
oset hematni ght
.
2.If,duringtheheatingseason,t
heoutdoor-air
205
 temperaturei nthemorningi sabovedesired
room condit
ions,usei
tforheat i
ngbyopeni ng
outdoor-ai
rdampers.
3.use wast e system condensatef or winter
humidifi
cati
on.

 Reduce vent
il
ati
on rat
es duri
ng occupi
ed
periods.
Vent
ilation is required f
or replacement of
expendedox ygen,butthisrequi
rementisv erysmall
proporti
onoft heoutdoorairtypi
call
yi ntroduced
i
ntomostbui l
dings
.Odordi l
uti
on,especial
lysmok e
di
luti
on,i
st heessent i
alprobl
em.

I
fv ent
il
ati
onissuppliedtobuil
dingtoprov
ide
makeupai rtoi
let
,k i
tchen,andother ex
haustair
quanti
ti
es,theexhaustsystemsshoul
dbeoperated
onl
ywhenneeded.

 Act
ionGui del
ines
1.Use odor-absorbi ng mat erialsi n speci al
areasrat hert hanprov i
deout doorai rf or
odordi lution.
2.Operat e ex haust systems i ntermi t
tent l
y
throughout t he day.Turn t hem of f,i f
possi ble,when t hey are notneeded,and
operat et hem att i
messuch asnoon and
coff ee break s,and during heav y cooking
operat ions.
3.Concent rat esmok i
ngareast oget hersot hat
one v entilati
on system can serv et hem.
Adj ustout doorairquant it
iest oserv et hese
areas,andreduceout doorai rquant i
ti
est o
allothersys t
ems.
4.Usewi ndowv enti
lati
onwherepossi ble.Doing
206
 so reduces t he power requi red for
mechanicalexhaustsystemsandreduces
theairintak
e,whichnormall
ybalancesthe
exhaust
.Shutof fsupplyairsystem when
windowventi
lat
ional
oneisadequat
e.

 ReduceRat
eofI
nfi
lt
rat
ion
Out doorairinfi
ltratesabui ldi
ngt hroughcracks
andopeni ngsaroundwi ndowsanddoors ,through
const ruct i
on joints bet ween i ndi
vidualpanelsi n
panelwal lconstruction,andt hroughporousbui ldi
ng
mat eri alsoftheex teriorwalls,roofs,andf l
oorover
unheat edspaces.I nfil
trati
on increaseswi thwind
velocityandpenet ratest hewi ndwardsi deoft he
building,usuallyt henort horwestex posuresincold
cli
mat es.

 ActionGui
del
ines
1
- I nspectthebuil
ding’
sex teri
orandi nteri
or
surface and caulk allcrackst hat all
ow
outdoorai
rtopenetratethebuil
ding’ssk
in.

2- Asat emporarymeasurecov erwindowswith

4-milplasticsheet
sandex tendthecovering
overt hef rame.Holdpl
asti
csheet sinplace
withcontinuousnai
li
ngstri
ps.

3- Weatherst
ripexteri
ordoorsandwi ndowsin
cl
imateswithmorethan2000degree-days.

4- Removeorcoverwindowaircondi
ti
onerswi
th
pl
asti
ccoversinthewinter(ifnotusedfor
heat
ing)
.

207
  I
ncreaseSol
arHeatGai
nint
otheBui
ldi
ng.
Althoughsol
arheatgainaddstothecool
ingl
oads,
i
tcanbev eryhelpf
ulinreducingtheheatingload.
Sol
arradi at
ionimpingi
nguponanopaquebui l
ding
enveloperaisestheex t
eriorsurfacetemperature
andreducesconduct i
onlosses.

When sol
ar radiat
ion penetratet he buil
ding
throughwindowsandgl assdoors,iti
spart icul
arly
valuabl
e, especi
all
y on sout h ori entat
ions i n
northernl
atit
udes.

The amountofsunl i
ghtt hatpenet rates t
he
windowsdependsupont henumberofpanesofgl ass,
the area oft he windows,t he orientati
on oft he
windows,t het ypeandcl eanlinessoft hegl ass
,the
type ofsol ar controldev ice,t he l
atit
ude oft he
buil
ding’slocation,andt hepercent ageofsunshi ne
atthatlocation.

 ActionGuideli
nes
1
. Cl ean windowst opermi
tmax
imum sunl
ight
transmission.

2. Ifwindowsarenotf i
ttedwithbli
nds,drapers
,
or shutters, consi
der instal
li
ng t hem to
controltherateofheatf low i
ntoandoutof
thebuil
ding.

3.
During heavi
ly cl
oudedweat her andatnight
,
reducet heheatlossthroughthewindowsby
drawingshadesorclosingshut
ters.

4.
Addt
hermalbarri
ersi
nthef
ormofshut
tersor
208
 screenst otheinsi
deoft hewindowstobe
closedwhensol
arheatgai
nisnotavai
labl
e.

 Inst
allControl
sf or Space Temperat
ure
andHumidif
icat
ion.

Carefulconsi
derat
ion shoul
dbe given t
ot he
manualandautomati
ccontroldevi
cesbestsui
tedto
pul
li
ntoeffect
.

 Act ionGui deli

nes
1
.Installa7-daydualt hermostattooperatet he
oil
,gas,st oker,orelect
richeatingel
ement s.
Thet hermost ateshouldbesett omai ntain
temperat urel evel
sduringoccupiedperi ods
and to reduce l evel
s when the buil
ding is
unoccupiedatni ght
s,weekends,andhol
idays .

2.
Inst
all7-daycont rolstooperat epumpsf or
forced-ci
rculati
on hot -water systems and
automaticv alv
es f or hot-water or steam
systems when boi lers are operat ed by
aquastatorpressurecont rol.

3.
Instal
lon-of
fswitchest
ocontrolt
hewat er
supplytohumi
dif
ierstopermi
tshutdownat
night.

4.
Relocat
eroom thermost atstothemostcrit
ical
area,andrebalancet heairorwat ersystem
toreducetemperat ureandhumi di
tylevel
sin
theother,
lesscrit
ical,areas.

209
  UseSeparateMakeupAirSuppl
yforExhaust
HoodstoReduceOutdoor–Ai
rVenti
lat
ion.

Exhaust hoods in k i
tchens, hospit als
, and
l
aborat ori
esandi nprocessequi pmentareaspul l
l
argequant it
iesofai
ral ongwi thsmok eandf umes
from abui ldi
ng.Iftheex haustai rupt hehoodi s
drawnf romroomai r,theHVACsyst emmustheator
cooloutdoorai rt
omak eupt hisexhaust.Thi scanbe
aconsi derableheati
ngorcool i
ngl oad;t herei sa
betterway.

Itisnotnecessaryf orhoodmak eupairt obe

heated or cooled tot he same degree as t hat
required f or occupant comf ort
. A separat e
mak eup-ai
rsyst emcomprisi
nganoutdoorairfan,a
temperingheat i
ngcoil
,andductworks upplytot he
hoodedgeswi l
lsaveenergy.Thi
sai rneededt obe
o
heatedto50t o55Finwinterandshouldnotbecooled
i
nt hesummer.

The ef
f ecti
veness of an ex haust hood i
n
capturi
ngheat edair,fumes,smoke,orsteam isa
functi
onoftheairv el
oci
tyattheedgeofthehood.

To maint
ain a sati
sfact
ory capt
ure veloci
ty,
l
argeopenhoodsrequirelargevol
umesofai r.Wit
h
ei
therroomairorseparatemakeupairsyst
ems.

 Act i
onGuidel
ines
1
. Installa makeup- air system tointroduce
outdoor air equal i n quant it
y to t hat
exhausted.Donotheatmak eupairtomore
o
than55F,andi ntroducet heairascloseas
possibletot he hood i n severalpositi
ons
21
0
 around the perimeter to promot e even
airf
low.Donotcool
ordehumi di
fymak eupair.
2. Foropenexhausthoodsinst
allbaffl
est oal
low
reducti
onofthequanti
tyofex haustair.

 ReduceHeatLossesThroughWi
ndows.
Heatl
ossf rom abui ldi
ng dependsupon the
temperat
uredifferencebet weenindoorsandout,
themodeofoperat i
onoft heheat i
ngsystem,and
the mass,color,and i nsulati
ng value of t
he
exteri
orwal
ls,
roof ,
windows, andfl
oors.

Windbl owingi nt heex teriorsurf acei ncrease

heatloss,butsol arradi ationl owersheatl ossby
raisi
ngt het emperat ureoft heex teriorsurf ace.
Heatl ossv ariesgreat lywi tht hemat erialsfrom
whicht hebui ldingisconst ruct ed.Asi nglelayerof
2
glasst ransmi ts 1.1Bt u/(h)(ft)ofsurf ace
per degree oft emperat ure di fference,doubl e
glasst ransmi tabout0. 55Bt u/h,anuni nsulated
framewal labout0. 3Btu/ h,a1 2-inmasonryand
4-in bri ckwal labout0. 25 Bt u/h,andi nsulated
wallsofv ari oust ypesandt hick nessest ransmit
2
down t o 0. 027 Bt u/ ( h)(ft) per degree
temperat uredi ff
erence.

Conv
ersionoft
hewindowsfrom s
ingl
eglaz
ing
t
odouble-gl
azi
ngwil
lhalvetheconduct
ionheat
l
oss.

 Act ionGuideli
nes
1
.Wheretheheat ingseasonis7500degree-days
or great er, use tri
ple glaz
ing. Remove
exi
sting single wi
ndows and f rames and
21
1
 repl
acewi thtripl
eglazi
ng,oradddoubl
e-
gl
azed st orm wi ndows t o ex i
sti
ng
si
ngle-gl
azedwindows
.

2.
Wheret heheat i
ngseasoni s2500degree-days
orgreat er,installstorm wi ndowstoreduce
bothconduct ionlossandi nfilt
rati
on.Where
windows are t i
ght ,remov e glazi
ng from
windows f rames and i nstalldoubl
e glazed
unit
s.( wheret heheat ingseasoni slessthan
1500degree-days,doubl eglazingcannotbe
justi
fiedbysav i
ngsi nheat i
ngenergyal one
butmaybedesi rablet oreduceout si
denoise).

3.
Whenreplacingoraddingglazedsurf ace,use
onelayerofref lecti
veglassorref l
ecti
ve
coat
ingtoreducesolarheatgainsifwindows
areindirectsunl
ightformoret han3hours
perdayduringthecooli
ngseasons.

4.
Wherewi ndowsaresubj ectedtohi
ghwi ndsfor
alongdurat i
onoft imei nthewinterandt o
sunli
ghti nthesummer,usepref abricat
ed
sun-screensont heex teri
orofthewi ndows
toserv e a dualpurpose;t omi ni
mizet he
effectofheatlossduet owindandt oreduce
sol
arheatgai ninthesummer.

 ReduceHeatLossesThroughWi
ndowswi
th
ThermalBarri
ers.

Most commerci al
, office, rel
igi
ous, and
i
ndustri
albui l
dingsare unoccupiedf or more
hoursperweekt hant heyareoccupied,anda
majorportionoft heunoccupiedhoursoccurat
21
2
 ni
ghtwhenoutdoortemperatureareatt hei
r
l
owestandt
hepotent
ial
forheatlossi
shi
ghest.

Duringunoccupi edhours,daylightisei t
her
notav ail
ableornotrequi red,andwi ndowscan
becov eredwi ththermall
yinsul
atedbarri ersor
shutterst odecreaseheatt ransmissionlosses.
Thermal l
yi nsulat
edmaybeappl iedtot heinside
ofthebui ldingandcanbearrangedt oslideina
trackorf oldbacki nt
ot hewindowsrev ealor
ontothef aceoft hewall
.

 Act ionGuideli
nes
1
.Operat e t hermal barriers in the same
mannerasconv enti
onaldrapes.Cl
oset hem
eveninoccupi edhourswhendayl i
ghtcannot
beusedandwhenv i
siont
hroughthewindowis
notrequired.

2.Donotclosethermalshut tersatnightinthe
cool
ingseason,exceptont hewestsidewhen
thereisconsi
derablesunshineaft
ert hework
dayends.

 ReduceHeatLossesThroughWal
ls.

Heatlossesthroughwal l
scanbesi gnifi
cant l
y
reducedbyaddi nginsulati
on.Suchheatl ossisa
functi
on oft hewal l
’sresistancet oheatf low,
modifi
ed the effects ofsol ar radiati
on whi ch
reduceheatl ossandwi ndwhi chincreasei t
.The
effect of solar radi
ation wi l
lv ary witht he
absorpti
on coeffici
entoft he outside surface;
21
3
 darkcolorsofl ow absorpt ion coeff
ici
ent
.The
windaffectst
heov erallresistanceofthewallby
reduci
ngt heinsulat
ingv alueoft heairfi
lm on
theext
eriorwallsurface.

Theov erallUv al
ueofwallsmaybedecreased
byt headditi
onofi nsulat
ingmateri
alt
otheinsi
de
surf ace,totheout sidesurf
ace,orintocavi
ti
es
withinthewall st
ructure.

 Act ionGui
deli
nes
1
.I nsulat
ionismostef f
ectiveont henort hwal
ls,
whichshouldbegi venpriorit
y,f ol
lowedbythe
eastor westwal l
s,whi chever face i
ntothe
winterprevai
li
ngwind,thensouthwal l
s.

2.Give priorityto spaces thatare continuousl

y
occupiedf orgreatestlengthoft i
me.Corridors,
toi
lets,elevatorshaft
,andst orageroomsshould
beassi gnedal owerpri ori
tyregardlessofwal l
orientati
on.

9.
5.2Domest
icWat
erHeat
ing.

21
4
 TheNat
ureoft
heLoad
Conservat
ionf ol
lowst heorderofreduct i
onof
hotwaterquant i
tyandt emperat urerequi
rement
s,
thereductionofpi pi nglosses,thenreducti
onof
conservati
onlossesf orhot-watergenerati
on.

 ReduceDomest
icHot
-Wat
erTemperat
ure.
Loweringthet emperatureoft hehotwat er
reduces the energy required f
or the domesti
c
hot-watersystem.Theenergyrequi redf orthe
systemiscomputedbyt hefoll
owi
ngformula:

whereQ=quant ityofdomesti
chotwaterusedper
yearinpoundsandTd=magni t
udeofthedi
fference,
indegreeFahrenheit
,betweenthetemperatureof
col
d wat er ent ering the heater and t he
temperatureofhotwaterleav
ingi
t.

Thet ot
alamountoff uelenergyrequiredto
supplyt he domesti
c hot-water syst
em depends
upont heseasonalef
fici
encyoftheheater,E,whi
ch
vari
eswi ththetypeofheaterandthefuelused.

 Act ionGui del

ines
1
.Wherepossi ble,usecol dwateral oneforhand
washing inl avatori
eswhen t he cold-water
o
temperat urei s750Forabov e.Thisismost
readil
y accept ed in ret
ailstores,religi
ous
buil
dings,andi nwashroomsusedpri marilyby
thepubliconani nfrequentbasis.

2.
Donotmai
ntai
nanent i
rehot
-watersyst
em at
t
hesametemperat
urerequi
redforthemost
21
5
 criti
caluse.Do notheatwat er for hand
washing ri nsi
ng or cl
eani
ng tothe same
temperat ure required for dishwashing
steril
izat
ion.

3.
Use col
d-water det
ergent
sf or l
aundri
esand
Laundromatsandsetwat ertemperat
ureat
o
70F.

 ReduceDomest
icHot
-Wat
erQuant
ity.

Theenergyrequiredt oprovidedomest i
chot
wat erisadi rectfuncti
onoft hewayt hewat er
mustbeheat edandhowmuchi sheat ed.Reducing
thequant i
tyofhotwat erconsumedsav esenergy.
Asecondarybenef i
tisthereductioninrawsource
energy requi red tot reat the wat er suppl y,
whet heron-sit
eorof f
-site.I
nareaswheret here
is a charge based on totalwat er consumpt i
on
flowing into t he sewer, t he reduct i
on i n
consumpt i
onofwat erwillresul
tindi rectsav i
ngs
aswel l.

 Act
ionGui
deli
nes
1
. Insertorif
ices i
nthe hot
-wat
er pi
pes t
o
reducefl
ows.

2. I
nstal
lsel
f-cl
osi
ng f
aucet
s on hot
-wat
er
t
aps.

3.Simpli
fymenust oreducetheneedforlarge
potsandpanst hatrequi
relargeamountsof
hotwat erf orcleani
ng.Wherepract
ical
,use
shortdishwashi
ngcyclesandfi
ll
machi
nesfull
y
21
6
 bef
oreuse.

4.Reducet henumberofmeal sserv

edorserve
more col d meal
sto reduce the hot
-wat
er
requirementsfordi
shwashi
ng.

 Reduce Domest
ic Hot
-Wat
er Syst
em
Losses.
Heat losses from uni nsul
ated hot-water
syst
em distribut
ionpipingcanbesubst antial
.The
magnitude of t hese l osses depends on t he
temperature di ff
erent ial between pipe and
ambientair,onpipesize,andonl engt
hofpi pi
ngin
thesystem.

Preferably,theent irepipi
ngsystem shoul d
beinsulated,butinaccessibl
eporti
onsmaybel ef t
bareprov idi
ngtheyareasmal lpercent
ageoft he
tot
al,ast hi
swi l
lhav elittl
eeffectont hetot al
savi
ngpossi bl
e.

 Act ionGuidel i
nes
1
.Repai
ri nsul
ationofhot -waterpi
pingandtanks,
orinst al
lwheremi ssing(unlesspi
pingand
tanks are l ocated i
n areas whi
ch requi
re
spaceheat i
ng) .

2.
Wheref orcedcircul
ati
onofhotwat erisused,
shut offt he pump when t he buil
ding i
s
unoccupied.When hot-water usage i
sl i
ght
,
consi
derusi nggravi
tycircul
ationwit
houtthe
pump.

3.
Flush wat
er heat
er duri
ng seasonal
21
7
 mai
ntenanceofheat
ingsyst
ems.

4.
When instal
li
ng new storage t
anksor mak ing
maj ormodificat
ionstothebuil
ding,rel
ocate
thehot -watert ankasclosetot heloadas
possibl
e.

 Improve Domesti
c Hot-Water System
Performancewi
thEqui
pmentModi
fi
cati
ons.

Commerci alhot-water systems f requent l

y
requirehotwat erforshortperi odsofheav yuse
atvariouslocati
onswithinthebui l
ding.Itisoften
moreef fici
enttoprov i
dewat erheat erscl oset o
the usage poi nts than t o mai ntai
n cent ral
generationandlongrunsofhot -waterpiping.

Wheret hemajori
tyofhot -wat
erusagei sat
thelowertemperaturesandhighertemperatures
are required ata few specifi
clocat
ions only,
booster heatersor separat
e heatersfor high
temperaturecanbeinstall
ed.

 ActionGuidel
ines
1
. Whenhot -waterdemandsareincreasedowing
toexpansionorchangeinoccupancy,prov i
de
eit
heroi l
-orgas-fi
redwaterheatersorheat
pumps rat her t han electri
c resistance
heating.Iftheheatingboil
erhassuf fici
ent
capacityandi si
noperationyear-roundf or
21
8
 air conditi
oning as wel linstal
la t ank or
tankless heater i n place of a separat e
hot-water generat or. If t he additi
onal
requirement sf or hotwat er are to serve
facil
iti
esremot ef rom theboil
erandusagei s
small,instal
laseparat eheat erint hecold
–wat er l
ine directly atthe fix
ture rather
thanserv i
ngthemf romacent ralsyst
em.

2. Instal
llocalhot -wat
er heati
ng unit
s when
domestic hot -water usage poi nts are
concentrated in areas dist
ant from the
centralgenerati
onandstoragepoi
nt.

3. Useahot-gasheatex changeri
nthehot
-gas
l
ineofref ri
gerat
ionunitsorheatpumpsto
heatdomesti
chotwater.

4. Inst
allaheatex changeri
ncondensateli
nes
from steam equipmenttopreheatdomesti
c
hotwater.

5. Inst
allasol
ar water heater t
oreplaceor
suppl
ementt
heexisti
nghot-watergenerat
or.

9.
5.3Li
ght
ing.
Some20%ofal lelectri
cit
ygenerat edi sused
for lighti
ng,and t hisf i
gure is conserv ati
ve
consideri
ngt hatadditi
onalelect
ricit
yi susedi n
cool
ingsyst emwhichmustremov et heheatoft he
li
ghtf rom occupi
edspaces.Foreachk i
lowattof
li
ghti
ng,an addi ti
onal0. 4k Wi s required for
cool
ingi fli
ghti
ngandai rconditi
oningloadoccur
21
9
si
mul
taneousl
y.

 ReduceI
ll
umi
nat
ionLev
els
The f irst step in reduci ng energy
requirementsf or the l
ighti
ng syst
em isthe
reductionofli
ght
ingl
evel
st hataret
oohigh.

Onemaj orcausesofex cessivel i

ght i
ngl evels
isuni form l i
ght ingespeci al
lyi nof fi
ceandst ores.
Uniform l i
ght i
ngmai ntainedatal ev elnecessary
for t he mostcri ti
calt askwast e energy when
other,l esscri t
icalt ask sdonotrequi ret hesame
amountofi l
lumi nati
on.Uni form l i
ght i
ngshoul dbe
conv ert ed t o sel ect i
vel i
ght ing. Each di stinct
funct ional area wi t hin the bui l
ding and t he
discret et ask swhi choccurwi t
hi nthesameroom
shoul dbel i
ght edonl yt ot hel evelandquant ity
requi redf oreacht ask ,andonl yf ort het imespan
duringwhi cht het askoccurs.Auni form modul ar
li
ghtingpat t
ernofgenerali ll
umi nat i
on,t hrowi ng
li
ghtequal lyonal lareas,regardl essoft ask,may
wast eupt o50%oft heenergyact ual l
yrequi red
forl ighting.Ori entl ightingt osui tt het askst obe
perf ormed.

Task
srequi ri
ngqui
tdi
fferentl
ight
inglev
els
arenoti
nfrequentl
ymix
edmorethanneedbe.

Li
ght
ingef
fici
encyisenhancedi
fli
kev
isual
t
ask
scanbegroupedtoget
her

 Acti
onGuideli
nes
1
. Turn of
fi ncandescent l
ight
ing ov
er t
op
di
spl
ayofmeatcasesi nasupermarket.
220
2. Turn offf lood l
ight
ing whi
ch i
s st
rict
ly
decorat
ive.

3. Directsecurityli
ghtingwherei tisneeded,
suchasatwi ndowsandentrances,andreduce
itwheresecurityproblemareminimal.

4. I
flighteni
ngrequi
rement sarenotconstant,
i
nstall mult
il
evel bal
lasts or mul ti
level
f
luorescentf
ixt
ures.

 I
mprov
eLi
ght
eni
ngSyst
emOperat
ions.
Contrary t o common bel ief,l eaving on a
fluorescentlamprat hert hant urningi tof fnever
saveselectricalenergy.
Newswi tchesshoul dbel ocatedneardoors ,if
possibl
e,orwheret heywillbemostconv enientfor
occupantuse.Swi tchesini nconv enientl ocati
ons
willnotbeused.I fswitchesaregroup-mount ed,
eachswi tchshouldbel abeledt oindicatet hearea
thatitcontrols.

Timeswi t
chesshoul dbeprov i
dedf orareas
whi
charecommonl yusedf orshortperiodsandin
whi
chl i
ghteni
ngi si nadvertentl
ybutf requentl
y
l
efton,suchasreferenceroomsands tockrooms.
 Act i
onGuidel
ines
1. Forcleani
ngwhi chmustbedoneatni ght,
turn
onl i
ghtsonlyint hatporti
onoft hebuildi
ng
whichisbeingcleanedatt hemoment .

2. Swit
choffl
ight
sineachareawhenmov
ingt
o
thenex
t.
221
3. In ki
tchens, av
oid l
eav
ing inf
rared f
ood
warminglampsonwhennof oodi
sbeingk
ept
warm.

 UseDayl
ight
I
nt hehalcyondaysofcheapenergy,wewere
persuadedt hatwindowsweref orav i
ew inora
vi
ew out ,butthatlighti
ngwasmoreef f
ecti
vel
y
andcomf ortabl
yobtainedwi
tharti
fi
cial
means.

Part of t he pressure t owards such

indi
scriminateuseofperi meterelectricl
ightingis
theex tremev ariat
ionintheavail
abil
ityofnat ural
li
ghting.Dayl i
ghtvarieswiththetimeofday,t i
me
ofyear,l ocati
on,andweat her.The amountof
daylightthatactuallyreachesat asksurf aceisa
further f uncti
on ofwi ndowssiz e and locati
on,
exterior ref lecti
on and bl ockage, i nterior
reflectances,andwi ndowscl
eanli
ness.

To obt aint he best of nat urallight ,t he

desi
gneroruserneedscommonsens eandaf ew
controls.Bl i
nds and drapes whi ch are al ready
inst
alledshoul dbeadj ustedt hrought hedayt o
mak ethemostef fecti
v euseofdayl i
ght,
andi nt hi
s
inst
ancet heuseroft hespacei st heex pert .In
winter, direct sunl ight can be a wel comed
additi
onalheati fitisnotbornebyanyoneperson.
Otherwi set hedirectsunmustbescreenedand
onlythei ndirectl i
ghtf rom thesk yorref lected
sunshoul dbeallowedint othespace.

Electricall
ight
eni
ngshouldbelayeredaway
f
rom sourcesofdayli
ghtsuchthateachyear,or
222
bank
,ofl
ight
ingcanbeswi
tchedi
ndependent
ly.

Insummerandi nhotcl
imates,t
hesuncanbe
aprobl em,anduseofdayl ightcanbecomev ery
complicated.Ifdi rectsun li
ghtisnotproperly
controll
ed,t heheatgai nimposedont hecool
ing
system caneasi l
youtweighsavingfrom t
urning
offelectricall
ights.

Thei
dealforanycli
mateisadjust
ablecontrol
forwindowsthatinwint
erwi l
lal
lowthemax i
mum
benefitfor both heat
ing and li
ghti
ng and i n
summer wi l
lk eep t
he di
rectsun outbutl et
skyl
ighti
n.

Thepenet rat ionofdayli

ghtintoanyspacei sin
part dependent on t he color and t ex ture of
exteri ormat erial sneart hewi ndows.Theact ual
il
lumi nation ata t ask within a space can be
mat eri al
ly i mprov ed by i ncreasi ng t he
ref l
ect ancesofnearbyex t
eriorsurfaces.I nlight
wellsand court s,wal l
sshoul d be pai nted light
colors.Whi test oneorconcertatt hebaseofa
buildingwi l
l bouncel i
ghtintogroundf loorcei l
ings.
Inlikemannerout si
dehorizontalrefl
ect orsatt he
windowsi llcan i ncrease room dayl ightby 25%.
Vert icalref lectorscanbeequal l
yusef ulbutcan
alsobedi f f
icult-t o-controlsourcesofgl are.

 Acti
onGuidel
ines
1
. Cl
eanwindowsandsk
yli
ght
s.

2. Where pract ical, schedul

e peri
ods of
occupancy,cl
eaning,andmeeti
ngt
omaximum
223
 useofdayl
ight
.

3. Locatetasksthatneedt hebestil
luminat
ion
cl
osest to windows,withthe task-v
iewing
angleparal
lel
tot hewi
ndows.

4. Swi
tch offelect
ricalli
ght
sin areas when
nat
uralli
ghti
savail
able.

5. Refi
nishinteri
orroom surf acewithli
ghter
col
orst hataremoreref l
ectiv
et oi
ncrease
theeffi
ciencyofal
ll
ightsources.

 I
mprov
eSpaceCondi
ti
onsf
orLi
ght
ing.

Much of t he li
ght i
ng from the fix
ture is
reflected from room surf ace and furnishi
ngs
beforei treachesav i
sibl
etask.Refl
ectedl
ightwil
l
havel essvalue,orstrengtht handirectl
ight,by
the amountabsorbed by t he wall
s and other
reflecti
ngsurf aces.

The larger a room,and l

ighter t
he room
f
inished,thelowerwillbet
heamountofreflected
l
ightabsorbedandt hegreaterwil
lbeactualtask
i
ll
umi nati
on.

Oneaddit
ionaldirecti
on can beexploredin
i
mprovi
ng t
aski l
luminati
on andt hatisactuall
y
l
oweri
ngtheent i
receili
ngincludi
ngthelights
,or
l
oweri
ngthemount i
ngheightsofthefi
xturealone.

 Acti
onGui
deli
nes
1
. Cl
eanandwashwall
s,cei
li
ngandf
loors
.
224
2. When recarpeti
ng or ret
il
ing,use l
ight
er-
col
oredcarpetsort
iles.

3. Paint high colored reflecti

vef i
nishes on
interior room surf aces t o i ncrease
interrefl
ect
ances and t o improv e t he
effici
ency of bot h natural and art i
ficial
il
luminati
on: wal l
sf i
rst i n priori
t y, t
hen
ceili
ngandfloor.

 I
mprov
elampandFi
xtureEf
fici
ency.

Theef f
ici
encyofl ampsi smeasuredi nlumens
per wat t
.Sel ecting lamps wi th hi gher lumen
–per-wattout putpermi tstheremov alofsome
lampsort heraisingofl ightlevels.Moreef fi
cient
lampswi l
li mposesmal lerheatl oadsont heai r
conditi
oni
ngsyst em;i nsupermark etandproduce
mark ets reduce lighti
ng wi llreduce l oads on
commerci alref ri
gerat i
on syst ems as wel l
.I n
winter,any heatl ose by reduct i
on inlighting
wattage can general ly be suppl ied more
effi
cientl
ybyt heheat i
ngsyst em.

225
9.
5.4 Power

 ReduceEnergyRequi
rement
sforEl
evat
ors
andEscal
ators.

Elevatorsandescal atorsaccountforabout1
to4%oft heelectricalenergyrequi redforoffice
buil
ding and l arge depart ment stores. The
amountofpowerrequi redannuallytooperatean
elev
at orisaf unctionoft heheightofthebuil
ding,
thenumberofst ops,passengercapaci t
yandload
factors,andtheef fi
ciencyofhoistingmechanism.

Consumpt ionwillvarybet weenel evatorsof

the same capaci ty depending on t he type of
hoistingmot orandcont rol
,whet hert heel evator
ishydraul i
c,gearedorgearl ess,andt hek i
ndof
serviceandt heamountofl oadsof fsetbyt he
count erweight.Speedsshoul dbes electedt hat
areassl ow aspossibl
e,whi l
ek eepingmax i
mum
waitingt i
menomoret han2mi n.Theel evator
manuf act
urer or a consul t i
ng engi neer can
providehel pinanalyzi
ngt raf f
icpat ternsandi n
selecting aut omat
ic programs f or prov iding
lowestspeedsandhi ghestloading.

Escal
ators, unl
ike el
evators, consume
energywhet hertheyarecarryingpassengers
ornot.

 ActionGuidel
ines
1
. Reducet henumberofelev
atorsin servi
ce
duringhourswhenamaj
orityofpersonsare
226
 notl
eav
ingorent
eri
ngt
hebui
ldi
ng.

2. Turn offescal
ator tounoccupi
edf l
oorsof
offi
cesorretai
lstoresduri
ngrenov
ations
.

3. Reducespeedsofescal
atorsorel
evat
ors
.

4. Consider t
urning offall“down”escal
ators
duringperiodsofl
ightt
raff
ic.

 ReduceEnergyConsumpt
ionf
orEqui
pment
andMachines.

Most buil
dings cont ai
n many el ectri
call
y
drivenmachineswhi charel eftswitchedonand
idl
ingbutareusedonl yforshortperi odsoftime
oronlywhent hebuildingisoccupied.Equipment
notinuseshoul dbet urnedof f
.Automat i
ctimers
withremote-controlswi t
chingarev aluabl
et ode
-energiz
e equipmentwhi ch is notrequired at
nightandduri
ngweek ends.

Inadditi
onaltomot ors,otherl oads,suchas
resi
stance heating equipment,el ectri
c cooking
equipment, meat preparat ion rooms i n
supermarkets and rest aurants,electric si
gns,
andbusinessmachines,canbede-energi zedfora
substant
ialporti
onofweek .

Improvingthei
nsul
ati
onofequipmentsuchas
fryers,ovens,f
oodwarmers,ki
lns,
refri
gerators
,
andf reezersprovi
desaddi
ti
onalopport
uniti
esto
conserveenergy.

227
 Inaddi
ti
onaltosavi
nginpowerforoperat i
on,
insul
ati
on equipmentreduci
ng t
heheatgai nt o
spacestomi ni
mum,resulti
nginloweri nsul
ation
and operation cost
sf or the ai
r-conditi
oni
ng
systems.

Where heat
ing and cool
ing equi
pmentare
wit
hininchesofeachot her,useri gi
dinsul
ati
on
betweenthem.

Whenchoosingnew i tems,selectequi pment

which i s wel l
-insul
ated, whi ch short ens
preparati
ont i
me(moreef fi
cientovens,pressure
cookers)
,andwhichhasasurf acetemperat ureno
o
greaterthan90F. Additi
onalcostswi l
lbequi ckl
y
recovered,andthek i
tchenwork i
ngcondi t
ionswill
beimproved.

 Acti
onGui
del
ines
1
. Turnof
fcoff
eepotsandf
oodwarmerswhen
noti
nuse.

2. Turnoffrefrigerat
eddri nki
ngf ount
ainsat
theendofnormalbusinesshours.

3. Turn of f automat ic windows displays and

revol
vingsignsatt heendofnormalbusi ness
hours( and consider f urther reductionsi n
operati
ng t i
me) .Turn of f elevators f ans
wheresmok ingisnotpermi tt
edandwhere
appli
cablecodesallow.

4. Encourageemployeetogot ot
hecafet
eri
aor
canteen for coffee breaks rat
her t
han
operati
ngcoff
eepercolatorsi
noffi
ce.
228
5. Installcook
ing equi
pmenti
nki
tchen,when
possible.

 Reduce Energy Requi rement

s f
or
Commerci
alRef
rigerat
ion

I
nternall i
ghtsinref ri
gerat edcabinetsheat
the col d air and i ncrease t he l oad on t he
ref ri
gerating machi ne. In many cases ,t he
i
nt ernalli
ght scanberemov edandt hecontent sof
thecabi netl i
teitherf rom repositionedex ci
ting
fix
t ureorf rom new f i
xtureposi ti
onedt oshi ne
i
nt ot hecabinet.Thereduct ionofloadi si
ndi rect
proport i
ont othewattageoft hel
ampremov edand
i
sef f
ectedbyt ype.

Someex ist
ingcoldcabinetsanddeep-f reeze
chestsinst oresandsupermark ets,becauseof
theirdesi
gn,hav etobeopent oal
lowv i
sualdispl
ay
andpubl i
caccess totheproduce.Heatex change
takesplaceatt heint
erfacebet weent hewarm
room airandt hecoldfreezerairowingt omi xi
ng
andcoldairspil
l.

 ActionGuidelines
1
. Donotpermi trefri
geratedproduct
stostand
i
nt heaisles,ondocks,oranyplacewhenthey
wil
l warm up and creat e an addi t
ional
refrigerati
onl oadwhent heyarepl acedin
229
 fi
xture.Reducet
hev
olumeofi
temsrequi
ring
col
dstorage.

2. Avoid setti
ng cont rols ( pressure and
temperature)anylowert hannecessary.Too
oftenafreezermaybeoperat ngat–30oFai
i r
o
temperaturewhen mostof ten a– 10For
higheri
sallthati
snecessary.

3. Wherepossi
ble,const
ructat ightparti
tionor
hang a heavy drape f rom roof tof l
oor
betweensalesandstorageareast oprevent
i
nterchangi
ng ofai r and maintai
n storage
o
areasat60Forl owerinwinter.

4. Consi
derreduci
ng( orturni
ngoffenti
rely)
the i
nternalshel
fl i
ghtsto reduce both
refri
gerati
onrequi
rementsandtheli
ghting
l
oad.

5. Consider the number of f actors demand

defrostf oralltypesofdef rostsyst emsare
normal l
ysetupf ort hemostadv ersest ore
conditi
onst hatmayoccur.Thes econdi ti
ons
usually exi
stf or onl
y shortperi odsoft he
year.Demanddef rostcompensat esf orthese
periodsby causi ng fi
xture t odef rostonly
when requi red. Consult t he f i
xture
manuf acturer bef ore speci fyi
ng demand
defrost.

6. Reduceinternall
ight
sin col
dcabi
net
swi
th
external
li
ghts.

230
231