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Chapter One 1.0 1.1 Oysters
Chapter One 1.0 1.1 Oysters
Chapter One 1.0 1.1 Oysters
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OYSTERS
Molluscs, such as oysters and clams, and crustaceans, such as shrimps, prawns,
lobsters, and crabs, are all examples of shellfish, which is a general term for
2016).
Oysters are a general term for a wide variety of salt-water bivalve mollusk
species are heavily calcified, and many are irregular in shape. The superfamily
Ostreoidea includes many oysters, but not all. Oysters are often cooked or eaten
raw and are considered a delicacy in some areas. The pearl generated within the
Oysters are good filter feeders and can have a big impact on the water column
where they live (Padilla, 2010). Oysters filter plankton and organic debris from
contained "living stream"' is suggested for storing samples for long periods of
1
time. Small animals or samples may be held in aquaria, in which case extra air
properly conditioned I 0-gal (38-L) aquarium can house up to 350 oysters (5-20
mm). The number of animals that can be held in an aquarium reduces as their
moribund and dead shellfish from tanks as soon as possible (Tubiash, 1971).
multiple studies, and oyster reefs can dramatically enhance water quality and
eliminate them from water (Jonas, 1997). What isn't utilised for animal growth
Nigeria's extensive water resources, particularly the Lagos lagoon, are among
filling, dumping, and incineration pollute subterranean and surface water bodies
2
Changes in ambient temperature and salinity influence bivalve defensive cells
and hemolymph molecules (Fisher, 1988), which could explain the wide
times of year (Oliver and Fisher, 1995). This heterogeneity is a major challenge
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Figure 2: Oyster Crassostrea vilginica gross anatomy (Howard et al., 2021).
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1.2 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF OYSTERS
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Water pollution is a major issue in the global context, but lagoon pollution has
disposal system since it is the cheapest and most convenient. The indiscriminate
release of wastes into coastal seas has overburdened these aquatic systems,
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
Water is the natural habitat of fish. They dwell in close proximity to water.
life, including oysters in this case. The Oyster would have to either overcome or
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adapt to the stress in order to survive in its environment. Although the
Some researchers have established and observed that continuous stress affects
the behavior and normal development of aquatic life, that these stressors cause
1.5 AIM
lagoon.
1.6 OBJECTIVES
lagoon.
lagoon.
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To compare haematological results from all selected locations in Lagos
lagoon.
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CHAPTER TWO
True oysters belong to the Ostreidae family. The edible oysters, which are
Saccostrea, belong to this family. The European flat oyster, eastern oyster,
Olympia oyster, Pacific oyster, and Sydney rock oyster are all examples. The
Early Triassic epoch saw the emergence of the Ostreidae family, with the genus
Although almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, most of them are
of no real value. Pearls can be produced in both salt and fresh water
environments. Pearl oysters are part of a separate family, the feathered oysters,
and are not closely related to real oysters (Pteriidae). Pearl oysters can produce
both cultured and natural pearls, but other mollusks, such as freshwater mussels,
can also produce commercially valuable pearls. The marine Pinctada maxima,
which is about the size of a dinner plate, is the largest pearl-bearing oyster.
Natural pearls are not produced by all oysters. Pearl oysters make pearls by
coating a small invading object with nacre in the wild. The annoying object
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accumulates enough layers of nacre to become a pearl over time. The inherent
pigment of the nacre, as well as the shape of the original irritant, determine the
piece of polished mussel shell, is placed into the oyster by pearl growers to
develop a pearl. The oyster may create a perfect pearl in three to seven years.
Ass various scholars learned to make artificial pearls at the turn of the century,
the market for cultured pearls has considerably exceeded the market for natural
Oysters are one of the most highly prized seafoods because they are high in
fatty acids, amino acids, and minerals, all of which are necessary for a well-
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temperature, and phytoplankton density in these species' growing conditions
have all been linked to their key nutritional properties. The higher proportions
acids found in edible oysters collected from wild habitats were significantly
(HH), and balanced amounts of vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and low
cholesterol content.
Oysters are known to be one of nature's best natural filters, but there are limits
to how much pollution they can clean up. In fact, some of the nation’s
estuaries are so overwhelmed with excess pollutants that it would take more
oysters than available in order to purify the water. Adult oysters are known to
filter about 50 gallons of water daily, but existing studies have never fully
oyster, compared to how much pollution passed through the animal’s body
back into the water. Oysters are a keystone species in the environment, that is
they are the backbone of ecosystems. They are heroes in a small shell. In
addition to where they sit on the food chain, oysters can filter up to 50 gallons
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of water per day, cleaning the surrounding water of chemicals and pollutants.
sesame seed).
have all been monitored using such research as an effective and sensitive index
(Akinrotimi et al., 2007). As a result, the formulation of base line values for
determining the health of aquatic organisms (Gabriel et al., 2004). The fish
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species, aquatic biotope, health and nutritional status, age, and sexual maturity
all influence blood parameters (Fazio et al., 2016). Furthermore, aquatic species'
basic ecological aspects including feeding regime and stocking density (Sheikh
of each cell type, has been characterized by a number of writers, and features of
crustacean haematology, including the function of each cell type, have been
freshwater crab Potamon fluvialilis, Yildiz and Atar (2002) found three forms of
are measured in blood chemistry studies, and this includes a wide range of
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(trypsin, lysozyme, antibodies, C-protein, complement factors, and other lytic
factors) are found in the serum and plasma of aquatic organisms. These proteins
act as antimicrobial agents and are the first line of defense, primary barrier
studied, which are important for understanding tissue injury and crustacean
of farmed rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss from Italy and Turkey were
researchers looked at forty Italian trout (total length 32.590.25 cm, weight
397.406.49 g) and forty Turkish trout (total length 33.000.24 cm, weight
Turkish farmed rainbow trout. Our findings revealed that the levels of red blood
cells (RBC), hematocrit (Hct), cholesterol, and total protein in Italian farmed
rainbow trout were significantly lower than those in Turkish trout. Glucose,
Triglycerides, and Serum albumin all had considerably higher values than Mean
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corpuscular hemoglobin concentrations (MCHC), and Glucose, Triglycerides,
and Serum albumin. White blood cell (WBC) and hemoglobin did not show any
statistically significant changes (Hgb). The findings of this work add to our
culture management.
eastern oysters from Florida's Apalachicola Bay. During a year, eastern oysters
Bay, FL, about 15 kilometers apart. On hemolymph extracted from the adductor
muscle, hematologic and serologic tests were performed. During the study
period, the two sites had virtually identical temperature trends, but salinity and
other physical parameters varied. With data from both sites pooled, significant
variation. Over the study period, there were no significant variations in oyster
hemocyte motility, nor were there any significant differences between sites. For
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(combined for all dates) were detected, as well as significant date" site
Oysters can be eaten raw, smoked, boiled, baked, fried, roasted, stewed, canned,
pickled, steamed, or broiled, and they can also be used in a number of cocktails.
Opening the shell and eating the contents, including the juice, is an easy way to
eat. Butter and salt are often added. Poached oysters with a cream roux can be
served on toast. Various diseases affect oysters, reducing harvests and severely
and generating resistant strains, and it is a hot topic of research right now
(Wikipedia, 2021).
Since 1984, a disease with no known source has killed a large number of
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frequent over a short period of time (Lewis 2001). Multiple shell checks can be
seen on some oysters, indicating that they have had more than one encounter
with the disease. Oysters larger than 30 mm may show indications of JOD, but
they are far less likely to die. Mantle lesions with small round bodies measuring
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CHAPTER THREE
3.1 MATERIALS
The following materials were used for the parasitic studies of the four samples
ii. Forceps.
v. Microscope slides.
vii. Centrifuge.
x. Nose mask.
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3.2 SAMPLING AREA
kilometers broad, separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a long sand and spit 2 to
5 kilometers wide on the lagoon side, with swampy borders. The Lagos Lagoon
drains into the Atlantic through the Lagos harbor, a main canal 0.251 km wide
and 10 km long that runs through the heart of the city. Lagos' primary ocean
port is in Apapa, which is located in a broad western branch of the harbor's main
channel. The Lagos Lagoon is fairly shallow, and the city sprawls for more than
bridge was created to avoid the congested mainland suburbs. Many settlements
in the area west of the lagoon have traditionally relied on water transportation
due to a lack of road access. The lagoon's pollution by urban and industrial
waste is a big issue because the lagoon serves as a source of drinkable and
form of fish for a large population. Oysters were collected from the following
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Fig 2: Map of Lagos Lagoon showing sampling location (Lawal-Are, 2010)
Fig 3: Map showing Makoko, Oko baba region in Lagos lagoon (Ugwu and
Soyinka, 2018)
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3.2.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION
Oysters were collected with hand tongs from the following lagoon: Makoko,
Iddo and Okobaba in Lagos state and placed immediately into coolers
containing cold ice packs. The coolers were transported to the Environmental
The sample had a very hard shell, hence, needed a strong percussion tool like
the Laboratory hammer. After hammering, the shell opened and the content was
trapped in a sterile Petri dish. The fluidy material obtained was centrifuged at
2500 rpm for 10 minute to concentrate the parasites. After centrifugation, the
supernatant was discarded and the deposits were loaded on the microscope
slide. Cover slip was applied on the loaded slide before viewing under the
microscope.
The prepared slide was viewed with the x10 microscope objective lens. After
navigating through the microscopic fields, parasite seen was brought to a sharp
focus using the coarse and the fine adjustment knobs of the microscope.
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Pictures were taken for record and documentation of results. The monograph
Oysters collected from the following lagoon: Makoko, Ido and Okoba in Lagos
state were scrubbed clean of fouling organisms and a grinder was used to notch
the shells at the posterior edge adjacent to the adductor muscle. The mantle
cavity was rinsed thoroughly with filtered (0.22 ILm pore size) seawater to
remove debris. Hemolymph was withdrawn from the adductor muscle with a 3-
hematologic characteristics.
percent) with blood samples from experimental fish, and one end of each tube
was promptly sealed with plasticine. The tubes were placed on a tray and
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volume (PCV). The percentages were used to represent the results (Kelly,
----------------------------------------
Blood volume
----------------------------------------
100-PCV
solution was added to each 0.02 ml of suitably mixed blood (which is a mixture
is, for proper colour development). The absorbance of the resulting solution was
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measured against a blank at 540 nm in a Unicam spectrophotometer
3.5.3 Red blood cell (RBC) and white blood cell (WBC) counts
Kelly's instructions (1979). The number of red blood cells was determined by
diluting each blood sample collected (at a ratio of 1:200) with Dacies fluid (a
formaldehyde), which kept the red blood cells in their normal shape. The
amount of white blood cells was evaluated by diluting the blood sample with a 3
percent aqueous solution of acetic acid (at 1:200, i.e. at the same ratio as red
blood cells) and then adding gentian violet. On a microscope slide, 1 ml of the
mixture was dropped and labeled according to the dietary regimens. Red and
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3.6 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The mean and standard deviation were used to present all of the data collected
(Duncan, 1955) were used on SPSS statistical software (Version 17.0 for
Windows; SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). At probability levels less than 0.05 (i.e.
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS
The table below shows the result of the parasitology examination of Oyster
samples from Okooba, Iddo and Makoko region as well as the control. The
monograph used for interpretation was zootaxa. The results revealed the
samples obtained from Oko oba and Iddo lagoon. Ascarophis sebastodis was
seen in Oyster sample from Makoko while salvelinema trofimenko was seen in
the control.
Okooba
Ido
Makoko
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4.2 HAEMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
lagoon are shown in Table 2. The highest level of white blood cell count was
recorded in the control oysters. This was not significantly different (p > 0.05)
from those recorded in the oyster collected from Makoko. On the other hand,
white blood cells count was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the oyster from Ido
and Okoba. Also, the levels of red blood cell count and haemoglobin recorded
in the oyster were not significantly different between the control and those from
Pack cell volume was not detected in the oyster from Makoko, Ido and Okoba.
However, the pack cell volume was detected in the control oyster (0.25±0.21).
Level of platelets was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control oyster than
those of the other groups. This was followed by those from Ide, Okoba and
Makoko respectively.
Similarly, neutrophil count was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control
oyster. On the other hand, the levels of neutrophil count recorded in the oyster
from Makoko, Ido and Okoba were not significantly different (p > 0.05). Level
of neutrophil (%) was significantly higher in the oyster from Ido. This was
followed by the control and those from Makoko and Okoba respectively.
However, lymphocytes count was highest in the oyster from Makoko. This was
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not significantly different from that of Okoba. Lymphocyte count was
cells a
cells a
volume b
4c 1b c
5a
(%) 9c c
4a c
5a
lagoon
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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION
The goal of this study was to give haematological indices for Oysters in Lagos
lagoon (Makoko, Iddo and Okooba area) a brackish water environment that is
tropical and polluted. Okafor and Chukwu (2010) also emphasized the
canadensis was detected in Oyster samples obtained from Oko oba and Iddo
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lagoon. Ascarophis sebastodis was seen in Oyster sample from Makoko while
Several parasites (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and metazoa) have been found in
eastern oyster populations along North America's Atlantic coast, from Canada
nelsoni and Perkinsus marinus, are responsible for up to 90% of the losses in
The results from this study agrees with a similar study by Aguirre-macedo et
al., (2007) who carried out a study between late 1999 and early 2001, a
helminths differed greatly between locales, but were always below 50%. The
(values were above 60% in most places). Perkinsus marinus was found in
oysters from eight different coastal lagoons, with a low prevalence (less than
30%) in practically all of them. All of the detected protozoa and helminths are
common oyster parasites found across the Gulf of Mexico. Only P. marinus and
Bucephalus sp. were linked to tissue injury in the host. Rickettsia-like bacteria
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were discovered in the digestive gland and gills, as well as viral gametocytic
samples were tested. Fifty shells with a length of 1-3cm were infected with
annelids, while 45 shells with a length of 7-10cm were infected with annelids.
6cm in shell lengths 4-6cm and 69.537 and 4.16 in shell lengths 1-3cm,
lengths 1-3cm; only one individual was infected with Nemertea with a
parasites found in this study were from the families Neridae, Opheliidae,
and belonged to the class Polychaeta. Despite the fact that the helminths found
in this study are not the same as those found in other studies, the study
in Lagos lagoon. The highest level of white blood cell count was recorded in the
control oysters. This was not significantly different (p > 0.05) from those
recorded in the oyster collected from Makoko. On the other hand, white blood
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cells count was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the oyster from Ido and Okoba.
Also, the levels of red blood cell count and haemoglobin recorded in the oyster
were not significantly different between the control and those from Makoko, Ido
and Okoba. Pack cell volume was not detected in the oyster from Makoko, Ido
and Okoba. However, the pack cell volume was detected in the control oyster
(0.25±0.21). Level of platelets was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control
oyster than those of the other groups. This was followed by those from Ide,
higher (p < 0.05) in the control oyster. On the other hand, the levels of
neutrophil count recorded in the oyster from Makoko, Ido and Okoba were not
higher in the oyster from Ido. This was followed by the control and those from
the oyster from Makoko. This was not significantly different from that of
Okoba. Lymphocyte count was significantly lowest in the oyster from Ido.
those reported for burrowing brittle stars Henipholis enlongata and Barbatia
activity; high RBC indicates more effective O 2 and CO2 delivery to lung tissue;
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and increased WBC and Lymphocytes indicate ability to defend infections from
contaminated environment like the Lagos Lagoon would have higher blood
values than a healthy Oyster would have. This could be an Oyster internal
homeostatic reaction to the pressures posed by the saline gradient and the
sewage from floating shanties, wood waste from logging and sawmill
operations, and refuse discharges from the neighboring Better-life fish market.
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CHAPTER SIX
helpful instruments for monitoring Oyster and other aquatic animal health, their
normal values for diverse species of Oysters are still unknown. The findings of
parameters in Oysters.
the blood profile of Oysters allowing for a better understanding of the effects of
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haematological count as diagnostic tools for early comprehension of the
The lagoon did certainly reveal indicators of environmental stress, which could
have a negative impact on the oysters’ health. Indirectly, these have an impact
Oyster culture in the country is still in its infancy. This study will serve as a
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Okafor, A. I. and Chukwu, L.O. (2010). Haematological profile of the African
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ABSTRACT
Oysters are salt-water bivalve mollusc families living in brackish water environments. This
study was carried out to determine the haematological parameters of Oysters from selected
locations of Lagos lagoon. The oysters where obtained from Makoko, Iddo and Okooba area
Ichthyofilaria canadensis was detected in Oyster samples obtained from Oko oba and Iddo
lagoon. Ascarophis sebastodis was seen in Oyster sample from Makoko while salvelinema
trofimenko was seen in the control. The hematology result revealed the highest level of white
blood cell (WBC) count in the control oysters. This was not significantly different (p > 0.05)
from those in the oyster from Makoko. WBC cells count was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in
the oyster from Ido and Okoba. Also, the levels of RBC count and haemoglobin recorded in
the oyster were not significantly different between the control and those from Makoko, Ido
and Okoba. Pack cell volume was not detected in the oyster from Makoko, Ido and Okoba but
43
was detected in the control oyster (0.25±0.21). Level of platelets was significantly higher (p
< 0.05) in the control oyster than those of the other groups. Neutrophil count was
significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control oyster. Neutrophil count in the oyster from
Makoko, Ido and Okoba were not significantly different (p > 0.05). However, lymphocytes
count was highest in the oyster from Makoko and was significantly lowest in the oyster from
institutions is required to safeguard the health and safety of people, particularly in coastal
regions.
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