HENRY MILLER:

A DEFINITION OF THE ART AND -THE ARTIST

oy

RODNEY IRWIN

B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1969

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n t h e Department
of
English

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o the

required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

December, 1970
In p r e s e n t i n g this thesis in p a r t i a l fulfilment of the requirements for

an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that

the Library shall make i t f r e e l y available for r e f e r e n c e and study.

I further agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n for extensive copying of this thesis

for s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be granted by the Head o f my Department or

by his representatives. It i s understood that copying or publication

of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my

written permission.

Department of

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia
V a n c o u v e r 8, C a n a d a
 ABSTRACT

This thesis attempts to explain some e s s e n t i a l aspects

of the l i t e r a t u r e o f Henry M i l l e r by c o n c e n t r a t i n g on a n

explication o f t h r e e t l e r m s as they a p p l y to M i l l e r ' s

novels. The t h e s i s does n o t t a k e a s t a n c e involving a certain

critical"distance", that i s , i t does not d e a l w i t h an e v a l u a t i o n

of the s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e of h i s v i s i o n , nor with the v a l i d i t y

or invalidity of h i s w o r l d . This, I m a i n t a i n , h a s been done

to excess by most critics o f Henry M i l l e r . The t h e s i s indicates

in the opening chapter the major o u t l i n e s o f the l i t e r a r y

tradition t o which M i l l e r belongs, specifically the American

romantic-transcendentalist tradition. F u r t h e r , though not

s p e c i f i c ^ r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h i s t r a d i t i o n i n subsequent

chapters i n describing t h e movement toward mysticism apparent

in Miller's later novels. The main p o r t i o n o f .'the thesis

details the s i g n i f i c a n c e of three major terms, apocalypse,

creation, and p r o c e s s , as e l e m e n t s w h i c h encompass t h e o v e r a l l

development of M i l l e r ' s literature. The t h e s i s a t t e m p t s to

show t h a t these terms indicate an unconscious development i n

the author of a mystical v i s i o n or insight where t h e works

themselves serve as a working o u t o f the a u t h o r ' s growing

understanding o f h i s i n n e r awakening. The f i n a l chapter

accounts forMiller's later n o n - f i c t i o n as i l l u s t r a t i v e of h i s

arrived position. Miller has reached a particular kind of

"cosmic consciousness" and he regards h i s l i f e as a parable

of the progress o f everyman from unconscious u n i f i c a t i o n with

all-things ( c h i l d h o o d ) , through knowledge (manhood), to a

new stage o f conscious u n i f i c a t i o n w i t h the world ( m a t u r i t y ) .

The p e r i o d i n t e r v e n i n g between childhood and final spiritual

insight i s that detailed by h i s s i x major n o v e l s , which might

g e n e r a l l y be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a t r i a l by f i r e or a t r i p through

the h e l l of the a l i e n a t e d modern world. This thesis, then,

i s an e x p o s i t i o n of the development of the a r t i s t through h i s

art.
 I INTRODUCTION 1

II APOCALYPSE 16

III CREATION 36

IV UNIVERSAL PROCESS 64

V CONCLUSION f i n a l p o s i t i o n , o f the a r t i s t as
d e f i n e d by The W o r l d o f Sex, The
C o l o s s u s o f M a r o u s s i , and B i g S u r
and t h e O r a n g e s o f H i e r o n y m u s B o s c h
92

FOOTNOTES 101

BIBLIOGRAPHY 108
 This introduction s e r v e s a s more t h a n a s t a t e m e n t of

purpose f o r the chapters that follow. I t i s an attempt to

acknowledge b r i e f l y the r e l a t i o n s h i p of Henry M i l l e r to the

larger traditions o f l i t e r a t u r e which this thesis generally

avoids c o n c e n t r a t i n g upon a s they f a l l o u t s i d e the scope

of this discussion. Some i n d i r e c t justification f o r the

approach taken i n the main body o f the thesis i s given here

through a few illustrations of Miller criticism. I am sure

the e f f o r t s made h e r e to a v o i d the p i t f a l l s of some k i n d s

of criticism has r e s u l t e d i n other, hopefully less serious,

errors.. The attempt, though, has been to p r e s e n t a r e a d i n g o f

Miller that takes as l i t t l e support as p o s s i b l e from his

critics, i n order to a v o i d l o s i n g t h e works t h e m s e l v e s in

s u p p o r t i n g and countering c r i t i c a l arguments.

The basic theme i n Henry M i l l e r ' s m a j o r g r o u p of

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l s i s the development of the artist,

and, in this c a s e , of a p a r t i c u l a r sort of romantic sensibility.

The artist here i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of romanticism in its

twentieth century version and in a particularly Millerian

form. The form which r o m a n t i c i s m t a k e s is differentiated

by an understanding o f i t s own time, w h i c h i s o n l y to say

that M i l l e r ' s c o n t i n u a t i o n i n the r o m a n t i c tradition reflects

not o n l y h i s own p e r s o n a l i t y , mind and predecessors i n

A m e r i c a n and R o m a n t i c l i t e r a t u r e , but the contemporary world.

For example, the o b v i o u s s i n g u l a r i t y o f M i l l e r ' s reaction

t o h i s own t i m e m i g h t be h i s w e l l - k n o w n use o f what i s commonly

thought o f as o b s c e n e l a n g u a g e and d e s c r i p t i o n . In those

terms, M i l l e r can be v i e w e d a s the g r e a t anti-Puritan, anti-

middle class rebel. The d e e p e r , more i m p o r t a n t reasoning

behind t h e use o f a number o f t h e s e features i n M i l l e r ' s

writing, which take us somewhat f a r t h e r p a s t these general

classifications, will be d e a l t w i t h i n greater depth later

in this discussion. Nevertheless, Miller does r e p r e s e n t a t

this general level a tradition o f American romantic writers

whose r o o t s t r a c e b a c k t o W a l t Whitman. That is, Miller

writes i n a kind of autobiographical t r a d i t i o n o f the poet

who sings the " s o n g o f m y s e l f " , who a t t e m p t s t o embrace the

world i n a great expansive first person account of himself .

accepting all life. Some o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l r o o t s o f t h i s

romanticism derive f r o m Emerson's f o r m u l a t i o n of the "Oversoul",

where t h e p o e t i s unified with nature by an i n n e r sense o f a

m y s t e r i o u s encompassing f o r c e . ^ Emerson p u t f o r w a r d , and

Whitman e x e m p l i f i e d i n h i s poetry, the n o t i o n t h a t the a r t i s t

a c t s as a s o r t o f transparent e y e b a l l which sees, accepts,

and r e l a t e s a l l experience. In their literary works, Whitman

and Miller create c e n t r a l f i g u r e s , i n c o r p o r a t i n g that notion

of both the " e y e " and " I " , who experience sensually a l l things

and t r y to accept a l l things. Other aspects of the r o m a n t i c

tradition which appear i n M i l l e r a r e the o r g a n i c metaphor,

as opposed, t o that of the m a c h i n e , and what M o r s e Peckham

points out as a feature of the R o m a n t i c Movement i n the

e a r l y E n g l i s h Romantics: "the spiritual death and rebirth,

or secular conversion."^ Some o t h e r interesting relationships

between M i l l e r ' s r o m a n t i c themes and the m a i n body o f English

romanticism are drawn i n g r e a t e r detail in William Gordon's

doctoral dissertation.*^ For example, c o n n e c t i o n s a r e made

between t h e general method o f M i l l e r ' s n o v e l s , as they

detail the development o f the author himself toward an

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s w o r l d , and the generally similar tale

of the poet's l i f e i n Wordsworth's P r e l u d e : Both w r i t e r s return

t o an e x a m i n a t i o n o f m a j o r moments i n t h e i r childhood as

key touchstones i n their lives.

These elements o f a p a r t i c u l a r t r a d i t i o n which can be

s e e n i n the literature of Henry M i l l e r are mentioned in

order to indicate only briefly the connecting lines to the

main t r a d i t i o n of E n g l i s h literature that are apparent in

M i l l e r ' s works. But the purpose of this discussion is not

to deal w i t h Henry M i l l e r the Romantic. As has b e e n so f a r shown,

the general o u t l i n e of that t r a d i t i o n does a l l o w him a place,

as p e r h a p s i t does f o r a l a r g e and v a r i e d number o f twentieth

century E n g l i s h and American w r i t e r s . Also, that kind of

c a t e g o r i z a t i o n of M i l l e r has b e e n t h o r o u g h l y and successfully

studied i n Gordon's d i s s e r t a t i o n . I t i s indeed useful to

see the writer i n the general perspective of the existing

literary traditions. But my interest in this analysis i s to

move t o w a r d a n o t h e r k i n d of understanding o f M i l l e r ' s work,

which to a l a r g e e x t e n t tries to ignore a d e t a i l e d placement

o f t h e works i n any historical t r a d i t i o n or structure. Rather,

I want t o d e a l w i t h the problems of u n d e r s t a n d i n g the artist-

hero as M i l l e r develops t h a t and other related themes i n t h e

novels themselves. That i s , this discussion w i l l attempt to

deal with the p r o b l e m s and themes o f M i l l e r ' s l i t e r a r y works

in their own more l i m i t e d context.

As the s t o r y o f the development of the artist and the

man, Miller's works d e a l w i t h a number o f r e l a t e d major themes,

one o f w h i c h i s the n o t i o n o f u n i f i e d perception; that i s ,

the way the a r t i s t ' s mind u n d e r s t a n d s h i s world, and how he

makes ' s e n s e ' of i t i n h i s a r t . This also i n v o l v e s an

understanding o f how the a r t i s t interprets the whole range

o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e s , and, i n M i l l e r ' s books, i s important in

terms o f the selection of m a t e r i a l and experiences and events

that l e a d h i s c h a r a c t e r t o becoming f i n a l l y a successful a r t i s t .

The experiences and attitudes Miller expresses also illustrate

a g r e a t d e a l about the w o r l d v i e w a t w h i c h he e v e n t u a l l y

arrives. T h i s i s , i n a sense, a philosophy of l i f e and a theory

o f the role of the artist. And, i n the f o r m o f h i s works,

Miller implies a particular theory of a r t . I n many o f his

later essays, he states quite e x p l i c i t l y some a s p e c t s of

these t h e o r i e s t h a t a p p e a r t o be operating in his novels,

t h o u g h he does n o t make t h o s e statements i n terms o f any

direct d i s c u s s i o n about h i s e a r l i e r novels. 4

What M i l l e r is

presenting then, i s a kind o f modern c h r o n i c l e of the man

and the artist*, or a t l e a s t the man who reaches his heavenly

goal i n becoming the artist. The nature of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

and perhaps the scope of the d e f i n i t i o n of t h e word a r e such

that the man i s an a r t i s t a t the end of h i s journey. What

he comes to mean i s t h a t e v e r y man s h o u l d become a n artist

of this sort, i n the sense t h a t he must become a completely

unified
rt
man". The unification means a t t a i n i n g a secular

v e r s i o n of spiritual s a l v a t i o n , and r e a c h i n g an earthly

paradise, o r r a t h e r coming to r e a l i z e that paradise i s inner,

is to be f o u n d here in this life, in this world. The Miller

hero realizes that the journey itself, the process itself,

can a l s o be the end, at least at a certain point along the

way:

Somehow the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t n o t h i n g was to be h o p e d

f o r had a s a l u t a r y e f f e c t u p o n me. F o r weeks and
months, f o r y e a r s , i n f a c t , a l l my l i f e I h a d b e e n
l o o k i n g f o r w a r d to s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n i n g , some e x t r i n s i c
e v e n t t h a t w o u l d a l t e r my l i f e , and now s u d d e n l y i n s p i r e d
by the a b s o l u t e h o p e l e s s n e s s o f e v e r y t h i n g , I f e l t r e l i e v e d ,
a s though a g r e a t b u r d e n had b e e n l i f t e d f r o m my s h o u l d e r s . 5

There a r e no e x t r i n s i c m i r a c l e s ; the b u r d e n l i f t e d i s an

internal salvation. The journey i s one of f i n d i n g one's

soul; i t is a spiritual trip involving the u n i f i c a t i o n of

life and a r t , where a r t comes to r e p r e s e n t a p r o c e s s of both

becoming, i n i t s attempted p r o d u c t i o n , and ultimately, a

state of being, a t i t s moment o f f u l l insight. The problems

Miller raises are ones o f the n a t u r e o f a r t and artist, the

r e l a t i o n s h i p of the two, and the w i d e r problems of the

relationship o f man to t h e w o r l d . His p r e s e n t a t i o n of the

solutions to t h e s e problems a r e , i n a general sort of way,

romantic, b u t more p a r t i c u l a r l y , they a r e p r e s e n t e d in a

unique f a s h i o n that connects with those aspects of organic

sensibility of the w o r l d . They r e l a t e t o D. H. Lawrence's

understanding of the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f man to h i s w o r l d . Miller

h i m s e l f has said t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f to be continuing

in a Lawrentian tradition. 6
And some o f t h e particularly

American aspects of h i s w r i t i n g and h i s t h i n k i n g connect him

with the stream of w r i t i n g of people such a s Whitman and

W. C. Williams. The great torrent of words, the acceptance

of a l l l i f e , and t h e m y s t i c a l sense of union with a l l things

relate,., him t o Whitman. That o r g a n i c view of the w o r l d and

objectification of nature and man i n i t , as p a r t of i t , put

him i n t u n e w i t h much o f what W i l l i a m s has to say. And

certainly, t h e r e a r e a number o f o t h e r p a r t i c u l a r s of Miller's

speech and thought w h i c h r e l a t e him t o the larger American

romantic-transcendentalist tradition as w e l l . Miller's

connections t o o t h e r w r i t e r s and traditions serve t o place

him i n the context of these l i t e r a r y groupings, presenting him

in a general perspective. Those c o n n e c t i o n s have o n l y been

briefly intimated here, and relatively few relationships have

been drawn s i n c e o u r main i n t e r e s t in Miller i s i h the w o r k s

themselves, the detailed themes he d i s c u s s e s and the way in

w h i c h he develops them, r a t h e r t h a n i n the literary tradition

that circumscribes h i s a r t .

Often the ideas expressed by M i l l e r seem t r i t e and over-

simplified when r e a d at the surface l e v e l f o r idea content

alone. T h i s appears to be so mainly b e c a u s e he is talking

about a depth of f e e l i n g , understanding and consciousness

t h a t we a r e not normally attuned t o . His statements have the

ring of B i b l i c a l injunctions, b e h i n d which there i s a tremendous

weight of deeper meaning i n v o l v e d . The problem, t h e n , i n

approaching M i l l e r and making sense o f what he i s saying

b e y o n d the surface injunctions to l i v e r i g h t and the s u r f a c e

criticisms o f t h e modern w o r l d , i s t o know s o m e t h i n g of the

range of h i s a r t , of h i s i n s i g h t , of h i s understanding, which

will give these statements significance. There i s more than

literal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of those surface-seeming statements

required, though t h e r e i s t h a t as w e l l i n what he says.

Generally, the u n d e r l y i n g import o f what M i l l e r i s driving at

has to do w i t h the spiritual w e l l - b e i n g o f man. He transforms

some o f the o l d , w e l l - k n o w n , a n d unfortunately cliched and

hackneyed teachings of the standard r e l i g i o n s . The important

e x c e p t i o n here i s t h a t he i s p r e s e n t i n g the " t e a c h i n g s ' 1

in contemporary terms, both i n the language, and i n the p a r a b l e s

or m e t a p h o r s and illustrations. And his spiritual "appeal"

r e p r e s e n t s a wider, l e s s e x c l u s i v e humanism t h a n one finds in

most r e l i g i o u s practice. M o r e o v e r , one can m i s s the m e a n i n g

of the s t o r i e s and the r e a l r e l e v a n c e o f what i s b e i n g said

through a too l i t e r a l interpretation of the w o r d s , and through

a long, ingrained, misbegotten habit of trying to p e n e t r a t e

the "meaning" o f t h e words i n t e r m s o f " i d e a s " a l o n e . To a

large degree, the o l d k i n d s o f i d e a s t r u c t u r e s are not there.

The cultural p a t t e r n s , or r a t h e r , the institutionalized modes

of thinking, just do not a p p l y t o what M i l l e r is talking about.

Miller's tradition i s also that o f the u n d e r g r o u n d man, the

underground writers. Their form, t h e i r words have different

meanings. When he t a l k s about the r e l i g i o u s , the sexual, about

s p i r i t , t r u t h , and enlightenment, he means s o m e t h i n g rather

different f r o m what we normally understand by those concepts.

Here, Lawrence f i t s that tradition of writing, and here

perhaps i s where M i l l e r s e e s h i m s e l f a s c o n t i n u i n g i n the

L a w r e n t i a n mold. They a r e w r i t i n g i n another language. So,

when M i l l e r u s e s t h o s e w o r d s i n some o f h i s l a t e r essays

e s p e c i a l l y . ^ : t h e y may seem t o make no real sense; they appear

as trite, egotistic, self-inflated philosophical ramblings i f

we a r e n o t aware o f the c o n t e x t o f h i s a t t e m p t to d e v e l o p the

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f what he means, a s i n f a c t his novels attempt

to do.

Miller's early novels struggle to c i r c u m v e n t the limitations

of language and traditional modes o f t h i n k i n g i n an a t t e m p t to

set up the c o n t e x t o f what he i s "getting at". Tropic of Cancer,

Tropic o f C a p r i c o r n , B l a c k S p r i n g , and the Rosy Crucifixion

trilogy o f S e x u s , N e x u s , and P l e x u s c r e a t e the consciousness

of a new w o r l d , w h i c h i n v o l v e s a new kind of understanding.

The method by w h i c h this i s accomplished i s through the

journey of the artist which the c o n t i n u i n g s t o r y o f a l l the

novels is ostensibly "about". The story o f the a r t i s t deals

w i t h t h e way': i n w h i c h he r e l a t e s to a l l the traditional

institutions of h i s world, such a s work, m a r r i a g e , social

r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h f r i e n d s and o t h e r women, and t h e gradual

p r o c e s s of h i s understanding of l i f e . A second major f e a t u r e

of the method o f h i s n a r r a t i v e as i t t a k e s shape a s this

journey to consciousness i s the form i n which i t is related.

It i s presented i n the first person, present tense; it is

plotless, u n s t r u c t u r e d and externally repetitive i n terms o f

i n c i d e n t s and experiences. The novels, then, are a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

and move i n a c i r c u l a r p a t t e r n . The t h i r d method through

w h i c h t h i s new vocabulary of t h i n k i n g i s introduced i s i n the

language and i n c i d e n t s o f t h e n a r r a t i v e and hov/ t h e y are

recounted. F o r m and language t h e m s e l v e s p a r a l l e l the surface

s t o r y of the birth, or r r e b i r t h of the a r t i s t in their

departure from conventions and traditions of l i t e r a t u r e ; they

form a t r i p a r t i t e a t t a c k on that set of standards which

represent the c o n t e m p o r a r y way of l i f e i n the industrialized,

western, twentieth century world. A l l t h r e e methods r e p r e s e n t

an attempt to r e - s t r u c t u r e the context of our understanding

of that world and of l i t e r a t u r e ; t h a t i s , they are p a r t o f an

integral attempt to reshape t h e b a c k g r o u n d or r o o t s o f what

literature means, what a r t means. These n o v e l s re-define a

whole set of terms, i n ways t h a t have e x i s t e d b e f o r e , though,

and i n ways t h a t o t h e r w r i t e r s , s u c h a s L a w r e n c e , Whitman,

and W. C. W i l l i a m s , among many o t h e r s , have d e a l t w i t h . To

understand Miller, one must know what he i s s a y i n g i n terms of

that tradition, partly romantic, t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t , American

in feeling, thought, and language, as w e l l as something of the

religious mystic that exceeds this context. These terms

applied to M i l l e r ' s novels can be expanded in relation to what

some o t h e r t h i n k e r s whom M i l l e r was familiar with, such as

the p s y c h o a n a l y s t , O t t o Rank, and t h e m y s t i c , Nicholas

Berdyaev, 9
m i g h t he a b l e t o add a s t h e o r e t i c a l structures of

consciousness and experience which M i l l e r i s d e a l i n g with as

he combines n o v e l and biography, i l l u s i o n and r e a l i t y , i n an

attempt both t o r e c r e a t e h i s pas*t (by i m a g i n a t i v e l y r e l i v i n g

it), and to f i n d i n that recreation t h e meaning of l i f e . Part

of the p u r p o s e o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t o e x p l a i n the "meaning" o r

kind o f consciousness a t which M i l l e r finally does arrive.

Most literary c r i t i c i s m o f Henry M i l l e r , what little

there i s , either s c r a t c h e s the s u r f a c e o f M i l l e r ' s real meanings,

or completely misses the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f what he i s s a y i n g ,

u s u a l l y as the r e s u l t of a p a r t i a l interpretation o f the

meaning o f h i s n o v e l s . These nits-readings d e r i v e p a r t l y

1
from

a selective r a t h e r than a complete r e a d i n g o f M i l l e r ' s works.

That i s , they a r e not considered a s a r e l a t e d whole. And these

critics a r e then i n an even p o o r e r p o s i t i o n when attempting

to deal with h i s other prose essays, s i n c e those works, I

maintain, r e q u i r e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the p o s i t i o n from which

Miller i s speaking, one t h a t c a n be g a i n e d o n l y from the group

of h i s earlier novels. Without that k i n d o f background,

which i s the minimal prerequisite, the c r i t i c s i m p l y cannot ••

know t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e c u l m i n a t i n g u t t e r a n c e when he h a s

no real sense of i t s context. K i n g s l e y Widmer's interpretation

of Miller demonstrates j u s t such a l a c k o f i n s i g h t i n t o the

whole o f M i l l e r ' s work.

 W h i l e M i l l e r once i n a w h i l e t u r n s a p h r a s e , p e r c e p t i o n
o r w h i m s i c a l r e s p o n s e i n a c u r i o u s way, most o f h i s
v a s t w r i t i n g i s mere v e r b i a g e - p a r a p h r a s e , n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y
apt q u o t a t i o n , cranky f a s h i o n , p e r s o n a l b l u r b , d i s o r g a n i z e d
autobiography, or j u s t d r i f t i n g r u m i n a t i o n i n which
M i l l e r d e m o n s t r a t e s h i s contempt f o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ,
s t a n d a r d s , a n a l y s i s c o m p l e x i t i e s , and e v e n a w a r e n e s s o f
reality.10

T h o u g h I t h i n k h i s most s e r i o u s critical fault i s h i s attempt

t o impose h i s own r i g o r o u s s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s on M i l l e r ,

Widmer f a s t e n s on one f e a t u r e o f M i l l e r ' s writing, the f i g u r e

of the rebel-buffoon, and t h e n a p p l i e s t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

to a l l h i s n o v e l s , judging their success or f a i l u r e as they

conform t o that a r b i t r a r y measure. This i s a false method

of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n where t h e c r i t i c searches f o r categories

with which t o blanket t h e works o f a w r i t e r . The critic's

reading becomes a n a n a l y s i s by c o m p a r i s o n to h i s own c h o s e n ,

favourite literary yardstick. A n d where no u s e f u l measure

exists i n t h e w o r k s , he c r e a t e s one, o r he f a s t e n s on one aspect

in t h e work w h i c h m o s t n e a r l y c o n f o r m s t o what l i t e r a r y analysis

expects as a measuring rod, and i n f l a t e s that. In other words,

many c r i t i c s do n o t a p p e a r t o be r e a d i n g a l l o f what i s t h e r e

being s a i d by t h e a u t h o r , o r t h e y r e j e c t a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f

it b e c a u s e t h e y c a n n o t make s e n s e o f i t w i t h i n t h e terms o f

the critical standards they a r e imposing on the a r t i s t ; : . I n

this regard, a n even b e t t e r example o f good misinterpretation

is the j o u r n a l review o f M i l l e r by J o h n W i l l i a m s , which i n

many ways i s q u i t e s y m p a t h e t i c and c e r t a i n l y well-intentioned. 1 1

Williams attempts t o e x p l a i n M i l l e r i n terms o f American Puritan

t h e o l o g y and i t s c o n f l i c t s , a comparison which is probably

valid i n part, a t l e a s t as a minor aspect of Miller's attitude,

though i t i s only occasionally v i s i b l y manifested i n the novels.

Williams draws p a r a l l e l s i n a great deal of this theology to

elements of M i l l e r ' s works. In the excitement of p r o v i n g h i s

theory, what he s a y s t e n d s t o become a r a t h e r forced matching

of the s o r t that c a n be made t o a n y number of things, once

one decides to find the equivalents that f i t h i s theory. One

could, I am s u r e , perform t h e same k i n d of a n a l y s i s o f M i l l e r

in t e r m s o f a n y number of theories i n that fashion, extracting

from t h e a u t h o r ' s work t h e n e c e s s a r y support f o r one's argument.

The fallacy i n t h i s kind of analysis lies i n i t s fragmented,

partial and a r b i t r a r y approach t o the a u t h o r . Widmer's category

of the rebel-buffoon follows a similar analytical line, in

terms o f h i s a r b i t r a r y s e l e c t i o n o f one theme and h i s r e j e c t i o n

o f a l l e l s e , t h o u g h he a p p l i e s h i s r e a d i n g - o f Miller t o the

whole r a n g e o f h i s w o r k s . B u t what s e t s W i l l i a m s apart i nhis

criticism i s an i n n o c u o u s , b u t i n c r e d i b l e s t a t e m e n t which

exemplifies rather well the c r i t i c ' s blindness t o what i s

taking place in t h e w r i t e r ' s works when the c r i t i c becomes

c o m p l e t e l y enmeshed i n the a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i s own t h e o r i e s to

the work he i s h a n d l i n g : In discussing the Colossus of Maroussi,

Williams says, "we s o o n become p a i n f u l l y aware t h a t M i l l e r i s

really concerned only with h i m s e l f . " 1 2

Surely he c o u l d not

have o v e r l o o k e d the f a c t that this i_s the c e n t r a l pervading

theme o f t h e autobiographical story i n the s i x major novels .

of Henry M i l l e r as w e l l as that of p r a c t i c a l l y everything else

M i l l e r has ever w r i t t e n ! L i k e many M i l l e r critics, his tunnel-

v i s i o n o f M i l l e r has obviously a l l o w e d him to see one aspect of

the w o r k s , and a relatively i r r e l e v a n t one at that. He has

focused, unfortunately, on an attempt to force the w o r k s to

fit his idea of P u r i t a n elements of s u c c e s s and failure in the

American unconscious.

Even the most c o m p e t e n t , sympathetic reviewers of Miller

i n d i c a t e , by the generality of what they say, that t h e y do not

really come t o terms w i t h M i l l e r ' s work. T h e y do not demonstrate

the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f what he says, what he d o e s , o r what the use

of c e r t a i n t e c h n i q u e s he uses a r e intended to accomplish.^ 3

Philip Rahv can blithely say, on the basis of their treatment

o f sex, t h a t M i l l e r . a n d Lawrence a r e completely unconnected,

t h o u g h he speaks i l l u m i n a t i n g l y and intelligently about

Miller's a t t i t u d e as a r t i s t to h i s a r t . 1 4
The point is that

unless he is implying that the central feature of the Lawrentian

w o r l d v i e w i s Lawrence''^ a t t i t u d e toward sex and that a t t i t u d e i s

revealed only i n h i s sexual d e s c r i p t i o n s , then l i n k i n g the

two artists i n any m a j o r way i s a l e g i t i m a t e and valuable

comparison. It i s d i f f i c u l t to b e l i e v e that Rahv c o u l d be

seriously t h i n k i n g o f the works o f L a w r e n c e o r M i l l e r as principally

focused upon s e x u a l a t t i t u d e s or j u s t because t h e y d i f f e r in

methods o f t r e a t i n g the subject they are thus unrelated.

What is required, then, is a somewhat more comprehensive

definition of M i l l e r the a r t i s t and Miller's art, in order

really to a p p r e c i a t e what he i s saying. That i s , one&cannot

l e g i t i m a t e l y b e g i n to c r i t i c i z e a work w i t h o u t f i r s t coming to

know i t s t e r m i n o l o g y . And t e r m i n o l o g y here means more t h a n

vocabulary. I t i s n o t h i n g s h o r t of an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the

w o r l d of which the a r t i s t i s s p e a k i n g and the w o r l d i n w h i c h

he i s s i t u a t e d . B r i e f l y , i t i s as l a r g e a sense of the a r t i s t ' s

c o n t e x t as one can a r r i v e a t from a d i s c u s s i o n of the works

themselves. The purpose o f t h i s t h e s i s , then, i s t o examine

the w o r l d of Henry M i l l e r i n h i s novels i n order to e s t a b l i s h

h i s c o n t e x t , h i s v o c a b u l a r y , h i s "eye" and h i s " I " . This,

i t seems to me, i s a necessary p r e l i m i n a r y to l i t e r a r y

c r i t i c i s m , i f not the main f u n c t i o n of c r i t i c i s m itself.

My purpose here i s a l s o an attempt to r e a c h through to some

sense o f the s p i r i t u a l wisdom of the . a r t i s t , which i t s e l f i s

perhaps the c e n t r a l f e a t u r e o f t h e s u c c e s s f u l work of a r t .

The t a s k o f c r i t i c a l a p p r e c i a t i o n i n l i t e r a t u r e must

t r y to be something more than the r a t h e r academic a n a l y s i s of

forms, s t y l e s , and i d e a s m e c h a n i c a l l y a p p l i e d from o u t s i d e

the work of a r t , and a l l measured i n the o b j e c t more o r l e s s

f o r t a b l e s o f whether i t conforms t o o r d e v i a t e s from the

c u l t u r a l y a r d s t i c k s of " t r a d i t i o n " . C r i t i c i s m must attempt

t o be something more i f i t i s ever to perform a u s e f u l f u n c t i o n

i n i l l u m i n a t i n g what i t i s t h a t l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y the new

and perhaps r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t , i s "about".

I suspect t h a t l u c i d i t y may no l o n g e r be w h o l l y adequate

to the a m b i t i o n s o f c r i t i c i s m . We i n c r e a s i n g l y f e e l
t h a t c r i t i c i s m should do more than c l a r i f y ; i t s h o u l d
a l s o possess the wisdom o f the senses and o f the s p i r i t .
We want i t to endanger i t s e l f , as l i t e r a t u r e does, and
to t e s t i f y t o our c o n d i t i o n . We even hope t h a t i t can
s u s t a i n the burden o f r e v e l a t i o n . T h i s hope has l e d me
to suggest t h a t c r i t i c i s m may have to become a p o c a l y p t i c
b e f o r e i t can compel our sense o f relevance. 15
 This thesis i s hardly apocalyptic or revelatory i n the sense

that Hassan calls f o r , but, as an exercise in explanatory

analysis, i t does a t t e m p t to convey that "wisdom o f the senses

and of the spirit" that i s the e s s e n t i a l Henry Miller.

 One way o f a c c o u n t i n g f o r M i l l e r ' s m a i n autobiographical

n o v e l s would be t o t r a c e p a t t e r n s o f d e v e l o p m e n t which might

link them together. R a t h e r t h a n work through some s o r t of a

blueprint outline of M i l l e r ' s n o v e l s w h i c h m i g h t only result

in fitting t o g e t h e r a h a p h a z a r d and a r b i t r a r y s t r u c t u r e to

which t h e y do n o t o b v i o u s l y b e l o n g , i t would p e r h a p s be most

useful t o a p p r o a c h t h e works i n terms of some k e y w o r d s .

Hopefully, t h e s e terms w i l l form the b a s i s o f a general unifying

framework illustrating the o v e r a l l cohesiveness o f M i l l e r ' s

novels. These words a r e : a p o c a l y p s e , c r e a t i o n , and u n i v e r s a l

process. From a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e terms I t h i n k t h e s t r u c t u r e

of the w o r k s w i l l make i t s e l f apparent. The m a i n b o u n d a r i e s

of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n a r e the s i x n o v e l s of M i l l e r which r u n

c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y from T r o p i c o f Cancer through Black Spring,

Tropic o f C a p r i c o r n , Sexus, P l e x u s , and Nexus. These novels

form a u n i f i e d whole i n many ways, i n that they comprise a

series o r p l a n w h i c h M i l l e r s e t out about the t i m e he began

the f i r s t o f them i n 1 9 3 1 . 1
It will be u s e f u l to deal briefly

with some o f M i l l e r ' s o t h e r w r i t i n g s Y/here t h e y s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e

t h e p o s i t i o n a t w h i c h t h e a u t h o r has a r r i v e d i n his. l a t e r work,

as t h a t p o s i t i o n r e l a t e s t o t h e movement o f t h e a r t i s t depicted

in the s i x major novels.

 To b e g i n w i t h the notion of a p o c a l y p s e i s to grapple with

an e s s e n t i a l problem i n a l l of what M i l l e r says: the seemingly

paradoxical and c o n t r a d i c t o r y meaning o f the terminology in

his writings. The difficulty i s twofold. It i s f i r s t that

o f making the distinction between the two worlds M i l l e r wants

to speak a b o u t , one o f w h i c h must be discussed in terms

which a p p l y to t h e other. That i s , he must t a l k o f a n inner,

s p i r i t u a l world or condition of f e e l i n g which is e s s e n t i a l l y

unparaphrasable because f e l t directly rather than thought

about. He must s p e a k , l i k e the poet, i n ways w h i c h will

somehow a p p r o x i m a t e , and thus, recreate, the sense o f that

inner f e e l i n g and that i n n e r movement o r development which

the h e r o o f h i s n o v e l s moves t h r o u g h . At the same time,

he wants to l o c a t e the external world, the e s s e n t i a l background

against w h i c h the i n n e r man develops r e l a t i v e t o that ;

inner

movement; p a r a d o x i c a l l y , that placement i s also the metaphor

in terms o f which the inner man must be described as moving.

The metaphor i s n e c e s s a r y i f only because there i s no other

way and no other words w i t h which to p a i n t the picture.

Getting behind the idea content of words, in a sense, is

what r a i s e s the c e n t r a l and recurring difficulty which the

artist, who has more t h a n that to say, faces. And Miller is

that s o r t of a w r i t e r . He i s , i n as many ways a s possible,

a t t e m p t i n g to break through the r e s t r i c t i o n s w h i c h words, as

expressions of ideas about t h i n g s , as limiting, particular

meanings, p l a c e on speech. "Behind the word i s c h a o s . Each

word a stripe, a bar, but there are not and never w i l l be

enough b a r s t o make the mesh." 2

This first o f many f o r m s of

reaction t o the inhibitions and p r o s c r i p t i o n s of tradition

is an a t t a c k on idea i t s e l f , as i t i s a l s o an attempt to

render some o f the t e e m i n g l i f e that l i e s behind the organized,

s e l e c t e d , arranged s e n s e o f what i s commonly l i t e r a r y fiction,

There a r e two things to be done i n t h i s regard: first, the

world must be p e r c e i v e d as i t i s before any progress among

men i s to be made; t h i s w o r l d is a reality Miller sees with

rather violent and incisive insight:

t h e m o n s t r o u s t h i n g i s n o t t h a t men h a v e c r e a t e d r o s e s
o u t o f t h i s dung heap, b u t t h a t , f o r some r e a s o n o r
o t h e r man l o o k s f o r a m i r a c l e , and t o a c c o m p l i s h i t
he w i l l wade t h r o u g h b l o o d . He w i l l d e b a u c h h i m s e l f
w i t h i d e a s , he w i l l r e d u c e h i m s e l f to a shadow i f o n l y
f o r one s e c o n d o f h i s l i f e he can c l o s e h i s e y e s t o t h e
hideousness of r e a l i t y . E v e r y t h i n g i s endured . . .
i n the b e l i e f that overnight something w i l l occur, a
m i r a c l e , which w i l l render l i f e t o l e r a b l e . And a l l
t h e w h i l e a m e t e r i s r u n n i n g i n s i d e and t h e r e i s no
hand t h a t can r e a c h i n t h e r e and s h u t i f o f f . . . .
And o u t o f t h e e n d l e s s t o r m e n t and m i s e r y no m i r a c l e
comes f o r t h , no m i c r o s c o p i c v e s t i g e e v e n o f r e l i e f .
O n l y i d e a s , p a l e , a t t e n u a t e d i d e a s w h i c h h a v e t o be
f a t t e n e d by s l a u g h t e r ; i d e a s come f o r t h l i k e b i l e , l i k e
the g u t s o f a p i g when the c a r c a s s i s r i p p e d o p e n . 3

The second insight about art itself i n v o l v e s an understanding

of the purpose of a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n as t r a n s f o r m i n g and rendering

the significance of l i f e itself:

S t a n d i n g on t h e t h r e s h o l d o f t h a t w o r l d w h i c h M a t i s s e
h a s c r e a t e d I r e - e x p e r i e n c e d t h e power o f t h a t r e v e l a t i o n
w h i c h had p e r m i t t e d P r o u s t to so d e f o r m t h e p i c t u r e o f l i f e
t h a t o n l y t h o s e who, l i k e h i m s e l f , are s e n s i b l e to the
a l c h e m y of sound and s e n s e , a r e c a p a b l e o f t r a n s f o r m i n g
the n e g a t i v e r e a l i t y o f l i f e i n t o t h e s u b s t a n t i a l a n d
s i g n i f i c a n t o u t l i n e s o f a r t . O n l y t h o s e who c a n admit
t h e l i g h t i n t o t h e i r g i z z a r d s c a n t r a n s l a t e what i s t h e r e
i n t h e h e a r t . . . . He i s a b r i g h t s a g e , a d a n c i n g s e e r
 who, w i t h a sweep o f the b r u s h , removes t h e u g l y
s c a f f o l d t o w h i c h t h e body o f man i s c h a i n e d by t h e
incontrovertible f a c t s of l i f e . He i t i s , i f a n y man
t o d a y p o s s e s s e s t h e g i f t , who knows where t o d i s s o l v e
t h e human f i g u r e , who h a s t h e c o u r a g e t o s a c r i f i c e a n
h a r m o n i o u s l i n e i n o r d e r t o d e t e c t t h e r h y t h m and murmur
of t h e b l o o d . . . . 4

The a t t a c k on t h e word, t h e n , is really a movement a g a i n s t

a f o r m o f a b s t r a c t i o n , away f r o m the aspects of l i t e r a r y

tradition which impel the w r i t e r to b u i l d literary "structures"

that c o n t a i n h i s " i d e a s " about life. Miller, of c o u r s e , has

his i d e a s and h i s p h i l o s o p h y a b o u t w h i c h he o f t e n speaks.

But t h e p r o b l e m he f a c e s i n i t i a l l y i s one o f f i n d i n g a context

for presenting them c l e a r l y and d i s t i n c t l y apart f r o m what

he f e e l s i s r e p r e s s i v e i n the l i t e r a r y tradition. He i s a n

artist; t h e r e f o r e he i s c r e a t i n g a n d he i s attempting t o communicate

in doing so. He i s a w r i t e r ; t h e r e f o r e , h i s communication

is through speech. But what he h a s t o communicate i s o f :the

nature o f the s p i r i t , t h e i n n e r man, not j u s t the man i n the

head, that world of thought, b u t t h e whole i n n e r man, where

t h e words must c o n t a i n body and t h o u g h t worlds. He wants t o

present t h e l i v i n g man, n o t a p i c t u r e o f man, a literary

creation equivalent t o , s t a n d i n g f o r , i d e a ; b u t man totally

involved i n the a c t o f l i v i n g , generating ideas only as a part

of h i s c o m p l e t e r a n g e o f human g e n e r a t i n g activity.

S t i l l I c a n ' t g e t i t o u t o f my m i n d what a d i s c r e p a n c y
t h e r e i s between i d e a s and l i v i n g . A permanent d i s l o c a t i o n ,
t h o u g h we t r y t o c o v e r t h e two w i t h a b r i g h t a i m i n g .
And i t won't g o . I d e a s h a v e to be wedded t o a c t i o n ;
i f t h e r e i s no s e x , no v i t a l i t y i n them, t h e r e i s no
action. I d e a s c a n n o t e x i s t a l o n e i n t h e vacuum o f t h e
mind. I d e a s a r e r e l a t e d t o l i v i n g . . . . The a e s t h e t i c s
of the i d e a b r e e d s f l o w e r p o t s a n d f l o w e r p o t s you p u t on t h e
window s i l l . B u t i f t h e r e be no r a i n o r s u n o f what u s e
p u t t i n g f l o w e r p o t s o u t s i d e the window?5
His v i s i o n is explosive and v i o l e n t , as are his feelings &bout

the condition of the world around him. As he reacts to that

world, so he reacts to the t r a d i t i o n in which he works. He

has to break from the structural forms of expression, the

l i t e r a t u r e of the novel, in every way possible and as r a d i c a l l y

as p o s s i b l e . I f l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n impedes the presentation

of the development of the whole man, then the presentation

as novel must destroy the l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n of the novel as

well:
Up to the present, my idea i n collaborating with myself
has been to get off the gold standard of l i t e r a t u r e .
My idea b r i e f l y has been to present a resurrection of
the emotions, to depict the conduct of the human being
in the stratosphere of ideas, that i s , i n the grip of
delirium. To paint a pre-Socratic being, a creature part
goat, part T i t a n . In short, to erect a world on the
basis of the omphalos, not on an abstract idea nailed
to a cross. 6

This negative attitude toward the accepted concept of l i t e r a t u r e

is part of the means that are to be used to bridge the gap

that separates the inner man from the external world of

r e a l i t y as M i l l e r sees i t . M i l l e r takes the stance of the

writer in r e v o l t , against the world, against literature itself,

and he t e l l s the story of h i s revolution in order to present

the progress and development of his own s p i r i t u a l struggle;

that i s , to t e l l the inner truth.

The second major d i f f i c u l t y in understanding the nature

of M i l l e r ' s terminology i s the problem of what i s true and

what M i l l e r means by t r u t h . Again, of course, the meaning

of truth is connected with the necessity to pass through

the factual and the l o g i c a l structures of surface events,

to a r r i v e a t some h i g h e r level o f meaning. The f a c t s a c t u a l l y

get i n t h e way o f the t r u t h i n M i l l e r ' s story of himself,

because the t r u t h i s r e l a t e d to the s t o r y o f h i s i n n e r state

and that progress, not the outer c y c l e o f e v e n t s w h i c h he

seems t o be r e c o u n t i n g i n such a confused, circular manner.

The r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the e v e n t s and e x p e r i e n c e s i n the l i f e

of the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l hero Henry M i l l e r i s repetitive

and c o n t r a d i c t o r y , and o b v i o u s l y exaggerated i n many places.

Those " f a c t s " are n o t important i n that sense because t h e

t r u t h o r the e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e o f the s t o r i e s lies not i n

their f a c t u a l v e r a c i t y , b u t i n the s t a t e o f b e i n g o f the

characters i n v o l v e d which they reveal. For M i l l e r , history,

the journey o f the a r t i s t , i s a l w a y s a t b o t t o m an i n n e r one,

and the circumstances o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e , such as

time, p l a c e , p l o t , chronology, and c h a r a c t e r s , have different

usage, d i f f e r e n t development h e r e . Those t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e

story a r e n o t u s e d inlte f a m i l i a r patterns t o w h i c h we a r e

perhaps accustomed.

F o r t h e r e i s o n l y one g r e a t a d v e n t u r e and t h a t i s i n w a r d
t o w a r d t h e s e l f , and f o r t h a t , t i m e n o r s p a c e n o r even
d e e d s m a t t e r . . . . I f t h e s e l f were n o t i m p e r i s h a b l e ,
the " I " I w r i t e a b o u t would have b e e n d e s t r o y e d l o n g
ago. T o some t h i s may seem l i k e a n i n v e n t i o n , b u t
w h a t e v e r I i m a g i n e t o have happened- d i d a c t u a l l y happen . . . .
e v e n i f e v e r y t h i n g I s a y i s wrong, i s p r e j u d i c e d , s p i t e f u l ,
)•'. m a l e v o l e n t , e v e n i f I am a l i a r and a p o i s o n e r , i t i s n e v e r -
t h e l e s s the t r u t h . . . . 7

The journey of the M i l l e r hero, "then, i s i n a direction

and o f a magnitude t h a t e n c o m p a s s e s more than o u r understanding

of the o r d i n a r y n a r r a t i v e a p p e a r s t o C a l l o w , i t i s contradictory
in so many ways b e c a u s e M i l l e r w a n t s t o t e l l a s t o r y , the

d e v e l o p m e n t o f the a r t i s t , present a philosophy and v i e w o f

aesthetics, a p e r s p e c t i v e o f the world and o f a r t , a l l o f

w h i c h f o r m p a r t o f what we u n d e r s t a n d , i n i t s autobiographical

outline as l i t e r a r y creation. The v i e w p u t i s one w h i c h

n e g a t e s a r t a s the m e r e l y n e c e s s a r y appendage to c u l t u r e .

Art becomes f o r h i m a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e way o f l i f e ; i t

is the e x p r e s s i o n o f a s e c u l a r r e l i g i o n . I f there isa

literary tradition w h i c h he f o l l o w s , i t i s t h a t o f the d e v e l o p m e n t

of the i n d i v i d u a l artist, t h e o u t c a s t n o t the spokesman, t h e

man r e b e l l i n g a g a i n s t the r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e human social

world, the a r t i s t r e j e c t i n g accepted f o r m s , c r e a t i n g new forms,

l e a d i n g from h i s l i t e r a r y predecessors r a t h e r than f o l l o w i n g

their lead. H i s s t o r y i s t h e s t r u g g l e o f the a l i e n a - t e d man

to come t o t e r m s w i t h h i s own l i f e i n h i s own way.

One d o e s n ' t become a n a r t i s t o v e r n i g h t . F i r s t you have

to be c r u s h e d , t o have y o u r c o n f l i c t i n g p o i n t s o f v i e w
annihilated. You have t o be w i p e d o u t a s a human b e i n g
i n o r d e r t o be b o r n a g a i n a n i n d i v i d u a l . . . . You
have t o g e t beyond p i t y i n o r d e r t o f e e l f r o m t h e v e r y
r o o t s o f your b e i n g . One c a n ' t make a new h e a v e n and
earth with " f a c t s " . T h e r e a r e no " f a c t s " — t h e r e i s o n l y
the f a c t t h a t man . . . i s on h i s way t o o r d i n a t i o n . 8

The s t r u g g l e and the a l i e n a t i o n a r e the i n i t i a t i o n fee of

the a r t i s t , part of a s p e c i a l k i n d o f death undertaken i n

order to be r e b o r n i n t o a new, u n i f i e d world.

Miller wants to u n i f y a r t and l i f e , t o c r e a t e an a r t

o b j e c t which e s s e n t i a l l y destroys a r t by somehow transcending,

through the a r t i s t i c vision itself, both a r t and l i f e . He

wants t o encompass e v e r y t h i n g i n h i s v i s i o n of l i f e , through

his art. And one aspect of that great, all-enfolding

magnanimity of view is Miller's t r a g i c and violent, yet

joyful vision of the apocalypse. That v i s i o n i s somehow

quite c o n s i s t e n t , t h o u g h i t does encompass disparate imagery,

though i t is joyful i n i t s happy c a l l f o r the cataclysmic end

of the world:

Nobody t h i n k s any more how m a r v e l l o u s i t i s t h a t the

whole w o r l d i s d i s e a s e d . No p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e , no
frame o f h e a l t h . God m i g h t j u s t a s w e l l be t y p h o i d
fever. No a b s o l u t e s . Only l i g h t years of d e f e r r e d
progress. When I t h i n k o f t h o s e c e n t u r i e s i n w h i c h
a l l E u r o p e g r a p p l e d w i t h the B l a c k D e a t h I r e a l i z e how
r a d i a n t l i f e can be i f o n l y we a r e b i t t e n i n the
r i g h t place'. The dance and f e v e r i n t h e m i d s t o f t h a t
corruption'. E u r o p e may n e v e r a g a i n dance so e c s t a t i c a l l y .
And s y p h i l i s ' . The a d v e n t o f s y p h i l i s l T h e r e i t was,
l i k e a morning s t a r h a n g i n g over the r i m o f the w o r l d . . . .
Aye, the g r e a t sun o f s y p h i l i s i s s e t t i n g . Low visibility:
f o r e c a s t f o r t h e B r o n x , f o r A m e r i c a , f o r the whole modern
world. Low v i s i b i l i t y a c c o m p a n i e d by g r e a t g a l e s o f l a u g h t e r .
No new s t a r s on t h e h o r i z o n . Catastrophes . . . only
catastrophes'. . . . I see A m e r i c a s p r e a d i n g d i s a s t e r .
I see A m e r i c a a s a b l a c k c u r s e upon the w o r l d . I see
a l o n g n i g h t s e t t l i n g i n and t h a t mushroom w h i c h has
p o i s o n e d the w o r l d w i t h e r i n g a t the r o o t s . . . . I am
d a z z l e d by the g l o r i o u s c o l l a p s e o f the world'. 9

The unification of the apocalyptic vision i s not obvious within

the context of the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the v i s i o n itself, although

one kind of u n i f y i n g force i s q u i t e apparent t h e r e . That force

is the sense o f time i n which t h e r e i s brought together the

view of the end. The notion of catastrophe and a black curse

unalleviated by the ecstasy of "the dance and the fever" that

accompanied the Black Death of the Middle Ages, i s combined

with the vision of the moment, t h e present world as diseased

and catastrophic. The vision of the end and the p r e s e n t are

unified i n what is really a suspension of time, that is, a

vision o f e t e r n i t y i n the moment.

 The sense o f time w h i c h M i l l e r works w i t h throughout

his novels is closely related, to t h i s n o t i o n of the present

moment. The r e l i g i o u s m y s t i c , B e r d y a e v , whose w r i t i n g Miller

was familiar with, 1 0

d e s c r i b e s the idea of eternity as

approachable i n two ways: "through, the depth o f the moment

and through t h e end of time and of the w o r l d . " 1 1

One of the

central features of M i l l e r ' s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the apocalypse

is the a t t e m p t to u n i f y these two concepts of e t e r n i t y in

one vision. And he c o n s t a n t l y d e s t r o y s the time perspective

by b r e a k i n g the b a r r i e r s o f p a s t and future, incorporating

the past into the present by telling and retelling the story

of his l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t and by i g n o r i n g the more mundane

sense o f the future completely. He r e f u s e s to l o o k beyond

the e v e n t s and experience of h i s s i t u a t i o n a t the present

moment. The future i s present a t t h e moment o n l y i n terms

of the imaginative v i s i o n . And i n terms o f the p a s t , he

c i r c l e s about the events of h i s e a r l i e r life, d e s c r i b i n g them

a l w a y s i n the p r e s e n t tense, jumping o c c a s i o n a l l y to even

e a r l i e r p e r i o d s oj£ c h i l d h o o d and coming b a c k a g a i n , a s the

connections w h i c h make t h e s e instances relevant occur.

Any p r i m i t i v e man w o u l d have u n d e r s t o o d me, any man o f

a r c h a i c e p o c h s w o u l d have u n d e r s t o o d me: o n l y those about
me, t h a t i s to s a y , a c o n t i n e n t o f a h u n d r e d m i l l i o n
p e o p l e , f f a i l e d t o u n d e r s t a n d my l a n g u a g e . To w r i t e
1
•" i n t e l l i g i b l y f o r them I w o u l d have b e e n o b l i g e d f i r s t
of a l l t o k i l l s o m e t h i n g , s e c o n d l y , t o a r r e s t t i m e . I
had j u s t made the ^ r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t l i f e i s i n d e s t r u c t i b l e
and t h a t t h e r e i s no s u c h t h i n g as t i m e , o n l y the p r e s e n t . 1 2

To render the w o r l d i n the p r e s e n t , t o encompass a l l

directions i n one sweep, and to negate the k i n d o f o r d e r that

chronological exposition imposes on the e x t e r n a l world i s what

M i l l e r wants t o a c c o m p l i s h . That kind o f achievement will

t h e n be a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f the m y s t i c a l i n s i g h t w h i c h he

feels. He works to g i v e the sense o f continuous immediacy

without f e e l i n g that this i s a s t o r y o f what was, so much a s

what is. Miller thus p r e s e n t s a greater sense o f the c h a r a c t e r

alive i n t h e moment rather than i n the p a s t . I n d e e d , the

whole s e r i e s o f h i s n o v e l s i s a chronicle of the process of

artist evolving toward that state of understanding. And t h e

movement w h i c h he u n d e r g o e s i s a m o t i o n l e s s movement o f t h e

mind; m o t i o n l e s s i n the sense that he i s g o i n g nowhere, y e t

moving, a s i n growing, a s i n expanding, a s i n b e i n g alive,

b e c a u s e t h e mind r e - l i v i n g the past recreates the present:

i t i s an e x p l o r a t i o n o f the past, but a d i f f e r e n t past

from t h a t o f the memorial s t r e e t . T h i s past i s an a c t i v e
c l u t t e r e d w i t h s o u v e n i r s , but s o u v e n i r s o n l y s k i n deep.
The o t h e r p a s t , so p r o f o u n d , so f l u i d , s o s p a r k l i n g ,
made no s e p a r a t i o n between i t s e l f , p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e .
I t was t i m e l e s s , and " i f : ' I speak o f i t a s a p a s t i t i s
only to suggest a r e t u r n which i s not r e a l l y a r e t u r n
b u t a r e s t o r a t i o n . The f i s h swimming b a c k t o the s o u r c e
o f i t s own b e i n g . 1 3

The story i s e s s e n t i a l l y about the a r r i v a l at that state

and the p r o c e s s o f how t h a t a r r i v a l was a c c o m p l i s h e d . Itis

the great expression o f t h e growth of the s e l f , which i n

Miller's terms, i s not contained i n time a t a l l .

E v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n s , when i t h a s s i g n i f i c a n c e , i s
i n the nature o f a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . . . . I found that
what I h a d d e s i r e d a l l my I f e was n o t t o l i v e — i f
what o t h e r s a r e d o i n g i s c a l l e d l i v i n g - - b u t t o e x p r e s s my-
. self.I r e a l i z e d t h a t I h a d n e v e r t h e l e a s t i n t e r e s t i n
l i v i n g , b u t o n l y t h i s w h i c h I am d o i n g now, s o m e t h i n g
w h i c h i s p a r a l l e l t o l i f e , o f i t a t t h e same t i m e , a n d
beyond i t . What i s t r u e i n t e r e s t s me s c a r c e l y a t a l l ,
n o r even what i s r e a l ; o n l y " t h a t i n t e r e s t s me w h i c h I
i m a g i n e t o be, t h a t w h i c h I h a d s t i f l e d e v e r y d a y i n
order to live.14
In these terms, what i s t r u e and what i s real are i n fact

of interest to M i l l e r , a s he o f t e n makes c l e a r , but t r u t h

and reality become something different from the p e r j o r a t i v e

sense o f t h o s e w o r d s w h i c h he means h e r e . The plumb-line

of truth i s drawn p a r a l l e l t o an i n n e r r e a l i t y , the e x a c t

reversal o f the f a m i l i a r P l a t o n i c v e r s i o n o f a r t i s t i c

conception. The r e v e r s a l h a s o t h e r important implications

too, a s i t p o i n t s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f where t h e " r e a l " man

really lives, where p a r a d i s e i s t o be f o u n d , and, i n terms

of the a r t i s t , what t h e n a t u r e o f c r e a t i o n is. F o r t h e moment,

though, we must come b a c k t o t h e n o t i o n o f a p o c a l y p s e , which

is Miller's starting point, i n o r d e r to f i l l out the background

of the v i s i o n that l e a d s out toward these r e l a t e d concepts.

Again, Berdyaev p r o v i d e s the t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n of the

circular path into the e t e r n a l p r e s e n t , the implications

of which M i l l e r seems t o d e v e l o p as p a r t o f t h e j o u r n e y o f the

artist hero:

But p a r a d i s e i s n o t i n t h e f u t u r e , i s n o t i n t i m e ,
but i n e t e r n i t y . E t e r n i t y i s a t t a i n e d i n the a c t u a l
moment, i t comes i n t h e p r e s e n t — n o t i n the p r e s e n t
w h i c h i s p a r t o f t h e b r o k e n up t i m e , but i n t h e p r e s e n t
w h i c h i s a n e s c a p e from t i m e . E t e r n i t y i s not a
c e s s a t i o n o f movement and c r e a t i v e l i f e ; i t i s c r e a t i v e
l i f e o f a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r , i t i s movement w h i c h i s n o t
s p a t i a l and t e m p o r a l b u t inward, symbolized n o t o n l y by
a s t r a i g h t l i n e b u t by a c i r c l e , i . e . i t i s an i n n e r
m y s t e r y p l a y , a m y s t e r y p l a y o f t h e s p i r i t w h i c h embraces
t h e whole t r a g e d y o f t h e c o s m i c l i f e . 1 5

M i l l e r ' s attempt to r e a c h this kind of a s t i l l point is a

contradiction i n t e r m s o f what t h a t notion of e t e r n i t y

means, b u t t h e l i m i t a t i o n i n e x p l a i n i n g o r d e f i n i n g the
concept appears a s c o n t r a d i c t o r y as a l l of M i l l e r ' s deeper

meanings. This i s s o because o f t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e words

he i s forced t o use, and because the attempt to d e f i n e and to

describe i s at least one remove f r o m the a c t u a l sense o f t h e

process he i s t r y i n g t o cfescribe. Miller i s a step closer

when we u n d e r s t a n d the whole o f what h i s c h a r a c t e r s s a y and

what t h e y r e p r e s e n t a s metaphors o f the p r o c e s s , the

u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d t h e f e e l i n g he i s r e a c h i n g f o r . That i s ,

he i s closer t o e x p r e s s i n g the sense o f t h e s p i r i t u a l growth

or consciousness as the a p o c a l y p t i c v i s i o n becomes p a r t o f

his larger perceptual sense o f the w o r l d . Miller's visions

are part o f h i s attempt t o r e a c h p a s t the c o n c e p t u a l meanings

which limit speech. In fact, i t i s these l i m i t s , o f word

as concept, that form so much o f t h e a p p a r e n t contradiction

i n what M i l l e r has t o say. I t i s important to note that the

words e v e n t u a l l y become s o m e t h i n g of a current upon w h i c h Miller

swims, and t h e i r significance i s revealed i n the l a r g e r

perspective o f the g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h he moves w i t h

them, a s w e l l as through the c o n t i n u a l washing over, the

reiteration o f , t h e sense that t h e i r meaning conveys.

T a l k i s o n l y a p r e t e x t f o r o t h e r , s u b t l e r forms o f
communication. When t h e l a t t e r a r e i n o p e r a t i v e s p e e c h
becomes d e a d . I f two p e o p l e a r e i n t e n t upon c o m m u n i c a t i n g
w i t h one a n o t h e r i t d o e s n ' t m a t t e r i n t h e l e a s t how
b e w i l d e r i n g t h e t a l k becomes. P e o p l e who i n s i s t upon
c l a r i t y and l o g i c o f t e n f a i l i n m a k i n g t h e m s e l v e s
understood. They a r e a l w a y s s e a r c h i n g f o r a more p e r f e c t
t r a n s m i t t e r , d e l u d e d by t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e mind
i s t h e o n l y i n s t r u m e n t f o r the e x c h a n g e o f t h o u g h t .
When one r e a l l y b e g i n s t o t a l k one d e l i v e r s h i m s e l f .
Words a r e thrown about r e c k l e s s l y , n o t c o u n t e d l i k e
pennies. One d o e s n ' t c a r e a b o u t g r a m m a t i c a l o r f a c t u a l
e r r o r s , c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , l i e s and so on.16
Paradoxically, the subtler forms o f communication o f which

Miller s p e a k s h e r e a r e t h e most d i f f i c u l t to present i n

literature. This c a n p e r h a p s be a t t e s t e d to, at least in

Miller's c a s e , by the c r i t i c a l n§glect and m i s r e a d i n g under

which he work seems t o have suffered f o r so l o n g . Certainly,

these f o r m s a r e t h e most d i f f i c u l t to t a l k about o r to

attempt to paraphrase, because, as M i l l e r p o i n t s out, the

m e a n i n g o f the w o r d s t h e m s e l v e s i s a t once u n i m p o r t a n t and i

significant to a degree fa-r-beyond t h e i r ordinary semantic

and syntactic content. They require a s p i r i t u a l tuning between

s p e a k e r and listener, i n v o l v i n g o t h e r than a merely

sympathetic reading. The r e q u i r e m e n t i s f o r an inner ear

and eye w h i c h listens and s e e s w i t h t h e body and the mind

at a l l levels; that i s , the l i s t e n e r must c a p t u r e f a r more

of the total s e n s e o f what the w r i t e r i s s a y i n g ; he must,

in f a c t , be involved at a l e v e l o f communication f a r deeper than

the normal s e n s e o f t h e word. I t i s that sense of communication

which Tate d i s t i n g u i s h e s as communion, 17

which i s only to

say, spiritual communication.

The apocalyptic image, t h e n , i s an a t t e m p t to communicate

f a r more t h a n a v i s i o n of the f i n a l end o f the w o r l d . It is

the device by w h i c h M i l l e r signals the s t a r t of h i s revolt

against the p r e s e n t o r d e r of the s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , the

tradition of l i t e r a t u r e , the s o c i a l structure. It is itself

the method o f e n t e r i n g a new world o f time, l i f e , struggle,

and :regeneration. I t i s t h e means t h r o u g h w h i c h the a c c e p t e d

hierarchies o f t i m e and r e a s o n w i l l be n e g a t e d , where life

and birth will be sung, chaotically, ecstatically, i n the

midst o f d e s t r u c t i o n and d e a t h . The p h i l o s o p h y i s one o f

life i n death. I n a sense, i t i s both t h e b e g i n n i n g and

the end f o r M i l l e r . He b e g i n s in violent, chaotic revolt

against the world i n h i s apocalyptic v i s i o n and he r e t u r n s

to make o f i t a p a r a d i s e o r v i s i o n of eternity i n the p r e s e n t .

The negation o f the ordered world implicit i n that vision

becomes a l s o an a f f i r m a t i o n , a total acceptance of a seemingly

chaotic disorder. But e s s e n t i a l l y the m i l i e u isa natural

chaos o f the c r e a t i v e w o r l d of l i f e itself, the l i f e o f the

vibrant, mysterious, l i v i n g organism. Miller ultimately

rises f a r above the p a s s i v e sense of the apocalypse to an

active, creative apocalyptic vision, though the c e n t r a l

d o c t r i n e he c o n t i n u a l l y p r o c l a i m s i s one o f a c c e p t a n c e .

And that doctrine o f acceptance i s i n no r e a l way a p a s s i v e

one; rather, i t advocates a joyous, v i b r a n t acceptance of l i f e :

Do a n y t h i n g , b u t l e t i t p r o d u c e j o y . Do a n y t h i n g b u t
l e t i t y i e l d e c s t a s y . So much crowds i n t o my h e a d
when I s a y t h i s to m y s e l f : images, g a y o n e s , t e r r i b l e
o n e s , m a d d e n i n g o n e s , the w o l f and t h e g o a t , t h e s p i d e r ,
the c r a b , s y p h i l i s w i t h h e r w i n g s o u t s t r e t c h e d and the
d o o r o f t h e womb a l w a y s on the l a t c h , a l w a y s o p e n , r e a d y
l i k e t h e tomb. Lust, crime, h o l i n e s s : the l i v e s of
my a d o r e d o n e s , t h e f a i l u r e s o f my a d o r e d o n e s , t h e words
t h e y l e f t b e h i n d them, t h e words t h e y l e f t u n f i n i s h e d ;
t h e good t h e y d r a g g e d a f t e r them and the e v i l , t h e
sorrow, the d i s c o r d , the r a n c o r , the s t r i f e they c r e a t e d .
But above a l l , t h e e c s t a s y ! 18

The revolt is first a g a i n s t the e x t e r n a l trappings of

intellect, t h e man of thought, and a g a i n s t t h e s o c i a l order,

the institutions:
 t h e r e h a s been a c o n s t a n t and s t e a d y d e c l i n e o f man i n a r t ,
i n thought, i n a c t i o n . The w o r l d i s pooped o u t : t h e r e
isn't a dry fart l e f t . Who t h a t h a s a d e s p e r a t e , h u n g r y
eye c a n have t h e s l i g h t e s t r e g a r d f o r t h e s e e x i s t e n t
governments, laws, codes, p r i n c i p l e s , i d e a l s , i d e a s ,
t o t e m s , a n d t a b o o s ? . . . i f anyone h a d t h e l e a s t f e e l i n g
o f m y s t e r y a b o u t t h e phenomena w h i c h a r e l a b e l e d
"obscene", t h i s w o r l d would c r a c k asunder. I t i s the
obscene h o r r o r , the d r y fucked-out aspect of t h i n g s
w h i c h makes t h i s c r a z y c i v i l i z a t i o n l o o k l i k e a c r a t e r . . . .
I t i s no u s e p u t t i n g on r u b b e r g l o v e s ; a l l t h a t c a n be
c o o l l y and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y h a n d l e d b e l o n g s t o t h e
c a r a p a c e and a man who i s i n t e n t o n c r e a t i o n a l w a y s
d i v e s b e n e a t h , t o t h e open wound, t o t h e f e s t e r i n g o b s c e n e
h o r r o r . 19

T h i s k i n d o f d e n u n c i a t i o n o f the accepted order of things

i s parallelled, by t h e a c t i v i t y and way o f l i f e o f the

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l hero i n M i l l e r ' s novels. The n o v e l s detail

the p r o g r e s s o f t h e Henry M i l l e r c h a r a c t e r a s he f a i l s i n

his social role and a s he r e j e c t s a l l the t r a p p i n g s o f the

man o f s o c i e t y . He n e v e r succeeds i n finding permanent

work, o r s e t t l i n g into some sort of a career that involves

accepting the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of working a t an o r d i n a r y

job. The e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s a l m o s t continuous life o f , a";:j-ob-

;

seeker i n h i s e a r l y manhood i s Miller's c a r e e r a t the Cosmo-

demonic T e l e g r a p h Company, w h i c h i s d e t a i l e d i n the p e r i o d

of his life covered by t h e T r o p i c o f C a p r i c o r n ' n o v e l . But

that p o s i t i o n a s p e r s o n n e l manager s e r v e s m a i n l y to i l l u s t r a t e

more c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y t h e demonic inferno o f t h e mad, everyday

world i n w h i c h he l i v e d , suffered through, and f i n a l l y rejected.

Other aspects o f that life, w h i c h a l s o made up t h a t inferno,

were h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h h i s f i r s t w i f e , Maude, and h i s

friends, s u c h a s M a c G r e g o r , K r o n s k i and S t a n l e y , a l l o f whom

he was s u b s e q u e n t l y t o shed a s he shed that life. The rejection

of the-.ordinary existence and the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and

expectations i t imposes on t h e i n d i v i d u a l to conform t o the

social structure i s one o f t h e main t a s k s the M i l l e r hero

must u n d e r t a k e i n o r d e r to " f r e e " h i m s e l f f o r b i r t h into the

o t h e r w o r l d , the i n n e r w o r l d o f h i s own creation. He undergoes

what M i l l e r c a l l s a d e a t h and rebirth p r o c e s s , which parallels

the intellectual development o f the complete series of these

novels. The death i s the o b l i t e r a t i o n o f the mechanical man

living as a c o g i n the s y s t e m o f the s o c i a l structure, held

in p l a c e by the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f work, f a m i l y and friends.

The mechanical existence becomes a k i n d of labour of

ants, a deadly a c t i v i t y because i t i s only a c t i v i t y of the

mind, o r a c t i v i t y o f t h e body, but n e v e r a consciously

unified working o f the two.

J u s t a s t h e c i t y i t s e l f had become a huge tomb i n w h i c h

men s t r u g g l e d t o e a r n a d e c e n t d e a t h so my own l i f e came
t o r e s e m b l e a tomb w h i c h I was c o n s t r u c t i n g o u t o f my
own d e a t h . I was w a l k i n g a r o u n d i n a s t o n e f o r e s t the
c e n t e r o f w h i c h was c h a o s . . . . 20

The sense of t h i s deadly e x i s t e n c e , of l i f e i n motion which

is yet a s t e r i l e lifelessness, i s s y m b o l i z e d by the tomb-

image o f t h e c i t y and the m e c h a n i c a l a c t i v i t y of i t s

inhabitants. But M i l l e r a l s o . p i c k s up the d e a t h atmosphere

in almost e v e r y a s p e c t o f the e x p e r i e n c e t h a t surrounds him.

His own totally abandoned s e x u a l a c t i v i t i e s are a f f a i r s of

complete, a c t i v e acceptance of c a r n a l , bodily appetite, as

well as b e i n g desperate a t t e m p t s t o abandon t h e t h i n k i n g a s p e c t

 of t h e mind to p u r e l y s e n s u a l , p a s s i o n a t e , thoughtless activity.

These a c t i v i t i e s M i l l e r contrasts with those o f some o f h i s

friends, whose o u t w a r d a c t i o n s a p p e a r e s s e n t i a l l y the same

as M i l l e r ' s own; the significant difference is their totally

mechanical, inhuman p e r s p e c t i v e and motivation:

As I w a t c h V a n N o r d e n t a c k l e h e r , i t seems t o me t h a t
I'm l o o k i n g a t a m a c h i n e whose c o g s have s l i p p e d . Left
to t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y c o u l d go on t h i s way f o r e v e r ,
g r i n d i n g and s l i p p i n g , w i t h o u t e v e r a n y t h i n g h a p p e n i n g .
U n t i l a hand s h u t s the m o t o r o f f . The s i g h t o f them
c o u p l e d l i k e a p a i r o f g o a t s w i t h o u t the l e a s t s p a r k
o f p a s s i o n . . . washes away e v e r y b i t o f f e e l i n g . . . .
A s l o n g as t h a t s p a r k o f p a s s i o n i s m i s s i n g t h e r e i s
no human s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e . The m a c h i n e
i s b e t t e r t o w a t c h . 21

The d i s t i n c t i o n s M i l l e r makes a b o u t the a c t i v i t y of l i f e which

is purely frantic jiggling o f the organism, fillibration,

rather than rhythm, always stand i n o p p o s i t i o n to the real

life of the body. The ant-like activity o f men i s the wrong

r h y t h m , one out o f tune w i t h the m u s i c w h i c h is life; one

..which i s d a n c i n g f o r death instead. The life-dance is a

u n i f i e d movement o f body and mind i n tune w i t h soul. Perhaps

the central point of the figure of M i l l e r ' s f i r s t w i f e , Maude,

is to i l l u s t r a t e an a s p e c t of t h a t s e p a r a t i o n i n one of the

areas o f b a s i c human activity:

She d i d so want t o be i n d e p e n d e n t . . . . She d i d n ' t want

.:: t h e i n - b e t w e e n r e a l m , the s u r r e n d e r , the f u s i o n , t h e
exchange. She wanted t o keep t h a t l i t t l e t i g h t c o r e o f
s e l f w h i c h was h i d d e n away i n h e r b r e a s t and o n l y a l l o w
h e r s e l f the l e g i t i m a t e p l e a s u r e o f s u r r e n d e r i n g t h e b o d y .
T h a t body and s o u l c o u l d n o t be s e p a r a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y
i n the sex a c t , was a s o u r c e o f t h e most p r o f o u n d
i r r i t a t i o n . 22
The problem o f t h e t u n e s t o w h i c h men s h o u l d dance i s one o f

the c e n t r a l themes o f T r o p i c o f C a p r i c o r n . This novel in a

sense g e t s some o f t h e themes a n d symbols o f t h e g r o u p o f

Miller's n o v e l s , f o r i t i s here also that t h e two m e a n i n g s

of "life" are approached and made m o s t e x p l i c i t :

The o v a r i a n w o r l d i s the p r o d u c t o f a l i f e r h y t h m .
The moment a c h i l d i s b o r n i t becomes p a r t o f a w o r l d
i n w h i c h t h e r e i s n o t o n l y the l i f e r h y t h m b u t t h e d e a t h
rhythm. T h e r e i s n o t o n l y no need t o keep a l i v e a t
any p r i c e , b u t , * i f l i f e i s u n d e s i r a b l e , i t i s a b s o l u t e l y
w r o n g . . . . A c t i v i t y i n i t s e l f means n o t h i n g : i t i s often
a-sign of death. By s i m p l e e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e , by f o r c e
o f s u r r o u n d i n g s and e x a m p l e , by the v e r y c l i m a t e w h i c h
a c t i v i t y e n g e n d e r s , one c a n become p a r t o f a m o n s t r o u s
d e a t h machine . . . . What d o e s a dynamo Snow o f l i f e ,
o f p e a c e , o f r e a l i t y ? 23

The apocalyptic vision of this world o f death contains both

movement and f i r e . B u t t h e movement, the l i f e i t contains,

precipitates in Miller the b l a c k e s t d e s p a i r and b i t t e r n e s s .

The life there i s r e a l l y a parody o f t h e word, t h e dance a b i t t e r

painful movement, t h e m u s i c a s b l e a k a s wind o v e r sand. The

terrible j i g of l i f e l e s s n e s s i s that symbolized by t h e

commercial dance halls:

A g a i n the;dance h a l l , the money r h y t h m , t h e l o v e t h a t

comes o v e r t h e r a d i o , t h e i m p e r s o n a l , w i n g l e s s t o u c h
o f the crowd. A d e s p a i r t h a t r e a c h e s down t o t h e v e r y
s o l e s o f t h e b o o t s , an e n n u i , a d e s p e r a t i o n . I n t h e
m i d s t o f the h i g h e s t m e c h a n i c a l p e r f e c t i o n t o dance
w i t h o u t j o y , t o be so d e s p e r a t e l y a l o n e , t o be a l m o s t
inhuman b e c a u s e you a r e human. 24.

Finally, the f i r e contained i n that v i s i o n of the world

details i t s most h o l l o w core. The f i r e i s the v i s i o n o f

hell, the burning, diseased inner world of t h i s kind of

existence. Cancer, the t i t l e of Miller's first,book, stands

as t h e symbol o f t h e empty, d r y f i r e t h a t has consumed t h e

l i v i n g man. I n a sense, h i s inner core, h i s soul, h a s been

burned o u t by t h e d i s e a s e o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n which generates

and enslaves the d i s i n t e g r a t e d , partial man.

Wherever t h e r e a r e w a l l s , t h e r e a r e p o s t e r s w i t h
b r i g h t venomous c r a b s h e r a l d i n g t h e a p p r o a c h o f c a n c e r .
No m a t t e r where you go, no m a t t e r what y o u t o u c h , t h e r e
i s c a n c e r and s y p h i l i s . I t i s w r i t t e n i n the sky;
i t f l a m e s and d a n c e s , l i k e a n e v i l p o r t e n t . I t has
e a t e n i n t o o u r s o u l s and we a r e n o t h i n g b u t a dead t h i n g
l i k e t h e moon. 25

The rebirth i n death that M i l l e r calls f o r i s i n fact

a rejection of that life, a shedding o f those retraints in

order t o become a new man, f r e e and c r e a t i v e ; free i n the s e n s e

of a p a r t from that hollow f i r e - e a t e n world, and c r e a t i v e i n

now b e i n g a b l e t o w r i t e , c o n s c i o u s o f and p a r t o f a n o t h e r

continuous, expanding world of life.

The man who i s r e b o r n i s a l w a y s t h e same man, more and

more h i m s e l f w i t h e a c h r e b i r t h . He i s o n l y s h e d d i n g
his s k i n each t i m e , and w i t h h i s s k i n h i s s i n s . . . .
And a s the d a r k n e s s f a l l s away t h e wound comes o u t o f
its hiding place: the wound w h i c h i s man, man's l o v e ,
i s bathed i n l i g h t . The i d e n t i t y w h i c h was l o s t i s
recovered. Man w a l k s f o r t h from h i s open wound, f r o m
the g r a v e w h i c h he h a d c a r r i e d about w i t h him so l o n g . 26

Miller speaks here o f many r e b i r t h s ; he i s p u t t i n g forward

the i d e a o f the reawakening o f the i n d i v i d u a l t o new

a w a r e n e s s o f h i m s e l f and t h e w o r l d a s a slow p r o c e s s o f d e v e l o p -

ing stages of consciousness. That lost i d e n t i t y man recovers

is partly the c h i l d h o o d awareness o f the world and o f s e l f as

part o f an unseparated process. As M i l l e r p o i n t s o u t , the c h i l d ,

t h o u g h aware o f h i m s e l f , i s n o t i n a n y r e a l sense self-

conscious. He d o e s n o t r e a d i l y separate the r e a l w o r l d from

his dream w o r l d , n o r does he d i s t i n g u i s h e i t h e r of these

from h i s thought w o r l d . The d e m a r c a t i o n s a r e b l u r r e d , and

for Miller that k i n d o f u n i t y i s extremely important in

terms o f a l l o w i n g a t o t a l awareness o f a l l l i f e . I t i s an

a w a r e n e s s where none o f the modes o f t h e m i n d o r the body

are separated o u t and r e j e c t e d o r s u b l i m a t e d by g u i l t

forced by s o c i a l pressures f o r conformity. The w o r l d of

childhood t o which M i l l e r keeps r e t u r n i n g i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n s

has that significance, as a u n i f i e d experiential imaginative

existence:

[As c h i l d r e c j l e f t t o o u r s e l v e s t h e r e were no l i m i t s t o
what we m i g h t i m a g i n e . F a c t s had l i t t l e i m p o r t a n c e
f o r u s ; what we demanded o f a s u b j e c t was t h a t i t a l l o w
u s o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p a n d . . . . The l e a r n i n g we r e c e i v e d
o n l y tended to obscure o u r v i s i o n . From t h e day we
went t o s c h o o l we l e a r n e d n o t h i n g ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , we
were made o b t u s e , we were w r a p p e d i n a f o g o f w o r d s and
a b s t r a c t i o n s . 27

The rebirth o f the i n d i v i d u a l i s partly a connection with

that sense o f c h i l d h o o d imagination; It is a re-connecting

with the awareness o f l i f e w h i c h was l o s t when the c h i l d h o o d

p e r s p e c t i v e o f the world was i n t e r r u p t e d by t h e s o c i a l pressures

of parents and s c h o o l s a s they a c t t o change t h e c h i l d view.

The apocalyptic vision, then, as well as p o i n t i n g to a

new w o r l d , a r e - a w a k e n i n g , a n e t e r n a l moment of regenerative

life, heralds t h e d e a t h o f man a s m a c h i n e . The v i s i o n

contains the organic rebirth, the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the mechanical,

and the t e r r i b l e s u f f e r i n g w h i c h must t a k e place i n the s p i r i t

in t h e movement from t h e one mode o f e x i s t e n c e to the other.

In that sense, i t contains t h e complete cyclical progress of

Miller's s i x major n o v e l s . The v i s i o n s e r v e s a l s o a s a means

of r e c o n c i l i n g and. e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e j o u r n e y M i l l e r ' s h e r o must

make between t h e two w o r l d s . I t adumbrates t h e whole m o t i o n

of t h e n o v e l s , a s the d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h t h e h e r o ' s l i f e i s

to take, and s y m b o l i z e s the bridge that M i l l e r i s b u i l d i n g to

link body w i t h soul again:

The g u l f between t h e dawn man, who p a r t i c i p a t e d m y s t i c a l l y ,

and c o n t e m p o r a r y man, who i s u n a b l e t o communicate e x c e p t
t h r o u g h s t e r i l e i n t e l l e c t , c a n o n l y be b r i d g e d by a new
t y p e o f man, t h e man w i t h c o s m i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s . The
s a g e , t h e p r o p h e t , the v i s i o n a r y , t h e y a l l spoke i n
a p o c a l y p t i c terms. From e a r l i e s t t i m e s t h e "few" have
been a t t e m p t i n g t o b r e a k t h r o u g h . 28

Miller, t h e h e r o who i s also, o r a t l e a s t becomes, t h e c r e a t i v e

artist, i s o f course, j u s t that sort of figure. He i s t h a t

visionary-artist who s p e a k s t h e l a n g u a g e o f the a p o c a l y p t i s t .

The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f what t h a t apocalypse represents is a l l -

important. Berdyaev's m y s t i c a l d e f i n i t i o n of i t coincides

remarkably well with M i l l e r ' s :

A p o c a l y p s e i s n o t m e r e l y t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e end o f
the w o r l d a n d o f h i s t o r y . I t i s a l s o the r e v e l a t i o n
o f t h e end w i t h i n t h e w o r l d and t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s ,
w i t h i n human l i f e a n d e v e r y moment o f l i f e . . . . I t i s
p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t i t a c t i v e l y a s a c a l l to c r e a t i v e
a c t i v i t y , t o h e r o i c e f f o r t and a c h i e v e m e n t . 29

That call i s the s t o r y which M i l l e r t e l l s almost continuously

all h i sw r i t i n g l i f e . A t t h e same t i m e , h i s own l i f e story,

at least i n the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l novels, i s the e f f o r t t o

answer f i n a l l y that call.

 The concept o f c r e a t i o n becomes, f o r M i l l e r ' s h e r o , the

link which connects h i m back w i t h life, that l i f e i n which body

and soul are unified. I n terms o f h i s j o u r n e y through the

world, his spiritual death and r e - b i r t h are culminated by

an ability to c r e a t e . And t h a t a b i l i t y i s , i n a sense, the

achievement o f l i f e . When he h a s f o u n d h i m s e l f , he f i n d s also

the f r e e d o m f r o m what M i l l e r calls the " i l l u s o r y world o f

reality" which g i v e s him t h e freedom to w r i t e a s w e l l a s t o

live superconsciously. Again, i n terms o f major thematic

elements o f h i s novels, Tropic of Capricorn expresses a number

of times that bridge symbolizing the c o n t i n u i n g p r o c e s s o f

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i n n e r man:

e v e r y time I w a l k e d o v e r B r o o k l y n B r i d g e a n d l o o k e d
down t o w a r d t h e Navy Y a r d I f e l t a s t h o u g h my g u t s were
dropping out. Way up t h e r e , s u s p e n d e d b e t w e e n t h e two
s h o r e s , I f e l t a l w a y s a s t h o u g h I were h a n g i n g o v e r a
v o i d ; . . . . I n s t e a d o f j o i n i n g me t o l i f e , t o men,
t o t h e a c t i v i t y o f men, t h e b r i d g e seemed t o b r e a k a l l
connections. I f I w a l k e d t o w a r d the one s h o r e o r t h e
o t h e r i t made no d i f f e r e n c e : e i t h e r way was h e l l . . . .
T h e r e c o u l d be no end, a n d t h e r e was none, u n t i l i n s i d e
me a b r i d g e began t o f o r m w h i c h u n i t e d me a g a i n w i t h t h e
c u r r e n t o f l i f e f r o m w h i c h a s a c h i l d I had been s e p a r a t e d . 1

He h a s t o l i v e i n the h e l l of the d i s i n t e g r a t e d world where

mind and body r e m a i n isolate. The b r i d g e w h i c h does u n i t e

Miller i s the w o r l d o f t h e body. And t h e c o n n e c t i o n that

saves him i s h i s g r e a t , initially p a s s i v e acceptance of

fate, of l i f e , o f w h a t e v e r happens to h i m . Through the sensual

world, t h r o u g h c o m p l e t e abandonment t o t h a t w o r l d , he u l t i m a t e l y

moves t o a rebirth of the spirit and h i s own regeneration

as an artist. In f o l l o w i n g through t h i s portion of the great

journey o f the heroic M i l l e r , the s i x novels take on their

major circular form: The story of the events of h i s life

from e a r l i e r childhood i n Brooklyn to mature, impoverished

writer in Paris, parallels the s t o r y of his spiritual rebirth

as the newly c r e a t e d and creative a r t i s t . Here, artist

e v e n t u a l l y comes t o mean e v e r y man who achieves union of body

and soul.

The sub-title o f C a p r i c o r n , On the Ovarian Trolley, deals

also with the theme o f creative rebirth. In this novel, though,

the artist has not yet been r e b o r n , nor does he actually achieve

that complete d e l i v e r a n c e from the symbolic womb o f death,

the n o r m a l , societal life, from which h i s journey here begins.

In terms o f the r e b i r t h metaphor, C a p r i c o r n is Miller's starting

point. T r o p i c of Cancer, w r i t t e n f i r s t , d e a l s more w i t h the

achieved birth o f the artist who has arrived in Paris, and

who has arrived at the end point i n terms of the struggle,

and the cyclical journey he has undergone. Beginning his

first published book, he can h a p p i l y t a l k of himself in the

usual apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n s :

I have no money, no r e s o u r c e s , no h o p e s . I am t h e h a p p i e s t
man a l i v e . A y e a r ago, s i x months ago, I t h o u g h t t h a t
I was an a r t i s t . I no l o n g e r t h i n k a b o u t i t , I am.
E v e r y t h i n g t h a t was l i t e r a t u r e has f a l l e n f r o m me. There
a r e no more books t o be w r i t t e n , thank God. 2
Miller i s able to stop trying t o become a n artist, secure in

his s e n s e o f what he now is. The books t h a t are not to be

written are the specifically " l i t e r a r y " c r e a t i o n s which he

struggled f o r so long to w r i t e . I t i s that sense of writing

as craft w h i c h M i l l e r has a b a n d o n e d , now that he has found

himself as an artist. The b o o k s he now writes are, for him,

not books; r a t h e r , they are creations out of h i m s e l f , his own

story. The distinction he i s making i s t h a t between c r a f t or

maker and c r e a t i o n or artist. The d i s t i n c t ionniinvolves the

nature of c r e a t i o n which i s c l o s l y related to the rather

perjorative sense o f s u c h words as "abstract", "tradition",

^idea", and "literature" that M i l l e r frequently uses. There

are two problems involved here that are not easily separable:

one has t o do with the nature of the a r t o b j e c t itself. The

question t o be answered here is this: A t what l e v e l of remove

is the a r t i s t expressing himself in his art? The other

difficulty has to do w i t h the source of the a r t i s t i c experience.

P e r h a p s the most s a t i s f a c t o r y way o f d e a l i n g w i t h them both

is through the standard one of drawing some o f the distinctions,

unfairly p e r h a p s , and a little a r b i t r a r i l y too, between Classical

and Romantic l i t e r a t u r e . Miller can obviously be classed

with the R o m a n t i c p o s i t i o n , and f o r purposes of c l a r i f i c a t i o n ,

we can say t h a t what he is reacting to in his anti-literary

position i s represented by Classicism. What t h a t tradition in

its worse s e n s e has represented, and i t i s t h i s which Miller

is c r i t i c i z i n g , i s a mentalizing of the processes of the

imagination. The l i m i t s there a r e s e t i n the realm of reasoned

ideas of a p a r t i c u l a r l y s h a p e d o r d e r , where t h e r e a c t i o n o f

feeling t o them h a s been a r e a c t i o n t o a n " i d e a " o f t h i n g s ,

of persons, o f the human s i t u a t i o n . That i s , we r e a c t , and a r e

trained to r e a c t to an a r t s t r u c t u r e which i s a construct

of mind where f e e l i n g h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o r e a s o n e d idea

about f e e l i n g . For Miller, a r t i s not an e x p r e s s i o n o f a detached

idea about something. At least, i t i s not detached i n the

sense that i t i s only idea. Rather i t i s a complex, both

a s a complex s t r u c t u r e , t h e a r t e x p r e s s i o n itself, and a

complicated relation touching a t many p o i n t s t h e human

sensibility. The c o n c e p t o f l i t e r a t u r e which M i l l e r i s

speaking against i s one t h a t a c c e p t s a separation'of parts.

It works a t a l e v e l of perception that conceptualizes within

a different intellectual framework. I t sprocess isa self-

conscious, specifically reasoned working out o f ideas about

forms, a c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n o f f e e l i n g s and imagination

i n t o a b s t r a c t thought, with t h e e m p h a s i s on mentalizing,V; , :

r a t h e r than felt structures. F o r him, t h i s i s the s e p a r a t i o n

of reality f r o m a r t ; t h e a r t becomes f o r m a l i z e d structure or

tradition with a " l i f e " o f i t s own, r e l a t e d t o t h e human

sensibility only as i n t e l l e c t u a l thought r a t h e r than as a

complex o f t h o u g h t a n d feeling. The t r a d i t i o n a l literature in

a sense emasculates e x p e r i e n c e by r e d u c i n g i t s dimensions,

both i n t e r m s o f what i t r e p r e s e n t s as i m i t a t i o n , and i n

t e r m s o f what t h e a r t e x p e r i e n c e itself can be. I n other

words, the C l a s s i c a l artist i s p r e s e n t i n g a view of the world

at one remove f r o m the sense o f the w o r l d which the Romantic

tries to achieve. Both the R o m a n t i c and the C l a s s i c a l artist

want t o p r e s e n t a unified p e r c e p t i o n o f the w o r l d , but they

do so from quite different directions, a t separate l e v e l s of

understanding, and w i t h d i f f e r e n t background m o t i v a t i o n s .

The Romantic attempts t o do t h e i m p o s s i b l e : t o move toward

the u n i f i c a t i o n of'innocence or unconscious understanding,

when, i n f a c t , he i s no l o n g e r i n n o c e n t , b e c a u s e he d o e s

kno?/ and i s c o n s c i o u s . The C l a s s i c i s t a p p r o a c h e s t h e problem

having accepted that ^consciousness. He s e e s the o r d e r o f t h e

world a s an a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f man f r o m the n a t u r a l

order. He, t o o , w o u l d a c c o m p l i s h a unification, b u t i t i s one

specifically related to some h i g h e r o r d e r i n g p r i n c i p l e , achieved

through the r e a s o n i n g f u n c t i o n s o f the mind. That i s , he

might s e e man a c t i n g through reason as a r b i t e r of nature,

o r d e r e r o f the w o r l d f o r god; h i s v i s i o n i s o f man t h e

instrument of divine w i l l . The o r d e r i n g p r i n c i p l e i s an

imposed human one and t h e u n i f i c a t i o n i s the working out of

a reasoned, logical structure of relationships. The R o m a n t i c ,

w h i l e u s i n g t h e same i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s e s o f t h e mind,

attempts to a r r i v e p r i m a r i l y a t a s p i r i t u a l understanding of

experience, in part, through a r o u s i n g and c o n c e n t r a t i n g on

the s e n s u a l a s p e c t s o f the m i n d . As M i l l e r often exemplifies,

he wants t o u n i t e dreams, t h o u g h t s , and i m p u l s e s i n a kind

of unconscious feeling of oneness, r a t h e r than a reasoned

understanding of s p i r i t u a l c o n n e c t i o n t o some s i n g l e force,

which could then perhaps be a l e v e l of understanding at one

remove f r o m the unified sense c f consciousness itself. The

motivations o f the two kinds of a r t i s t s a r e an a s p e c t o f the

d i f f e r e n c e s between the two which the p s y c h o a n a l y s t , Otto

Rank, d e v e l o p s i n some d e t a i l . Essentially, the distinction

lies i n the fact that the C l a s s i c a l artist i s the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

of the c o l l e c t i v e culture of the community. He is in a sense

e x p r e s s i n g the c u l t u r e o f the society itself, and i t s collective

aspirations. The Romantic though, is really expressing himself;

his own -individual experience i s being transformed as a r t .

He i s working out h i s own destiny in his a r t . 4

The Classical,

Rank c a l l s the "partial" type who works w i t h and molds

experience to f o r m h i s a r t ; i n a s e n s e he t a k e s the outer

experiences of l i f e , that i s , the t h i n g s he sees about him,

and uses them creatively, but v e r y much a s a c r a f t . The

Romantic i s t r a n s f o r m i n g h i s own experience itself into his a r t ;

he i s the "total" type.

The two a r t i s t - t y p e s d i f f e r e s s e n t i a l l y i n t h e s o u r c e
f r o m w h i c h t h e y t a k e t h i s l i f e t h a t i s so e s s e n t i a l t o
production. The C l a s s i c a l t y p e , who i s p o s s i b l y p o o r e r
w i t h i n , b u t n e a r e r t o l i f e , and h i m s e l f more v i t a l , t a k e s
i t from w i t h o u t : t h a t i s , he c r e a t e s i m m o r t a l work f r o m
mortal l i f e without n e c e s s a r i l y having f i r s t transformed
i t i n t o p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e as i s t h e c a s e w i t h the
Romantic.5

The d i s t i n c t i o n s between t h e two k i n d s of a r t i s t s i l l u s t r a t e some-

thing of the kind of a r t i s t Miller is depicting in his novels

and clarify the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and artist w h i c h he is

attempting t o develop. M i l l e r was aware of Rank's t h e o r i e s

here, and he i s t o some extent d e v e l o p i n g them as they r e l a t e

to h i m s e l f . And p a r t o f the d i f f i c u l t y o f r e g a r d i n g the source

of the a r t experience and the l e v e l o f remove of the a r t i s t i n

M i l l e r are c l a r i f i e d by Rank's d i s t i n c t i o n s . M i l l e r i s attempting

to transform h i s i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e s and to unite h i s a r t w i t h

life.

The journey toward the c r e a t i v e r e b i r t h of the a r t i s t as

M i l l e r sees him, begins i n C a p r i c o r n , though the v i s i o n of

where he was going was not completely c l e a r t o him at the time;

he f e e l s ' h e must c e n t r e on h i s own experience though f o r what

purpose he has not y e t formulated; has w r i t i n g d i r e c t i o n was

still i n the g e n e r a t i v e p r o c e s s :

Nobody understood what I was w r i t i n g about or why I

wrote that way. I was so l u c i d t h a t they said I was d a f f y .
I was d e s c r i b i n g t h e New World. . . . I t was an Ovarian
world, s t i l l hidden away i n t h e F a l l o p i a n tubes.
N a t u r a l l y n o t h i n g was c l e a r l y formulated . . . . i t was
the world of Chrenosand his' o v i c u l a r progeny. . . . I saw
beneath the s u p e r f i c i a l physiognomy o f s k i n and bone
the i n d e s t r u c t i b l e world which man has always c a r r i e d
with him; i t was n e i t h e r o l d nor new, r e a l l y , but the
e t e r n a l l y t r u e world which changes from moment to
moment. 6

That c y c l e o f the b i r t h process i s what i s i n v o l v e d i n the

womb imagery and the Ovarian T r o l l e y journey. Otto Rank's

p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l : , study o f the development of the a r t i s t

and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p to the w o r l d , states quite c l e a r l y the

theory o f the a r t i s t which M i l l e r uses as one of h i s themes.

In the c e a s e l e s s s t r u g g l e f o r l i b e r a t i o n o f the s e l f
from the moral, s o c i a l , and a e s t h e t i c i d e o l o g i e s and the
people who r e p r e s e n t them, the i n d i v i d u a l goes through
 a d i s j u n c t i v e process of which I have regarded b i r t h as
the p r o t o t y p e . But the process, though s i m i l a r i n
p r i n c i p l e to, i s not a r e p e t i t i o n of, the trauma of
b i r t h ; i t i s , broadly, the attempt of the i n d i v i d u a l t o
g a i n a freedom from dependence of any s o r t upon a
s t a t e from which i t has grown. 7

One e f f e c t which t h a t process of b i r t h was i n c r e a s i n g l y having

on M i l l e r was to i s o l a t e him more and more from the world

he was i n the process o f escaping. And that e f f e c t was to

be an i n c r e a s i n g l y p a i n f u l part o f the struggle t o be reborn.

The i s o l a t i o n and a l i e n a t i o n from anyone who could understand

or a p p r e c i a t e the process i n which he was caught up also

becomes a p a r t of the development o f the a r t i s t , involving

the submersion o f h i s ego. Here the a r t i s t i s l e s s and less

able to feed h i s ego i n the m i r r o r of h i s acquaintance's

esteem. In the p r o c e s s of the r e b i r t h of the a r t i s t , he

must e v e n t u a l l y submerge that p a r t of him which c o n s i s t s

of f a l s e i n d i v i d u a l i t y , though p a r a d o x i c a l l y t u r n i n g i n on

himself to f i n d a new awareness o f who and what he i s . But

that new understanding r e q u i r e s p a r t i c u l a r d i s t i n c t i o n from

the concept of what i t means to be an individual. What M i l l e r

i s escaping from i s the individualism that r e a l l y masks a

s e l f i s h , eg6-centred world, where one asserts his own

i n d i v i d u a l i t y at the expense of e v e r y t h i n g and everyone e l s e .

E s s e n t i a l l y , t h i s i s t h a t great m a t e r i a l e t h i c which attaches

so much to that n o t i o n of " i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s " o f the

i n d i v i d u a l ; i t i s r e a l l y the freedom to set o n e s e l f apart from

the world, from humanity, by i n f l a t i n g the m a t e r i a l l y - o r i e n t e d

sense of self, t h e ego, equated with the greed f o r p r o p e r t y .

It i s a freedom which destroys the individual's sense of an

integrated world without the m i n e / t h i n e distinctions, and

ultimately i t i s enslavement to t h a t c o n c e p t of l i f e measured

in terms o f p r o p e r t y and control. This egotism l e a d s to each

man b e c o m i n g h i s own god, m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e l i t t l e portion of

the world about him as m a t e r i a l . I t becomes a n unconscious

self-enslavement to t h o s e false individual principles of life.

He t h u s r e d u c e s b o t h h i m s e l f and o t h e r s to t h e s e r v i t u d e of

the e g o - i d e a l s which are s e l f - a g g r a n d i z e m e n t , p r o p e r t y , and

the related life-style that expands o n e ' s s e n s e o f power.

Man becomes s u b s e r v i e n t t o t h e power p r i n c i p l e , and i n that

s e n s e , he becomes r e d u c e d to some a s p e c t o f - t h e f o r c e required

to feed the power s t r u g g l e . "Now we think like machines,

because we have become a s m a c h i n e s . C r a v i n g power, we are

the h e l p l e s s v i c t i m s o f power . . . ," 8

This e g o c e n t r i c view of the s e l f , related so closely

to a view o f the w o r l d as m a t t e r t o be m o l d e d , manipulated,

and used for private selfish ends, i s connected with a l l the

institutions, laws, and codes w h i c h M i l l e r sees as constituting

the whole p r o c e s s o f d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of the real individual

man. The "colossal ego" overrides the o t h e r , spiritual

development of the s e l f . I t keeps the individual from s e e i n g

himself i n an u n d i s t o r t e d perspective. Norman 0. Brown

s t a t e s a view similar t o t h e one Miller struggles t o make

clear:
 t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e body i s a s o c i a l p r o j e c t f a c i n g
m a n k i n d a s a w h o l e , and i t w i l l become a p r a c t i c a l
p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m when t h e s t a t e s m e n o f t h e w o r l d a r e
c a l l e d upon t o d e l i v e r h a p p i n e s s i n s t e a d o f power,
when p o l i t i c a l economy becomes a s c i e n c e o f u s e - v a l u e s
i n s t e a d o f e x c h a n g e - v a l u e s — a s c i e n c e of enjoyment
i n s t e a d o f a s c i e n c e of accumulation. In the f a c e o f t h i s
tremendous human p r o b l e m , c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l t h e o r y ,
b o t h c a p i t a l i s t and s o c i a l i s t , has n o t h i n g t o s a y .
C o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l t h e o r y has been c o m p l e t e l y t a k e n
i n by the inhuman a b s t r a c t i o n s o f the p a t h o f s u b l i m a t i o n ,
and has no c o n t a c t w i t h c o n c r e t e human b e i n g s , w i t h
t h e i r c o n c r e t e b o d i e s , t h e i r c o n c r e t e though r e p r e s s e d
d e s i r e s , and t h e i r c o n c r e t e n e u r o s e s . 9

Brown w o r r i e s about the larger, social relevance of the

problem, which M i l l e r ignores, mainly b e c a u s e he seems t o

be convinced that approaches t o greater understanding of the

self can n e v e r u s e f u l l y exist i n o r be fitted into a larger

social-political context. I think M i l l e r i s aware t h a t the

wider p o l i t i c a l and economic i m p l i c a t i o n s of such a view as

political policy, are essentially too d e s t r u c t i v e o f the present

systems to ever be entertained seriously as a system, since

his philosophy in fact calls f o r a n e g a t i o n of systems

themselves i n favour of people. Man, separating himself,

c e n t r i n g on the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e g o - i n d i v i d u a l , has a

conceptual view of the world r a t h e r than a perceptual one:

F o r so l o n g now t h e c o n c e p t u a l w o r l d has been man's •

whole w o r l d . To name, t o d e f i n e , to e x p l a i n . . . . R e s u l t :
unceasing anguish. Expand o r c o n t r a c t the u n i v e r s e
ad i n f i n i t u m — a p a r l o u r game. P l a y t h e god i n s t e a d
o f t r y i n g t o be a s God. Godding, Godding--and a t the
same time b e l i e v i n g i n n o t h i n g . B r a g g i n g of the m i r a c l e s
o f s c i e n c e , y e t l o o k i n g upon t h e w o r l d a s so much s h i t .
F r i g h t e n i n g ambivalence'. E l e c t i n g f o r systems, never
f o r man. 10
 So Miller r e j e c t s that notion o f man, t h a t v i e w of the world;

he presents hisrejection in typically contradictory

sounding words, because not o n l y must he r e j e c t t h a t attitude,

that " f r i g h t e n i n g ambivalence", but those terms t h a t apply

to that "system", that ordering also:

T o d a y I am p r o u d to s a y t h a t I am inhuman, t h a t I b e l o n g
n o t t o men a n d g o v e r n m e n t s , t h a t I h a v e n o t h i n g t o do
w i t h c r e e d s and p r i n c i p l e s . I have n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h
the c r e a k i n g m a c h i n e r y o f h u m a n i t y — I b e l o n g t o t h e e a r t h !
. . . And I j o i n my s l i m e , my e x c r e m e n t , my madness,
my e c s t a s y t o t h e g r e a t c i r c u i t w h i c h f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e
s u b t e r r a n e a n v a u l t s o f t h e f l e s h . 11

This isolation and a l i e n a t i o n o f t h e man, then, i s both

symbolic r e b i r t h , to be t r a v e l l e d a l o n e , and a n e c e s s a r y

separation from a world blind to t h e s p i r i t u a l values of the

real individual. That i n d i v i d u a l must set himself apart

from the f a l s e l y human w o r l d , the c o n t r o l - c e n t r e d socio-

political structure. The i s o l a t i o n i s a return to a d i f f e r e n t

kind of self, still an i n d i v i d u a l i t y w h i c h r e c o g n i z e s a separate

identity, y e t somehow an i d e n t i t y t h a t links the s e l f tothe

earth, t o the world as o b j e c t , and as process.

I wanted s o m e t h i n g o f the e a r t h t h a t was n o t o f man's

d o i n g , s o m e t h i n g a b s o l u t e l y d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e human o f
w h i c h I was s u r f e i t e d . I wanted s o m e t h i n g p u r e l y ',
t e r r e s t r i a l and a b s o l u t e l y d i v e s t e d o f i d e a . I wanted t o
f e e l t h e b l o o d r u n n i n g b a c k i n t o my v e i n s , e v e n a t t h e
c o s t o f a n n i h i l a t i o n . . . . T o be o f n i g h t so f r i g h t e n i n g l y
s i l e n t , so u t t e r l y i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e a n d e l o q u e n t a t t h e
same t i m e . . . . To be human o n l y t e r r e s t r i a l l y , l i k e
a p l a n t o r a worm o r a b r o o k . 12

M i l l e r w a n t s t o encompass two s e e m i n g l y d i v e r s e realms: he

wants t o be b o t h s u b j e c t i v e and o b j e c t i v e a t t h e same t i m e .

That i s , he s e e s h i m s e l f as a l i v i n g , speaking i n d i v i d u a l
separate f r o m men, completely aware o f h i m s e l f , and as a

minute, i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l t h i n g i n the u n i v e r s e of the objective

world. The d e s i r e i s to be a self-contained unit i n the

universe of interconnected processal beings. A brief, early

friendship provides him with an insight i n t o what m i g h t be the

true inner nature o f the self: "He was appealing . . . to the

germ o f the self, to the b e i n g who would e v e n t u a l l y outgrow

the naked p e r s o n a l i t y , the synthetic individuality, and leave

me t r u l y alone and solitary in order to work o u t my own proper

destiny."13 Miller's d e s t i n y i s to r e c r e a t e a new identity

while destroying f i r s t that a l l too p r e v a l e n t individuality

which now exists and which n o u r i s h e s the inflated ego. The

new Miller i s t o be a man who has found himself, and, i n so

doing, has found his place i n a new k i n d of world. That world

is really the primal world, and h i s place there is really an

understanding o f h i m s e l f as p a r t o f the primal order. To arrive

there, M i l l e r ' s artist-man

has t o make h i m s e l f a p a r t o f t h e m y s t e r y , l i v e i n i t a s
w e l l a s w i t h i t . A c c e p t a n c e i s the s o l u t i o n : i t i s an
a r t , n o t an e g o t i s t i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e on the p a r t o f the
intellect. T h r o u g h a r t t h e n , one f i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e s c o n t a c t
with r e a l i t y : t h a t i s the g r e a t d i s c o v e r y . . . . The
w o r l d has n o t to be put i n o r d e r : the w o r l d is_ o r d e r
incarnate. I t i s f o r us t o put o u r s e l v e s i n u n i s o n w i t h
t h i s o r d e r , t o know what i s t h e w o r l d o r d e r i n c o n t r a -
d i s t i n c t i o n t o t h e w i s h f u l - t h i n k i n g o r d e r s w h i c h we
s e e k t o impose on one a n o t h e r . 14

Here, in part, M i l l e r defines his notion of a r t . The distinction

he makes i s t h a t one penetrates the m y s t e r y of life, becoming

part of i t , through acceptance of l i f e . And this acceptance

is itself an a r t , the a r t o f l i v i n g i n the d e e p e s t sense of

of the w o r d . These are important statements about the n a t u r e

of• a r t and t h e k i n d o f acceptance n e c e s s a r y t o understand and

be part o f the w o r l d order. This sense o f a r t i s t h e avenue

that c o n n e c t s M i l l e r ' s i d e a o f the a r t i s t t o everyman. That

is, to understand oneself properly, one must become an artist

in t h e sense t h a t one h a s t o l e a r n t o l i v e c r e a t i v e l y and i n the

sense that the d i s c o v e r y o f the s e l f i s a creative struggle.

Living involves a creative sense o f awareness; i t i s being

part of a creative process i t s e l f ; i t i s not a craft, a

manipulative l e a r n i n g o f how t o a r r a n g e things, a shaping towards

ends. I n M i l l e r ' s t e r m s , when t h e i n d i v i d u a l b r e a k s through

to that concept o f h i m s e l f , he i s a n a r t i s t , f o r he h a s l i v e d

t h r o u g h bis own a r t i s t i c , transcendental experience. He h a s

achieved a secular, spiritual transformation s i m i l a r t o the

traditional, deep, r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e . For Miller, putting

the story i n w r i t i n g i s merely r e t e l l i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e a t one

remove f r o m the experience itself, unless, a s he i s d o i n g here,

one relives t h e whole p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e of self-discovery again.

I n many ways, t h a t i s t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e Rosy C r u c i f i x i o n

trilogy; c e r t a i n l y , i t i s the i m p l i e d s i g n i f i c a n c e of that title.

Something d i e s , something blossoms. To s u f f e r i n

i g n o r a n c e i s h o r r i b l e . To s u f f e r d e l i b e r a t e l y , i n o r d e r
t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e n a t u r e o f s u f f e r i n g and t o a b o l i s h i t
f o r e v e r , i s q u i t e a n o t h e r m a t t e r . . . . A t the l a s t
d e s p e r a t e moment—when one c a n s u f f e r no m o r e l — s o m e t h i n g
happens w h i c h i s i n t h e n a t u r e o f a m i r a c l e . The g r e a t
o p e n wound w h i c h was d r a i n i n g t h e b l o o d o f l i f e c l o s e s
up, t h e o r g a n i s m b l o s s o m s l i k e a r o s e . One i s " f r e e " a t
l a s t . . . . 15
There i s involved as w e l l though, t h e s e n s e o f the s u f f e r i n g ,

isolated artist mentioned e a r l i e r . Much o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f the

themes o f t h e a r t i s t a s s u f f e r e r a r e due t o t h e f a c t t h a t the

s y m b o l i s m o f t h e womb b o t h a s d e a t h and b i r t h p l a c e , the C h r i s t -

like p a s s i v i t y i n v o l v i n g b o t h a c c e p t a n c e and s u f f e r i n g a s part

of the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f the s p i r i t , a l l apply to the s t o r y of

the hero i n these n o v e l s . And that f i g u r e of the a r t i s t i s

very specifically connected to the suffering Christ image;

Miller draws t h e p a r a l l e l i n d i s c u s s i n g Van Gogh a t one point:

What e x c i t e d me was V i n c e n t ' s f l a m i n g d e s i r e t o l i v e t h e

l i f e o f an a r t i s t , t o be n o t h i n g b u t t h e a r t i s t , come what
may. W i t h men o f h i s s t r i p e a r t becomes a r e l i g i o n . Christ
l o n g dead t o t h e c h u r c h i s b o r n a g a i n . . . . The d e s p i s e d
and f o r s a k e n d r e a m e r r e e n a c t s t h e drama o f c r u c i f i x i o n .
He r i s e s f r o m h i s g r a v e t o t r i u m p h o v e r t h e u n b e l i e v e r s . 16

Miller obviously thinks o f h i s own s t o r y i n t h o s e terms also,

and he draws on t h e c r u c i f i x i o n i m a g e r y and i t s a f t e r m a t h t o

convey the sense o f the s t r u g g l e and r e l e a s e , or r e s u r r e c t i o n

of the new man. The s e n s e o f a r t a s r e l i g i o n i s implied

throughout h i s own d i s c u s s i o n s , where a r t i s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

the artist transformed by h i s l i v i n g through i t and expressing

it. The d i s t i n c t i o n , a s p o i n t e d out e a r l i e r , i s that between

art as c r a f t and a r t as c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f the inner man.

The a n a l o g y to C h r i s t i s drawn i n the s p i r i t u a l struggle of

the artist, where t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n comes a s p a r t o f the

a r t i s t e s new v i s i o n o f the w o r l d as w e l l as the sense o f being

r e b o r n w i t h a new u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s own experience.

 I f one i s n ' t c r u c i f i e d , l i k e C h r i s t , i f one manages t o
s u r v i v e , t o go on l i v i n g a b o v e a n d beyond t h e s e n s e o f
d e s p e r a t i o n and f u t i l i t y , t h e n a n o t h e r c u r i o u s t h i n g
happens. I t ' s a s though one had a c t u a l l y d i e d and a c t u a l l y
b e e n r e s u r r e c t e d a g a i n ; one l i v e s a s u p e r n o r m a l l i f e ,
l i k e the Chinese. T h a t i s t o s a y , one i s u n n a t u r a l l y
gay, u n n a t u r a l l y h e a l t h y , u n n a t u r a l l y i n d i f f e r e n t . The
t r a g i c s e n s e i s gone: one l i v e s l i k e a f l o w e r , a r o c k ,
a t r e e , one w i t h N a t u r e and a g a i n s t N a t u r e a t t h e same
t i m e . 17

T h o u g h %he H e n r y M i l l e r h e r o i s o b v i o u s l y a created, larger

than l i f e character i n terms o f the e x a g g e r a t e d and e x t r e m e

range o f experiences he u n d e r g o e s , he i s , a t t h e same time,

representative o f the author h i m s e l f , who seems t o i n d i c a t e

that in retelling h i s own l i f e , he i s e x p e r i e n c i n g a further

transformation parallel t o t h e one he i s s p e a k i n g a b o u t .

That i s , the s t o r i e s themselves a r e a k i n d o f therapy f o r the

author, i l l u m i n a t i n g new w o r l d s f o r h i m i n r e l i v i n g the p a i n f u l

past, a s he i l l u m i n a t e s new w o r l d s f o r t h e r e a d e r . This process

involves the reader in at least two l e v e l s a t once i n a way

that approximates the whole e x p e r i e n c e being described by M i l l e r .

That i s , t h e reader relives the journey t o the r e b i r t h of the

artist, i n f o l l o w i n g t h e n a r r a t i v e , and i s a l s o aware o f t h e

continuing development o f the a r t i s t telling the s t o r y ,

commenting on t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e , the c o n d i t i o n o f t h e

w o r l d a s he now sees i t and a s he saw i t p r e v i o u s l y , and t h e

development of h i s s p i r i t u a l s t a t e t h e n and now.

Two l a r g e n a r r a t i v e modes a r e u n i t e d i n Miller's story

of the a r t i s t - h e r o in'search o f himself; one i s t h e c o n d i t i o n

of the a r t i s t as s o l i t a r y traveller t o t h e i n n e r w o r l d o f man,

to the s o u l , and the o t h e r i s the story of t h e g r e a t hero

adventurer, the e x p e r i e n c e r of o u t e r l i f e , e n a c t i n g the g r e a t

events w i t h which every little o r d i n a r y man i d e n t i f i e s and

dreams o f . And b o t h modes t r a d i t i o n a l l y depict the hero's

descent to h e l l and h i s s u f f e r i n g s or b a t t l e through whose

fire he i s tempered. He r e t u r n s t o t h e p a s t o r d e s c e n d s , where

he e x p e r i e n c e s . s t h e w o r s t i n o r d e r t o see w i t h new i n s i g h t and

vision the world t o w h i c h he must r e t u r n , i n w h i c h he must live.

He r e a s c e n d s o r comes back t o the w o r l d with understanding

modified by h i s e x p e r i e n c e s . Of c o u r s e , this too i s a l l p a r t

of Miller's terrible, yet fortunate, journey. The themes o f

c r e a t i o n a r e p a r t o f the s t o r y o f the a r t i s t , and the s t o r y

of tithe j o u r n e y t o c r e a t e i s the t a l e o f the h e r o i c man

accomplishing h i s mission. That heroic universality i s connected

in both M i l l e r ' s relationships t o t h e r e s t o f h u m a n i t y , and i n

that sense, h i s n o v e l s are the s t o r y o f the g r e a t romantic

representative o f a l l men, as w e l l as being l i n k e d here with

the e x a l t e d r o l e o f the poet-sage relating the h e r o i c tale.

My c o n n e c t i o n s were . . . w i t h man and n o t w i t h men..i . .

I n d i v i d u a l i t y e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f f o r me as l i f e w i t h r o o t s .
E f f l o r e s c e n c e meant c u l t u r e - - i n s h o r t , the w o r l d o f c y c l i c a l
development. I n my e y e s t h e g r e a t f i g u r e s were a l w a y s
i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e t r u n k o f t h e t r e e , n o t w i t h t h e boughs
and l e a v e s . And t h e g r e a t f i g u r e s were c a p a b l e o f l o s i n g
their identity easily: t h e y were a l l v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e
one man, Adam Cadmus, o r w h a t e v e r he be c a l l e d . My l i n e a g e
s t r e a m e d f r o m him, n o t f r o m my a n c e s t o r s . 18

And he i s t h e h e r o h i m s e l f , a c t i n g o u t t h e drama, m a k i n g t h e

symbolic c r o s s i n g of the r i v e r Styx, and r e t u r n i n g to t h e

old but a l s o , f o r h i m , new world:

 t h e f l i g h t w h i c h the p o e t makes o v e r t h e f a c e o f t h e e a r t h
and t h e n , a s i f he had been o r d a i n e d t o r e - e n a c t a l o s t
drama, t h e h e r o i c d e s c e n t i n t o t h e v e r y b o w e l s o f t h e e a r t h ,
t h e d a r k and fearsome s o j o u r n i n t h e b e l l y o f the w h a l e ,
the b l o o d y s t r u g g l e t o l i b e r a t e h i m s e l f , to emerge c l e a n
o f t h e p a s t , a b r i g h t , g o r y sun god c a s t up •••on an a l i e n
s h o r e . 19

The poet i s changed f o r e v e r , i s r e t u r n e d t o a new world by the

vision g r a n t e d him, by t h e e x p e r i e n c e through w h i c h he struggles,

in short, by h i s i n i t i a t i o n into the m y s t e r i e s o f creation,

and the attempt to express the inexpressible. The vision

achieved, the m y s t e r y p e n e t r a t e d , the triumph reached at the

end of the h e r o i c journey, M i l l e r tells o v e r and over. Like

the m e d i e v a l scholar, he w r i t e s the exempla a s the m a j o r train

o f what he i s s a y i n g , then includes, almost m a r g i n a l l y , the

sentence or statement of received 'Struth": He tells h i s story

and comments upon i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e a l o n g the way by speaking

of the r o l e o f the artist and the nature of h i s a r t :

s i n c e d i s a s t e r s a r e d i s a s t r o u s o n l y f o r those e n g u l f e d
i n them, w h e r e a s t h e y can be i l l u m i n a t i n g f o r t h o s e who
s u r v i v e and s t u d y them, so i t i s i n the c r e a t i v e w o r l d . . . .
I n the a r t i s t . . . c o n t r a s t i n g r e a c t i o n s seem t o combine
o r merge, p r o d u c i n g t h a t u l t i m a t e one, t h e g r e a t c a t a l y z e r
c a l l e d r e a l i z a t i o n . . . . The a r t i s t ' s game i s to move
over into r e a l i t y . I t i s to see beyond t h e mere
" d i s a s t e r " w h i c h the p i c t u r e of a l o s t b a t t l e f i e l d
r e n d e r s t o t h e n a k e d e y e . . . . t h e p i c t u r e w h i c h the
w o r l d h a s p r e s e n t e d t o the n a k e d human eye c a n h a r d l y seem
a n y t h i n g but a h i d e o u s b a t t l e g r o u n d o f l o s t c a u s e s . . . .
and [ i t j w i l l be so u n t i l man c e a s e s t o r e g a r d h i m s e l f
a s t h e mere s e a t o f c o n f l i c t . U n t i l he t a k e s up t h e
t a s k o f b e c o m i n g the " I " o f h i s " I " . 20

In these statements about the n a t u r e o f the insight a t which

one must a r r i v e and the p u r p o s e of the a r t i s t and his art,

Miller i s not merely inserting trite homilies or "philosophizing"

breaks i n the n a r r a t i v e of h i s character's sexual escapades.

These are not extraneous, unconnected fillers. What he is saying

is w e l l - k n i t and carefully cohesive a t one o r more l e v e l s of

his novels. M o r e o v e r , one cannot s i m p l y e x p l a i n away these

s t a t e m e n t s he makes by saying that this s e c t i o n "means" this

and that segment "means" t h a t . The s e n s e o f what he means i s n o t

so easily arrived at, or a t l e a s t , not the full sense of what

he is trying to say. Miller is continually reiterating events,

experiences, periods of h i s l i f e , the aims o f his narrative,

his f e e l i n g s about h i m s e l f a s w e l l as what i s o r was happening

to him. He is circling r o u n d and round i n an effort to arrive

at some c e n t r e . p o i n t ; he i s experiencing a process of successively

sharper and sharper intelligences of his inner self, arriving

at a c l e a r e r and c l e a r e r understanding o f the purpose of his

own life, as w e l l as clarifying for himself the purpose of the

s t o r y he is telling. For the s e n s e of h i s works i s v e r y much t h a t of

the artist who i s f i n d i n g h i m s e l f as he writes about finding

himself. That i s , h i s awareness of h i m s e l f i s a process that is

still in operation as the novels are being written. The narrative

train seems t o move f r o m the v i o l e n t a n g e r and ialack d e s p a i r of

an isolated individual Venting his frustration and bitterness

at a d e t e r i o r a t i n g , heedless world, t e l l i n g that aspect of

his tale. From t h e r e , though, the s t o r y moves i n e a c h o f his

novels, but with i n c r e a s i n g confidence i n the later ones, to

a s l o w g r o w t h i n the knowledge of the teller t h a t what he is

saying is itself a process o f c r e a t i v e and spiritual growth;

it i s a l s o t h e means of r e j e c t i n g , e s c a p i n g and transcending

that world o f w h i c h he f e e l s no part. In that sense, his

novels take on a n e x t r i n s i c , therapeutic value f o r the author,

as w e l l as an implied i n t r i n s i c value as w o r k o f a r t f o r i t s

own sake. Hence, the meaning of p a r t i c u l a r events in Miller's

novels change t h e i r c h a r a c t e r as the books p r o g r e s s . One

becomes aware that the significance of p a r t i c u l a r events

slowly grovfeas M i l l e r c i r c l e s on t h e main c o u r s e that h i s

life took. The recollection of various events, and the

repeated r e t u r n to c e r t a i n aspects o f h i s p a s t , mark their

particularity, their growing significance, as they accumulate

in the novels. They are h i s magic touchstones, to which he

r e t u r n s sometimes w i t h a l m o s t childlike and perhaps naive

awe. The • -episodes t h e m s e l v e s and the remembrance o f them

seem to r e j u v e n a t e Miller as he s p i n s out the lines of h i s

spiritual connections to t h e p a s t , as he moves on through,

what i s f o r him, the e v e r l a s t i n g p r e s e n t . As he returns

a g a i n and a g a i n t t o m e n t i o n some e v e n t or aspect of that p e r i o d ,

it becomes q u i t e c l e a r that M i l l e r i s drawing ever stronger

emphasis to the p a r t i c u l a r relevance o f t h a t p e r i o d to h i s

present life. I t comes t o r e p r e s e n t a p a r t i c u l a r aspect

of the p a r a d i s e in life which M i l l e r hopes t o r e d i s c o v e r . The

innocence of that world can n e v e r be regained, but the unity

of vision, the complete l a c k o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s of self,

naturalness of action, the u t t e r o p e n e s s % o f mind, and of

e x p r e s s i o n , a r e a few o f the characteristics of childhood

life which M i l l e r regards as extremely valuable. So, throughout

his n o v e l s , he t o u c h e s back on some e v e n t of that period,

usually t o h i g h l i g h t o r compare i t to the p r e s e n t condition

of h i s adult life.

The whole s e n s e o f what M i l l e r means by c r e a t i o n then,

is linked to h i s d e v e l o p m e n t o f the b i r t h o f the a r t i s t through

the senses. The O v a r i a n T r o l l e y aspect of the journey i s actually

a f e a t u r e o f n e a r l y t h e whole c o r p u s of h i swritings. That i s ,

Miller's descent into "the bowels o f the e a r t h " i n o r d e r t o

pass through to the c r e a t i v e sphere i s an i m m e r s i o n i n and

a r e t u r n to basic sensual/sensory experience. The a c t i v i t i e s

of h i s hero c h a r a c t e r c e n t e r on f o o d and s e x . And t h e p o r t i o n s

of e a c h w h i c h he e n g o r g e s a r e e x t r e m e , e x t r a v a g a n t , exaggerated,

comic, a n d sometimes v i o l e n t . The p i c t u r e drawn i s one o f

frenzied activity that embraces e x t r e m e s , t h e l o w e s t extremes

usually, of sensual a c t i v i t i e s . This is first a calculated

feature o f the a t t i t u d e of t o t a l acceptance of a l l aspects

of life, i n order to exceed what we o r d i n a r i l y regard as

living, t o become t h e c o s m i c "I"sand " e y e " o f t h e human story;

it i s a method of transcending l i f e by e m b r a c i n g i t a l l ,

m o v i n g on t h r o u g h life, thus becoming l a r g e r than i t a l l .

And i t i s also a vibrant, open, u n q u e s t i o n i n g a f f i r m a t i o n o f

the life o f t h e body, w h i c h a t t e m p t s to negate the n o t i o n

of the w i l l . The p h i l o s o p h y i s one o f a c t i v e passivity,

calculated irrationality, a system n e g a t i n g s y s t e m s and ccodes

of m o r a l i t y and l a w . The c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i m p l i e d i n these

statements r e s o l v e themselves i n an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a rather

simple but important distinction t h a t u n d e r l i e s what Miller

means by the pejorative notions of codes, systems and laws.

These cultural and social structures Miller s e e s as props

which support partial living. His negations are merely a

way of calling for a complete consciousness of l i f e . He is

reacting against social patterns that are either irrelevant

as guides that might help people to enjoy a more abundant

existence, or they are a hindrance t o the freedom o f the

individual to expand h i s inner horizons through h i s outer

vision and action. Miller propounds a p h i l o s o p h y of being

rather than becoming, which i n v o l v e s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , becoming

something e l s e i n any event. The individual must become one

with the activity of l i f e itself, l i v i n g i n i t , i n the activity,

rather than attempting to l i v e a t i t , doing the activity. The

process, for Miller, is part of b e i n g fully awake. As he

eventually comes t o swim i n w o r d s , and as he indeed does i n

all his writing, Miller details how he swam i n t h e current of

life :

I too l o v e e v e r t h i n g t h a t f l o w s : r i v e r s , sewers,
l a v a , semen, b l o o d , b i l e , w o r d s , s e n t e n c e s . . . .
I l o v e the words o f h y s t e r i c s and t h e s e n t e n c e s t h a t
f l o w on l i k e d y s e n t e r y and m i r r o r a l l the s i c k images
o f t h e s o u l . . . i. I l o v e e v e r y t h i n g t h a t f l o w s ,
e v e r y t h i n g t h a t has time i n i t and becoming, t h a t b r i n g s
us back to the b e g i n n i n g where t h e r e i s n e v e r end . . . .
The g r e a t i n c e s t u o u s w i s h i s to f l o w on, one w i t h t i m e ,
to merge the g r e a t image o f t h e beyond w i t h the h e r e
and now. A fatuous, s u i c i d a l wish that i s c o n s t i p a t e d
by words and p a r a l y z e d by t h o u g h t . 21
 Much o f t h e sensual a c t i v i t y of h i s hero i s related t o .•;

the sense of that c h i l d h o o d e r a , where the a c t i v i t y of living

was open, d i r e c t i n response to i m p u l s e s and desires, and

g e n e r a l l y unencumbered by inhibitions later inculcated by

society. Miller's fascination with Freud's statement that

"into the n i g h t l i f e seems t o be exiled what once r u l e d the

day" 2 5 2
i s connected t o t h i s view o f c h i l d h o o d and the

activities o f h i s hero"; That is, Miller's c h a r a c t e r seems

to be living o u t h i s r e p r e s s e d dream o r " n i g h t " world,

e x p r e s s i n g h i s i m p u l s e s and desires i n those exaggerated sexual

escapades. The attempt i s t o b r i n g the e x i l e d night l i f e of

the subconscious back i n t o t h e day, into c o n s c i o u s n e s s , through

literature. Those a s p e c t s o f t h e doctrine of a c c e p t a n c e are

the essential preliminaries to c r e a t i o n , as p a r t of t h e creative

r e b i r t h of the a r t i s t i n t h e womb o f the s e n s u a l w o r l d , a s part

of the e x e r c i s e i n negation of w i l l or egocentric self, and

lastly, a u n i o n o f t h e m i n d and body w i t h the e l e m e n t a l forms

of creation and the organic, p r o c e s s a l w o r l d . A l l o f the sensual

activities, as r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t the idea-controlled, rule-

governed, social man, are part o f a movement t o w a r d other

centres of action i n man, toward o t h e r a s p e c t s o f mind, i n

an a t t e m p t to balance the preponderance o f weight society

and i t s literature p l a c e s on traditional s t r u c t u r e s of thought

as the way man realizes his highest potential as a thinking

animal. Miller suggests that the j o u r n e y down t h e Fallopian

tubes, the reawakening of the senses, t h e way of t h e body, i s

the method o f r e a c h i n g and reawakening the e s s e n t i a l soul of

man. The vocabulary of spiritual awakening and union is

couched i n terms o f p h y s i c a l birth and sexual intercourse.

And the p h y s i c a l experiences are presented as t h e means through

which the spiritual experience is finally arrived at. Thus,

the importance o f t h e whole s e x u a l a s p e c t o f M i l l e r ' s novels

is not merely as metaphor f o r a l l s e n s o r y reawakening.

Metaphor i t i s , b u t more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i t d e s c r i b e s the body

as the p a t h t o the s o u l . That route to the soul p l a c e s Miller

in the company o f what he refers to as the "underground"

men: "We were, w i t h o u t knowing it,members o f t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l '

underground which vomits forth at suitable intervals those

w r i t e r s who will later be called Romantics, mystics, visionaries

or diabolists." 2 3

A major p o r t i o n of the M i l l e r hero's journey, at least

in terms o f h i s o u t w a r d l i f e experiences, c e n t r e s on the

great female figure in h i s l i f e : h i s second w i f e , Mona/

Mara. 2 4
Capricorn deals with a p e r i o d l e a d i n g up to Miller's

acquaintance with her; the Rosy C r u c i f i x i o n trilogy deals

primarily with the seven y e a r span o f h i s m a r r i a g e to her, and

the C a n c e r n o v e l covers t h e end p e r i o d , where he has moved

past his n e e d f o r h e r , has escaped her. For M i l l e r , Mona

seems t o r e p r e s e n t a l l the feminine p r i n c i p l e s that exist.

She stands f o r e v e r y t h i n g t h a t men dream woman s h o u l d be, as

w e l l a s what t h e y i n fact are: She i s l o v i n g , beautiful,

charming, able to s a t i s f y h i s e v e r y s e x u a l d e s i r e ; she i s a l s o

fickle and t r e a c h e r o u s i n h e r a t t e n t i o n s t o him, d i s a p p e a r i n g

for p e r i o d s of time, t e l l i n g h a l f - c o n c e a l e d stories of other

l o v e r s , o t h e r a f f a i r s , alltfeTrihile protesting her innocence

and faithfulness. She s t a n d s a s a m o t h e r f i g u r e i n providing

money and f o o d f o r M i l l e r i n m y s t e r i o u s ways. Her stories

are c o n f u s i n g m i x t u r e s o f t r u t h and f a b r i c a t i o n w h i c h he can

never penetrate through to find o u t what she does when n o t

w i t h him. In that sense, she p r e s e n t s s o m e t h i n g of a child's

view o f t h e m o t h e r f i g u r e who i s always a v a i l a b l e when r e q u i r e d ,

always able to supply the c h i l d ' s needs, b u t n e v e r wholly

revealed t o t h e c h i l d ' s m i n d when he i s h o t a b l e t o v i e w and

to touch her. She i s the m y s t e r i o u s source o f l i f e . There

is o f t e n t h e sense, too, that though c u r i o u s about h e r ways,

he a v o i d s d e l v i n g too f a r into t h e f a c t s of what h e r l i f e might

be f o r f e a r o f b e t r a y a l . Miller i s both f a s c i n a t e d and j e a l o u s

and so d e s p e r a t e l y i n need o f s e c u r i t y a n d r e a s s u r a n c e that

he dare not s t r i p away the v e i l o f mystery that surrounds

Mona's a c t i v i t i e s . Then, t o o , h e r s t o r i e s a r e such confusing

mixtures o f t r u t h and f a b r i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s some q u e s t i o n

about w h e t h e r he c a n e v e r p e n e t r a t e t h e i r c o n f u s i o n s anyway.

So, a s woman, a s l o v e r , Mona i s m y s t e r i o u s and elusive.

She seems t o become w h a t e v e r M i l l e r w i s h e s h e r t o be. And

the c o n t i n u i n g mystery f o r him i s just that elusive nature

she represents. In a sense, she becomes t h e c e n t r a l figure

of Miller's c r e a t i v e r e b i r t h a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the mystery

of creation i t s e l f . H i s great journey r e v o l v e s around h i s

f a s c i n a t i o n with not being able t o know h e r , and w i t h h i s

attempt to arrive a t some k n o w l e d g e o f h e r . He f e e l s that i f

he can t e l l t h e s t o r y o f Mona he w i l l not only t e l l the

process o f h i s own major, i n n e r b r e a k t h r o u g h , b u t he may a l s o

be able to reach and e x p l a i n the heart o f the mystery of

creation itself i n d e t a i l i n g who Mona r e a l l y was. F o r i t was

she who u l t i m a t e l y p r o v i d e d M i l l e r with t h e means o f e s c a p i n g

the t e r r i b l e mechanical life of the ordinary spiritually

d i s e m b o d i e d man, by a l l o w i n g him t h e means t o e s c a p e a mundane

working l i f e and t o spend h i s t i m e writing. A n d i t was through

the tribulations of h i s l i f e w i t h Mona t h a t he experienced

ecstatic h i g h p e r i o d s o f l o v e and j o y , t o g e t h e r w i t h horrible,

low moments o f b l a c k d e s p a i r , isolation and b i t t e r n e s s . She

fueled and t e n d e d the f i r e s through which. M i l l e r had t o p a s s

before he f i n a l l y achieved his spiritual f r e e d o m t o become

a writer. He e v e n t u a l l y went p a s t h e r and h i s need f o r h e r .

He e s c a p e d the world i n w h i c h he was m i r e d , w h i c h was New

York c i t y , r e p r e s e n t i n g the t e r r e s t r i a l d i s i n t e g r a t e d world

of the m e c h a n i c a l body. Moving to P a r i s , m a i n l y as the

result o f another o f Mona's s e c r e t i v e m o n e y - c o l l e c t i n g efforts,

he was a b l e to l e a v e h i s p a s t , f r e e d both from i t and f r o m

Mona. M i l l e r was t h e n a b l e to r e t u r n a g a i n to that past

in h i s writing, t o work o u t h i s own t r u e n a t u r e i n the present.

And i n t h a t escape, M i l l e r must l e a v e Mona b e h i n d , because,

in a sense, she i s t h e g r e a t , e a r t h l y p r i n c i p l e , partly

mechanical body. Also, she s t a n d s f o r t h e c r e a t i v e p r i n c i p l e

itself, mysterious, e a r t h l y , sensual, demanding a n d t o r t u o u s

for her victim yet l i f e - g i v i n g ; she r e p r e s e n t s that stage o f

his d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h he n e e d e d , u s e d and moved p a s t . Mona

set him f r e e to create, to write; thus, he moved away f r o m Mona,

that representative o f a p a r t i c u l a r form of e x p e r i e n c e . At

least, this i s the general s e n s e o f t h e Mona/Mara f i g u r e i n

Miller's life. But i n w r i t i n g about her, i n h i s r e t u r n t o Mona

as t h e k e y f i g u r e and c e n t r a l symbol i n h i s w r i t i n g a b o u t t h e

past and the d i r e c t i o n o f h i s l i f e a s a method i t s e l f of

penetrating the nature o f the c r e a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e , M i l l e r pays

his greatest tribute to that s t r a n g e and l o v e l y woman:

Creation: To c r e a t e t h e l e g e n d i n w h i c h I c o u l d f i t t h e
key w h i c h would open h e r s o u l . . . . I t i s about twenty
y e a r s now s i n c e I began t h e s t u d y o f t h e p h o t o g e n i c
s o u l ; i n t h a t t i m e I have c o n d u c t e d h u n d r e d s o f
experiments. T h e r e s u l t i s t h a t I know a l i t t l e more-?-?
a b o u t m y s e l f . . . . One d i s c o v e r s n o t h i n g a b o u t the
s e c r e t s o f t h e u n i v e r s e : a t the b e s t one l e a r n s s o m e t h i n g
a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f d e s t i n y . 25

Miller finally can never find h e r i n the way he w a n t s , t o

lay open a l l t h e " f a c t s " a b o u t t Mona, and to know who a n d

what she was:

The woman who had been Mara and was now Lfona, who h a d
been and would be o t h e r names, o t h e r p e r s o n s , o t h e r
a s s e m b l a g e s o f a p p e n d a g e s , was no more a c c e s s i b l e ,
penetrable than a c o o l s t a t u e i n a f o r g o t t e n garden
o f a l o s t c o n t i n e n t . 26

She i s too c l o s e l y associated with t h a t which i s unfathomable

in a l l people, their spiritual core; this i s an a d m i s s i o n

M i l l e r makes when he s a y s t h a t a l l he h a s come t o know i s a

little more o f h i m s e l f , h i s own s o u l - c e n t r e . And she i s t o o

closely identified with the w h o l e p r i n c i p l e of c r e a t i o n itself;

she i s both beautiful and t e r r i b l e , mysterious and unreachable,

though h e r outward, surface c h a r a c t e r appears c l e a r and plastic:

The i r r e s i s t i b l e c r e a t u r e o f the o t h e r s e x i s a m o n s t e r
i n p r o c e s s of becoming a f l o w e r . Feminine beauty i s
a c e a s e l e s s c r e a t i o n , a c e a s e l e s s r e v o l u t i o n about a
d e f e c t ( o f t e n i m a g i n a r y ) w h i c h causes the w h o l e b e i n g to
g y r a t e h e a v e n w a r d . 27

And that creative p r i n c i p l e , as i s obvious here., i s f o r M i l l e r

a m y s t i c a l one, b o t h Si:terms o f i t s p r o c e s s as f e m i n i n e

beauty, a s p a r t o f and symbol f o r a l l n a t u r a l p r o c e s s , and i n

its effect on the o b s e r v e r , when he f i n a l l y realizes i t

fully, which i s o f the nature of a v i s i o n a r y experience.

It i s mystic i n that i t can never be f u l l y described or detailed;

he can t a l k "about" i t , but never actually "say" i t . What

is important here i s M i l l e r ' s e q u a t i n g o f the feminine with

the creative process, i n the f i g u r e o f Mona, who, a s t h e name

suggests, i s supremely b e a u t i f u l , enigmatic, and e n t i r e l y

representative o f woman. The c r e a t i v e process i s presented as

loss o f the e g o c e n t r i c s e l f , as heroic journey, m y s t i c a l

experience, and a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g love a f f a i r . A l l o f these

modes t o g e t h e r o r c h e s t r a t e a movement toward a s l o w growth

of consciousness l e a d i n g to t h e super-awakened soul. These

themes b e a t t h e r h y t h m o f t h e m i n d ' s movement a s i t s l o w l y

becomes aware o f t h e dance o f l i f e , t h e harmony o f mind,

body and s p i r i t aware o f i t s e l f a s one f u l l y human being.

 The f i n a l a r r i v a l a t the goal f o r which M i l l e r set out

has been mentioned b r i e f l y in several places in this discusssion

as i t r e l a t e d to other a s p e c t s of M i l l e r ' s w r i t i n g . It

would be perhaps u s e f u l now to focus on that end-place in

somewhat g r e a t e r d e t a i l . W i l l i a m Gordon c a l l s M i l l e r ' s

f i n a l achievement of i n s i g h t "cosmic consciousness". 1

The term which Norman 0. Brown uses to d e s c r i b e the s o r t of

consciousness that he f i n d s common to c e r t a i n w r i t e r s and

t h i n k e r s i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , poetry, mysticism, and philosophy,

is "dialectical imagination": "By d i a l e c t i c a l I mean an

a c t i v i t y of consciousness s t r u g g l i n g to circumvent the l i m i t a t i o n s

imposed by the f o r m a l - l o g i c a l law of c o n t r a d i c t i o n " . ^ This

kind o f d e f i n i t i o n h e l p s to i l l u s t r a t e something of the nature

of M i l l e r ' s c o n t r a d i c t o r y and a p p a r e n t l y c o n f u s i n g statements.

As w i t h h i s s u r r e a l dream v i s i o n s , what he says i n d i r e c t

statement i s p a r t of an attempt to encompass the irrational,

the i l l o g i c a l , to accept that aspect of the world, and to

circumvent the world o f l o g i c and r a t i o n a l thought processes.

The world M i l l e r i s p r e s e n t i n g i s a t o t a l s t a t e o f being

which i n c l u d e s a l l a s p e c t s of the mind. Hence, what he says

c o n t a i n s the range of mental, as w e l l as of p h y s i c a l activity.

T h i s r e t u r n s us t o the question of what i s t r u e , f o r i n

M i l l e r ' s terms, t r u t h ; i n a d d i t i o n to b e i n g an i n n e r and outer

c o n d i t i o n : . o f harmony,is'jn r e l a t i n g the whole s t o r y o f t h e man

f u n c t i o n i n g i n and aware o f h i s u n i v e r s e . That s t o r y i s

c o n t r a d i c t o r y , p a r a d o x i c a l , and e s s e n t i a l l y i n e x p l i c a b l e

i n t h a t words o n l y approximate the t e l l i n g o f i t ; y e t t h e

words a r e a t r u e d e p i c t i o n o f t h e c o n t i n u a l s t a t e o f f l u x

o f l i f e when they do p r e s e n t t h a t range of apparent

unintelligibllity. G e n e r a l l y , what i s u n i n t e l l i g i b l e i n

M i l l e r ' s n a r r a t i v e a r e those t h i n g s which d e f y r e a s o n , a n a l y s i s ,

and l o g i c . They appear t o make no sense because r e a s o n and

o r d e r a r e the k i n d s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e p r o c e d u r e s we attempt

to a p p l y t o what he i s s a y i n g . The i r r a t i o n a l and the s u r r e a l

are c l e a r when one p i c k s up the imagery o f the d e s c r i p t i o n

o r senses the f e e l i n g i n the s t a t e m e n t s . Then, t h e r e i s no

c o n t r a d i c t i o n , no r e a l d i s j u n c t i o n . The u n i f y i n g p r i n c i p l e s

which a p p l y , then, a r e o u t s i d e the normal p l a n e o f "understanding";

they a r e p o e t i c a l and m y s t i c a l i n s i g h t s o f a k i n d which take

l i c e n s e w i t h o u r common c o n v e n t i o n s o f o r d e r ; h i s major p o i n t s

of r e f e r e n c e a r e not t o " t h i n g s " a s such, but t o something

a k i n t o the s t a t e o f " t h i n g n e s s " , which i s t h e s p i r i t u a l ,

yet o b j e c t i v e c o n t e x t o f the w o r l d . The p o s i t i o n from which

he n a r r a t e s i s both i n and out o f t h e w o r l d , a t once r e l i v i n g

the p a i n f u l experience of h i s l i f e c y c l e , and r e - e x p e r i e n c i n g

a l l t h e s u f f e r i n g and unhappiness o f i t , w h i l e s t i l l standing

o u t s i d e o f i t , s e e i n g through i t w i t h detachment:
 I c o u l d see i t a l l c l e a r l y — m y e a r t h l y e v o l u t i o n , f r o m
t h e l a r v a l s t a g e t o the p r e s e n t , and e v e n beyond the
present. What was t h e s t r u g g l e f o r o r t o w a r d ? Toward
union. Perhaps. What e l s e c o u l d i t mean, t h i s d e s i r e
to communicate? To r e a c h e v e r y o n e , h i g h and low,
and g e t an answer bade—a d e v a s t a t i n g t h o u g h t I To
v i b r a t e e t e r n a l l y , l i k e the w o r l d l y r e . 3

This desire to t e l l a story t o someone, t o a n y o n e ,

to the w o r l d , and t o move toward union are certainly part

of the g o a l >that M i l l e r sums up h e r e toward the end o f Nexus,

the final book i n t h e Rosy C r u c i f i x i o n trilogy. The kind

of u n i o n he means t h o u g h , i s s t a t e d more e x p l i c i t l y in

e a r l i e r n o v e l s , a s he c i r c l e s around, r e s t a t i n g what he is

trying t o do, constantly attempting to c l a r i f y what he at

first felt only vaguely to be h i s m i s s i o n in writing. As

he becomes more aware, so he encounters greater d i f f i c u l t y in

stating his intention clearly. The problem i s again one of

e x p r e s s i n g the inexpressible. One sense o f where he wants

to arrive i s given i n a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p i c t u r e of an

elderly Chinese sage: "He has neither rejected the world

nor renounced i t : he i s part of i t j u s t as stone, tree,

b e a s t , f l o w e r and s t a r a r e p a r t o f i t . I n h i s b e i n g he is

the w o r l d , a l l t h e r e can e v e r be of i t . . . . " 4

The

Chinese man i s a concept that M i l l e r uses to exemplify a

state of understanding of s e l f that Miller h i m s e l f hopes

ultimately to r e a c h . The image o f C h i n a , and being i n China,

as a c o n d i t i o n of t o t a l freedom from the known w o r l d , and as

being i n an a l i e n , distant place, is earlier developed by

Miller in a heavily surrealistic essay called "Walking Up

and Down i n C h i n a . " Miller there describes himself as the

completely detached, f r e e man, alive and alone in a diseased,

destructive world. Anais Nin r e l a t e s that concept of the

world, as M i l l e r described i t to h e r , i n terms similar to

those w h i c h he applied i n Plexus t o the picture of that

Chinese sage:

C h i n a seems t o s t a n d f o r a c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n o f
e x i s t e n c e . . . t h e u n i v e r s e o f mere b e i n g . Where one
l i v e s l i k e a p l a n t , i n s t i n c t i v e l y , no w i l l . The g r e a t
i n d i f f e r e n c e , l i k e t h a t o f the H i n d u who l e t s h i m s e l f
be p a s s i v e i n o r d e r to l e t t h e s e e d s inhimflower. Some-
t h i n g between the w i l l o f t h e E u r o p e a n and the Karma
o f the O r i e n t a l . 6

The important d i f f e r e n c e i n what M i l l e r means when he describes

such a state of existence i s not c l e a r i n the statement

itself. For i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n to A n a i s Nin here, Miller

seems t o imply a kind of existence which is completely

unconscious, a c o n d i t i o n of m a t e r i a l being that i s aware of

nothing. R a t h e r what he does mean i s t h a t one have a

completely u n i n f l a t e d view of s e l f , as part of the cosmos,

as relatively insignificant o b j e c t , and that one be aware

of oneself aa an o b j e c t , not a' p r i m e mover - i n the' u n i v e r s e .

That i s , the i n d i v i d u a l must o p e r a t e f r o m and live first

i n t h e knowledge of h i m s e l f a s p a r t of, rather apart from

the world. The sense o f detachment from the w o r l d is partly

the sense o f separation f r o m the universe o f human destroyers,

the idea o f man the controller, r a t h e r t h a n man the monitor

or the t r a n s m i t t e r of the world pulse. The metaphor o f rock

or p l a n t applies t o an awareness of self, as belonging to a

natural order, and an awareness of self i n an u n e g o t i s t i c a l

sense. I t does not apply t o h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how one

should live, i n t e r m s o f what one should do; The acceptance

of l i f e which M i l l e r calls f o r i s an active one, as the title

makes c l e a r , and as the l a r g e r p o r t i o n of " W a l k i n g Up and

Down i n C h i n a " implies by i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f movement,

activity, and life. But the m y t h i c a l C h i n a and Chinese man

do contain that apparently contradictory u n i f i c a t i o n of the

active man most i n and of t h i s world, partaking of i t

joyfully, w i t h a b a n d o n , and without discrimination. And it

contains also the p a s s i v e man, not merely i n the sense of

accepting a l l e x p e r i e n c e , but i n the sense of Yeats' Oriental

w i s e men in Lapis Lazuli. That i s , for Miller, the state of

mind t o be united with the unselfconscious body i n v o l v e s the

a w a r e n e s s and detachment of the w i s e man who sees through the

surface involvement o f the human c o n d i t i o n . I t i s that

clarity of v i s i o n which a l l o w s the sage to s m i l e i n the face

of t r a g e d y , and i t i s something of t h a t same intellectual

p o s i t i o n w h i c h M i l l e r assumes i n h i s a p o c a l y p t i c visions ?

when he calls joyfully f o r the d e s t r u c t i o n of the material

world. It i s also t h a t p o s i t i o n which seems t o g o v e r n his

very d i s i n t e r e s t e d , or detached a t t i t u d e about events that do

not a f f e c t h i s own life, f o r he i s b o t h above the movement

of the e x t e r n a l w o r l d and in i t , divorced from man's n o r m a l

sense of r e a l i t y . And, o f c o u r s e , the c a l l for destruction

is also a wild desperate desire to inject new l i f e i n t o men:

L e t us have more o c e a n s , more u p h e a v a l s , more w a r s ,

more h o l o c a u s t s . L e t us have a w o r l d o f men a n d women
w i t h dynamos between t h e i r l e g s , a w o r l d o f n a t u r a l
f u r y , o f p a s s i o n , a c t i o n , drama," dreams, madness, a w o r l d
t h a t p r o d u c e s e c s t a s y and n o t d r y f a r t s . . . . A n y t h i n g
t h a t i s c a p a b l e o f r e s u s c i t a t i n g body and s o u l . 7

The call for this kind o f action, t h a t is*, o f any a c t i o n which

is a spontaneous, i m p u l s i v e , c o m p l e t e l y human e x p r e s s i o n , o f

desires, senses, a p p e t i t e s , i s M i l l e r ' s e x p r e s s i o n of a r e t u r n

to the earthly life o f t h e body i n c o n c e r t w i t h t h e s p i r i t .

He w a n t s so much t o r e t u r n t o v i t a l human r o o t s , to a purely

terrestrial life a t one e n d o f t h e s p e c t r u m i n the senses, and

in t h e mind, to transcend l i f e , t o be o f t h e s p i r i t , t o be

extraterrestrial. The c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n d e s i r i n g t o be t i e d t o

earth yet free o f i t a r e again r e s o l v e d i n the n o t i o n o f

physicality, o f sensory relationships that really free the

spirit. Overcoming p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r c u l t u r a l i n h i b i t i o n s to

physical freedom w i l l free the s p i r i t from r e p r e s s i o nand

will a l l o w man t o r e a c h some s o r t of transcendent consciousness.

The t h e o r y i s t o r o o t t h e body i n t h e s e n s u a l , t h e e a r t h l y ,

and i n so d o i n g , f r e e the s p i r i t :

B e h i n d t h e g r a y w a l l s t h e r e a r e human s p a r k s , a n d y e t
never a c o n f l a g r a t i o n ! A r e t h e s e men a n d women . . .
o r a r e t h e s e shadows, shadows o f p u p p e t s d a n g l e d by
invisible strings? T h e y move i n f r e e d o m a p p a r e n t l y ,
b u t t h e y have nowhere t o g o . I n one r e a l m o n l y a r e
t h e y f r e e a n d t h e r e t h e y may; roam a t " w i l l — b u t they
have n o t y e t l e a r n e d how t o take w i n g . . . . No man
has b e e n b o r n l i g h t enough, gay enough, t o l e a v e t h e
earth'. 8
Miller i s saying that people are r e a l l y free in spirit, were

they o n l y aware. P e o p l e wander a r o u n d i n apparent physical

f r e e d o m , unaware o f b o t h t h a t a t t a c h m e n t to e a r t h , to the

s e n s e s , and t h e means a v a i l a b l e t o be p h y s i c a l l y a l i v e , which

for Miller i s freedom. A g a i n , h i s meaning here r e t u r n s us

to the notion o f awareness of s e l f , f o r the centre o f the s e l f

i s where M i l l e r u l t i m a t e l y wants t o a r r i v e : the goal i s

t o f i n d God, where God i s a n i n t e r i o r sense o f a w a r e n e s s :

"My whole a i m i n l i f e i s to get nearer t o God, t h a t i s , to

get nearer to m y s e l f . " * This, I take i t , i s not a simple

egotistical equating of himself w i t h God, r a t h e r i t i s the

feeling that God i s a s t a t e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h i c h i s inner

and of t h i s world.

Repeatedly i n M i l l e r ' s w r i t i n g , both i n what he s a y s

and i n what he a c t u a l l y d o e s i n h i s n o v e l s , there i s traced

a c i r c u l a r movement i n a d i r e c t i o n t h a t l e a d s toward t h e

inner man. I t i s a movement inward toward the c e n t r e , as

well as a return t o b e g i n n i n g s , a f i n d i n g o f t h e end p o i n t i n

the beginning. I t i s a l s o a w o r k i n g o u t of a n e n c o m p a s s i n g

theory o f u n i f i c a t i o n i n a u n i v e r s a l s e n s e o f one great,

life process that i s i n e t e r n a l movement a n d c h a n g e , y e t w h i c h

is unchanging i n the sense o f unending. And t h e movement i s

finally toward the expression of the inexpressible, which

is telling a story that approximates the r e a l story. What

he wants t o s a y c a n n o t be e x p r e s s e d clearly, except i n the

most c o n t r a d i c t o r y sounding terms.

 No man e v e r p u t s down what he i n t e n d e d t o s a y : the
o r i g i n a l c r e a t i o n , which i s t a k i n g p l a c e a l l the time,
w h e t h e r one w r i t e s or d o e s n ' t w r i t e , b e l o n g s to t h e
primal flux: i t has no d i m e n s i o n s , no f o r m , no time
element. In t h i s p r e l i m i n a r y s t a t e , which i s c r e a t i o n
and n o t b i r t h , what d i s a p p e a r s s u f f e r s no d e s t r u c t i o n ;
s o m e t h i n g w h i c h was a l r e a d y t h e r e , s o m e t h i n g i m p e r i s h a b l e ,
l i k e memory, o r m a t t e r , o r God, i s summoned and i n i t
one f l i n g s h i m s e l f l i k e a t w i g i n a t o r r e n t . Words,
s e n t e n c e s , i d e a s , no m a t t e r how s u b t l e o r i n g e n i o u s ,
the maddest f l i g h t s o f p o e t r y , the m o s t p r o f o u n d dreams,
the m o s t h a l l u c i n a t i n g v i s i o n s , a r e but c r u d e h i e r o g l y p h s
c h i s e l l e d i n p a i n and s o r r o w to commemorate an e v e n t
w h i c h i s u n t r a n s m i s s i b l e . 10

It i s necessary finally to "see" what he i s talking about

by the feel of the sometimes f r a n t i c , almost desperate

torrent o f words on which M i l l e r swims.

M i l l e r w o r k s i n complex l e v e l s o f c i r c l e s , as p a r t of

the central unification themes he i s developing and as part

of t h a t direction inward to the soul. The largest, general,

outward s t r u c t u r e which p r o v i d e s the basic theoretical frame

for these themes i s t h e fairly common v i e w o f t h e natural

cycle of l i f e . His world view of the universe as process and

as o r g a n i c , i s contained i n those many s t a t e m e n t s t h a t a l l

is flux, that there i s no death or b i r t h i n the cosmic sense,

only metamorphosis o r renewal. A l l t h a t remains constant

is c o n t i n u i t y , the a c t i v i t y of l i f e itself. Within this

universe of f l u x are those t h i n g s which partake of life,

d e a t h , and rebirth i n t h e i r v a r i o u s and constantly changing

forms. Onto t h i s rather f a m i l i a r view of the l i f e process,

Miller appends h i s n o t i o n s of paradise, e t e r n i t y , and the

mystery of creation. His i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p a r a d i s e comes

to be that special kind of acceptance of l i f e which he

practices, or at l e a s t which h i s hero does: That heaven and

hell are. p h y s i c a l l y , a t any rate, i n one place, in this world.

And the way t o heaven i s , i n one sense, t h r o u g h an acceptance

of a l l that i s here in life, a r r i v e d at through embracing

evil and negating i t . One t r a n s f o r m s the l i f e ' o f the body

into the l i f e of the s p i r i t . One a t t a i n s a kind of mystical

v i s i o n , which i s p a r a d i s e , by c o m p l e t e acceptance and by

living through the experience of t h e p h y s i c a l . In that

s e n s e , p a r a d i s e i s t h e j o y and e c s t a s y of the experience

of the e v e n t itself. To p e n e t r a t e t h e m y s t e r y of l i f e , is

to accept a l l physical life. I t is also n e c e s s a r y t o embrace

all contradictions i n o r d e r t o p r o c e e d beyond those contra-

dictions, where one can a r r i v e a t a m y s t i c a l ot.^teeling" state

of; u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the p r o c e s s a l u n i v e r s e , and completely

f e e l an o b j e c t i v e p a r t of i t . The requirement Miller is

positing i s that one must first experience a l l l i f e i n order

to p e n e t r a t e the m y s t e r y . Berdyaev s a y s t h e movement i s

toward completion:

The f i n a l c o m p l e t e n e s s and w h o l e n e s s i n c l u d e a l l t h e
e x p e r i e n c e t h a t has been l i v e d through--the e x p e r i e n c e
o f good a n d e v i l , o f d i v i s i o n and v a l u a t i o n , o f p a i n
and s u f f e r i n g . Morality inevitably involves pain.
T h e r e can be no b l i s s i n " t h e g o o d " — t h e r e can o n l y be
b l i s s "beyond good and e v i l . " 11

And he d e s c r i b e s the n a t u r e o f p a r a d i s e , as w e l l a s intimating

the c y c l i c a l nature of the p r o c e s s of a r r i v i n g t h e r e , b o t h of

which M i l l e r develops i n considerable d e t a i l in his novels:

 The p a r a d i s e a t t h e e n d o f t h e c o s m i c p r o c e s s i s q u i t e
d i f f e r e n t from the p a r a d i s e a t i t s b e g i n n i n g . I t comes
a f t e r a l l t h e t r i a l s and w i t h t h e knowledge o f f r e e d o m .
I t may be s a i d i n d e e d t o be t h e p a r a d i s e a f t e r h e l l ,
a f t e r t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f e v i l and a f r e e r e j e c t i o n o f h e l l .
The t e m p t a t i o n o f r e t u r n i n g t o t h e p r i m e v a l p r e c o s m i c
n o n - b e i n g i s f r e e l y overcome . . . . P a r a d i s e , i n w h i c h
t h e r e i s a s y e t no a w a r e n e s s o f man's c r e a t i v e v o c a t i o n
and the h i g h e s t i d e a o f man i s n o t y e t r e a l i z e d , i s
r e p l a c e d by a p a r a d i s e i n w h i c h h i s v o c a t i o n a n d i d e a a r e
r e v e a l e d to the f u l l . I n o t h e r words, t h e n a t u r a l p a r a d i s e
i s r e p l a c e d by t h e s p i r i t u a l . 12

The differentiation o f t h e two p a r a d i s e s M i l l e r n e v e r fully

deals with i n h i s s i x main n o v e l s . He. o f t e n r e t u r n s t o t h e

vision o f childhood innocence, d e s c r i b i n g the u n i t y o f t h a t

pre-conscious- world o f innocence with considerable longing.

But h i s final position does i n v o l v e a r e a l i z a t i o n that the

new p a r a d i s e i s arrived a t through the world of experience,

not by a v o i d i n g i t , o r , a s i n c h i l d h o o d , n o t y e t e x p e r i e n c i n g

it at a l l . And, asBstdyaev intimates, h e l l is, like paradise,

a part of t h i s w o r l d . In M i l l e r ' s terms, i t i s i n f a c t the

world of experience w h i c h must be u n d e r g o n e w i t h o u t awareness

of one's d e s t i n a t i o n , t h a t one w i l l break through t o the

superconscious realm of understanding, a t w h i c h he f i n a l l y arrives.

The p o i n t here, though, i s t h a t Berdyaev's m y s t i c a l r e l i g i o u s

view of the world i s remarkably similar t o the concepts which

Miller expresses; t h a t i s , M i l l e r ' s background framework

c o n t a i n s many e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e religious mystic attitudes.

In t h e two w r i t e r s , n o t o n l y a r e t h e i r p r e c o n s c i o u s and

superconscious: understanding of paradise similar, b u t , a s one

would perhaps e x p e c t , their views o f the concept of eternity

and c r e a t i o n are related. T h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s would e x i s t

in part perhaps because t h e o r i e s of an e a r t h l y heaven w o u l d

somehow have to d e a l in a quite similar fashion with the

notion of eternity. As has been p o i n t e d out earlier, Miller's

sense o f the eternal i s the notion of the eternal present.

It i s l a r g e l y a v i e w of t h e moment a s infinitely expandable

in the presence of the e c s t a t i c experience:

L i f e s t r e t c h e s out f r o m moment t o moment i n s t u p e n d o u s

infinitude. N o t h i n g can be more r e a l t h a n what you
s u p p o s e i t t o be. . . . You l i v e i n the f r u i t s o f y o u r
a c t i o n and your a c t i o n i s the h a r v e s t o f y o u r t h o u g h t .
T h o u g h t and a c t i o n are one, b e c a u s e swimming you a r e
i n i t and o f i t , and jLt i s e v e r y t h i n g you d e s i r e i t t o
be, no more, no l e s s . Every stroke counts f o r e t e r n i t y . 13

This view of e t e r n i t y i s a l s o the one that life i s to be

lived i n the present moment, w i t h o u t t o o much r e g a r d for the

future, or, at l e a s t , without that concern f o r the future where

the body l i v e s now, separated f r o m a mind that exists for

some f u t u r e moment. Miller criticizes that kind of separation

as he saw i t i n h i s parents' life:

A f t e r d i n n e r - t h e d i s h e s were p r o m p t l y washed and p u t

i n t h e c l o s e t ; a f t e r t h e p a p e r was r e a d i t was neatly
f o l d e d and l a i d away on a s h e l f ; a f t e r t h e c l o t h e s were
washed t h e y were i r o n e d and f o l d e d and t h e n t u c k e d away
i n the d r a w e r s . E v e r y t h i n g was f o r tomorrow, b u t tomorrow
n e v e r came. The p r e s e n t was o n l y a b r i d g e and on t h i s
b r i d g e t h e y a r e s t i l l g r o a n i n g , a s the w o r l d g r o a n s ,
and n o t one i d i o t e v e r t h i n k s o f b l o w i n g up the b r i d g e . 14

Miller'sapproach to the present i s an attempt to blow up the

bridge; he wants t o make t h e moment a t hand the central feature

of l i f e - t i m e , to negate the chronological, time-bound sense

of the life process. He wants t o l i v e the lifeoof the continuous

p r e s e n t , where p a s t i s only r e l e v a n t as i t i s r e l i v e d , r e -

experienced i n the p r e s e n t . The p a s t e x i s t s o n l y i n memory a s

t h e p r e s e n t , n o t a s h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d , b u t a s t h e means o f

e x t e n d i n g t h e moment f o r w a r d and b a c k , i n a s e n s e , extending

consciousness. Hence, h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p a s t , and h i s

use o f the m a t e r i a l of past experience, i s quite unsequential

in d e t a i l ; ; he does n o t r e t u r n t o i t a s l i n e a r r e c o r d so much

as he r e l i v e s particularly r e l e v a n t moments a s t h e y r e c u r •

rather timelessly i n moments o f memory. Miller i s attempting,

in this way,,to p r e s e n t a sense of the i n f i n i t e , o f time

bending back c o n n e c t i n g a l l e v e n t s and e x p e r i e n c e s without

c h r o n o l o g i c a l relevance, without sequential, linear progression.

Berdyaev p r e s e n t s t h e dilemma o f t i m e which M i l l e r t r i e s to

solve:

Time i s t h e n i g h t m a r e and t o r m e n t o f o u r l i f e i n t h i s
world. V/e a r e drawn t o w a r d s t h e p a s t i n memory a n d t o w a r d s
the f u t u r e i n i m a g i n a t i o n . T h r o u g h memory t h e p a s t
a b i d e s i n t h e p r e s e n t as the v i c t o r y o v e r the d e a t h -
b r i n g i n g f l o w o f t i m e , a n d i n o r d e r t o do so we c o n s t a n t l y
l e a v e t h e pr.esen.t f o r t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e , a s t h o u g h
t h e e t e r n a l p r e s e n t c o u l d be .captured t h a t way. Hence,
l i v i n g i n t i m e we a r e doomed n e v e r t o l i v e i n t h e p r e s e n t . 15

And Miller attempts t o s o l v e t h e p a r a d o x by r e m a i n i n g i nthe

present alone, seeking to encompass p a s t experience, as i t i s

relevant t o h i s c o n s c i o u s moment, r e l i v i n g i t i n t h e p r e s e n t ,

and b r i n g i n g the f u t u r e toward the present i n h i s apocalyptic

visions o f the world. The t r i u m p h over time comes w i t h

consciousness of the value o f t h e p r e s e n t a s the moment o f

sole importance in life, never i n the o r d i n a r y sense o f

" l o o k i n g ahead" toward tomorrow, t o w a r d the next moment. He

tells h i s s t o r y a s one c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e of t h e p r e s e n t .

The experience o f w r i t i n g a t t h e moment, t h e t e l l i n g of t h e

story, the experiences being recounted, a n d t h e memories o f

relevant i n c i d e n t s o f childhood, t o g e t h e r w i t h imaginative

flights of fancy, a l l blend into one d e s c r i p t i v e chain o f

an e n d l e s s l y expandable s t o r y o f t h e author's life a s he feels

and remembers from moment t o moment.

The second central feature of M i l l e r ' s cyclical-mystical

world view i s h i snotion of c r e a t i o n . Here a g a i n , the t h e o r e t i c a l

implications provided by B e r d y a e v p r o v i d e valuable insights

in helping to e x p l i c a t e M i l l e r ' s formulations. Berdyaev

distinguishes two k i n d s o f c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n : the f i r s t i s

one which i s i n n e r , and "primary creative intuition;" this

is a p e r s o n a l awareness o r c o n s c i o u s n e s s n o t i n v o l v i n g any

external realization, a s i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f an a r t o b j e c t .

It i s p u r e l y i n n e r knowledge, which I i n t e r p r e t a s an experience

akin t o that of mystical r e v e l a t i o n . This primary intuition

i s what M i l l e r r e f e r s t o a s the i n e x p r e s s i b l e k n o w l e d g e ,

which h i s w r i t i n g p a i n f u l l y attempts to approximate. And

Berdyaev p o s i t s a second l e v e l or kind of creative expression,

in terms s i m i l a r t o the f i r s t , as the outer o r "secondary

creative act." T h i s i s the r e a l i z a t i o n o f the c r e a t i v e intuition.

The'primary c r e a t i v e f i r e i s not a r t a t a l l . A r t i s
s e c o n d a r y a n d i n i t t h e c r e a t i v e f i r e c o o l s down. . . .
T h e r e i s a l w a y s a t r a g i c d i s c r e p a n c y between t h e b u r n i n g
h e a t o f t h e c r e a t i v e f i r e i n w h i c h t h e a r t i s t i c image i s
c o n c e i v e d , and t h e c o l d o f i t s f o r m a l r e a l i z a t i o n . 16
In a sense, this helps to e x p l a i n the b a s i s of M i l l e r ' s view

of life where a r t and l i f e become one, where the outward

manifestations o f the l i f e one l i v e s a r e a c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n

of t h a t "primary intuition." Miller can t e l l his life story

a s a r t , where a r t h e r e b e g i n s as a r e c r e a t i o n o f the l i f e he

lived and t h e n becomes t h e l i f e he i s r e l i v i n g i n t e l l i n g the

story, as w e l l as the experience of being a w r i t e r and t h e w r i t i n g

itself. And t h e s t o r y i s a l s o c r e a t i v e , i s a r t o b j e c t , because

it details and a t t e m p t s to approximate m e t a p h o r i c a l l y the inner

vision of l i f e w h i c h he h a s a c h i e v e d . The s t o r y i s , i n t h e

largest sense, a kind of self-transcendence i n v o l v i n g an "over-

stepping o f t h e c o n f i n e s o f one's i n d i v i d u a l being . . .

where one becomes concerned with values t h a t a r e above m a n . " 17

The Miller h e r o does i n f a c t present himself as a larger-than-

life f i g u r e , w i t h e x a g g e r a t e d and e x t r e m e a p p e t i t e s and

c a p a c i t i e s , moving always toward s o m e t h i n g much g r e a t e r than

a mere living out o f e x p e r i e n c e . He s l o w l y becomes aware

that he must transcend these aspects of l i f e , must move beyond

a strictly p h y s i c a l f r e e d o m , a s he moves t o f i n d that even

greater i n n e r f r e e d o m l e a d i n g up to t h e c r e a t i v e intuition.

"I no l o n g e r scrutinize the w o r l d - - t h e world i s Inside me." 18

For M i l l e r paradise i s not simply i n the d e s c r i p t i o n of i t i n

literature o r i n the t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s sense o f i t ,

though t h e v i s i o n of paradise i s found in literature, a n d the

experience he i s t a l k i n g of i s r e a l l y a religious, mystical

moment o f spiritual insight. And the i n s i g h t perhaps r e s u l t s

in the creative vision, the moment of intuition, which produces

the art object. Miller has tried to recreate that sense of

paradise, the v i s i o n o f e t e r n i t y and the s u b l i m e moment o f

insight, i n the understanding his character comes t o feel.

He unites this s p e c i a l sense of l i f e and creative vision in

his artistic production, the purpose being t o make the art object,

his life s t o r y , and himself as story-teller, inseparable in

the literature.

The continuing l e v e l s of cyclical themes a r e apparent

at the level of the individual's life story. Miller's life

story i s described i n terms o f a movement f r o m a childhood

paradise t o an adult, d i s i n t e g r a t e d world where he spends

most o f his l i f e attempting to r e c a p t u r e that childhood

clarity of v i s i o n . The'search o f the man for a return to

paradise i s , in part, an attempjt to r e t u r n to the s t a r t i n g point

in life.

I n y o u t h we were whole and the t e r r o r and p a i n o f t h e

world p e n e t r a t e d us t h r o u g h and t h r o u g h . . T h e r e was
no s h a r p s e p a r a t i o n between j o y and s o r r o w : t h e y f u s e d
i n t o one, a s o u r w a k i n g l i f e f u s e s w i t h dream and sleep.
We r o s e one b e i n g i n t h e m o r n i n g and a t n i g h t we went"down
i n t o an o c e a n . . . c l u t c h i n g the s t a r s a n d t t h e f e v e r o f
the day. 19

Part of the n o s t a l g i a he f e e l s f o r that p a r a d i s a l world is

illustrated here t o be more t h a n a sense o f the world as

golden in that period; i t i s the idea of that period in life

when o n e ' s v i s i o n o f the w o r l d was completely u n i f i e d ,

perhaps that i t _is g o l d e n b e c a u s e of the clarity and undifferentiated

wholeness o f one's v i s i o n . That i s , the inner processes of

thought and dream a r e united with, because indistinguishable from

the e x t e r n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l i v i n g and p l a y i n g i n that

world. The main f e a t u r e of t h i s k i n d o f e x i s t e n c e i s the

fact t h a t the child i s not so conscious o f s e l f as separable

from other aspects of h i s e x p e r i e n c e ; nor i s he inhibited in

his f e e l i n g and h i s understanding by p r e s c r i p t i o n s concerning

what he s e e s and what he does. EeM i s not objectifying,

categorizing the w o r l d w i t h the k i n d of v a l u e s t h a t he is later

trained to do, i n what M i l l e r calls "the great fragmentation

of m a t u r i t y , " where

h e n c e f o r w a r d e v e r y t h i n g moves on s h i f t i n g l e v e l s — o u r
t h o u g h t s , o u r dreams, o u r a c t i o n s o u r whole l i f e . . . .
we walk s p l i t i n t o m y r i a d f r a g m e n t s , l i k e a n i n s e c t w i t h
a hundred f e e t , a c e n t i p e d e w i t h s o f t - s t i r r i n g f e e t that
d r i n k s i n the a t m o s p h e r e ; we walk w i t h s e n s i t i v e f i l a m e n t s
t h a t d r i n k a v i d l y o f p a s t and f u t u r e , and a l l t h i n g s m e l t
i n t o m u s i c and s o r r o w ; we w a l k a g a i n s t a u n i t e d w o r l d ,
a s s e r t i n g o u r d i v i d e d n e s s . 20

In terms of the cyclical nature o f man's l i f e story, the

struggle M i l l e r presents i s the movement t o r e t u r n t o a

p a r a d i s e o f a k i n d which contains f e a t u r e s of t h a t pre-conscious

world. And the story of h i s l i f e d o e s move s l o w l y toward that

same s e n s e of a completely unified p e r c e p t i o n of the world.

But the unification i s made c o n s c i o u s l y , as the r e s u l t of complete

awareness of self as p a r t of the p r o c e s s of l i f e , death, and

rebirth, and as,a result of a spiritual, or s e c u l a r r e l i g i o u s

c o n v e r s i o n a t w h i c h he arrives through concrete, sensory, felt

experience itself, and finally through consciousness

of the meaning of experience. The adult converts his experience

into a unified, transcendent v i s i o n of the meaning of existence.

He transforms his understanding of himself and h i s relationship

to the world into a deep sense of s p i r i t u a l unity with the

cycle of the l i f e process, with the c i r c u l a r , continuous

movement of the universe. This f e l t perception of the world

is one in which h i s whole l i f e process i s unified with h i s

understanding of a l l other l i f e processes. Rather than merely

seeing the world in terms of a theory of nature, of organic cycles

of continuous creation, d i s s o l u t i o n , and recreation, he f e e l s

deeply and mystically an identity with that whole process;

he not only r a t i o n a l i z e s or j u s t i f i e s h i s own existence in

those terms, but he s a t i s f i e s to some extent h i s own desires

and f e e l i n g for immortality. In the c y c l i c a l notion, he

escapes death, or a t l e a s t , the fear of i t .

The c i r c u l a r journey of l i f e then becomes more than an

o b j e c t i f i e d organic theory of material r e c i r c u l a t i o n or a

p r i n c i p l e of conservation of matter. It takes on the

s p i r i t u a l nature of the man as part of the journey as w e l l .

For the transcendent insight i t s e l f and the rationale that

i t posits, where one reaches a paradise through superconscious-

ness, i s r e a l l y an accomplishment of the mind in i t s widest

sense as receptor of feeling, thought, memory, and imagination.

The journey of the soul to f u l l understanding as outlined

in M i l l e r ' s work is a s p i r i t u a l t r i p which accepts the

existent conditions of the world f u l l y , and moves to paradise

t h a t way t h r o u g h acceptance, rather than through n e g a t i o n of

the m a t e r i a l w o r l d or rejection o f i t i n order to proceed

along the r o u t e o f s e l f - d e n i a l or asceticism. This acceptance

theory i s one o f r e a c h i n g t h e g o a l b y e n c o m p a s s i n g a l l e x p e r i e n c e ,

all o f the o u t e r l i f e o f t h e body, a s p a r t o f one means o f

making the t r i p . In fact, that is_ t h e j o u r n e y . To l i v e in this

w o r l d more f u l l y as p a r t o f i t , i s what M i l l e r s a y s more and

more f r e q u e n t l y through the s e r i e s of his novels. By t h i s ,

he does n o t r e q u i r e n o r mean t h a t one j o i n o r o p e r a t e i n the

social aiflpolitical i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the day. He, h i m s e l f ,

is a notorious abdicator i n that sease. ^ 2

He does mean that

one i s t o l i v e one's l i f e style i n the w o r l d of experience,

not n e c e s s a r i l y i n the w o r l d of s o c i a l responsibility as p a r t

of the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d l i f e , but as part o f the w o r l d

community o f men, r e s p o n s i b l e f i r s t to s e l f , not egocentric

self, b u t t h e f u l l y human, n a t u r a l s e l f , and then t o o t h e r

individuals, never t o groups. The spiritual transcendence

which transforms concrete experience i n the w o r l d a l s o a b r i n g s

the individual back t o t h e c o n c r e t e i n t h e s e n s e that i t

unites him once a g a i n w i t h t h e e a r t h , w i t h r e a l i t y , w i t h a

new p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s p l a c e a s p a r t o f the c y c l e of l i f e ,

rather than with the mechanical c y c l e s o f the socio-cultural

niches. The moment o f new o r renewed insight Miller puts

as a form of resurrection. Having first d i e d to a d e a t h l y w o r l d

of social responsibility and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , disintegrated

man, he i s reborn as a r e s u l t of the i n s i g h t gained i n the

unified mode o f p e r c e p t i o n .

One t h i n g i s c e r t a i n , t h a t when you d i e fLike this3and

are r e s u r r e c t e d you b e l o n g t o t h e e a r t h and w h a t e v e r
i s o f the e a r t h i s y o u r s i n a l i e n a b l y . You become an
a n o m a l y o f n a t u r e , a b e i n g w i t h o u t shadow; you w i l l
n e v e r d i e a g a i n b u t o n l y p a s s away l i k e t h e phenomena
a b o u t y o u . N o t h i n g o f t h i s . . . was known t o me a t
the t i m e I was g o i n g t h r o u g h the c h a n g e . E v e r y t h i n g
I e n d u r e d was i n t h e n a t u r e o f p r e p a r a t i o n . . . . 22

The religious analogy i n h e r e n t i n the l a n g u a g e of this description.

p o i n t s o u t the s p i r i t u a l nature of experience M i l l e r i s describing

while maintaining s t i l l that connection with the w o r l d , that

notion of l i v i n g i n t h e w o r l d w h i c h he w a n t s t o u n i t e with

his sense of the conversion i n understanding. The i d e a o f

this life p r o c e s s as o u t s i d e o f t h e w o r l d , a p a r t from i t s

r e l i g i o u s nature, i s that rejection o f the a c c e p t e d

institutionalized world of western industrial cultures:

I f I am inhuman i t i s b e c a u s e my w o r l d h a s s l o p p e d o v e r
i t s human b o u n d s , b e c a u s e t o be human seems l i k e a
p o o r , s o r r y , m i s e r a b l e a f f a i r , l i m i t e d by t h e s e n s e s ,
r e s t r i c t e d by m o r a l i t i e s and c o d e s , d e f i n e d by p l a t i t u d e s
and i s m s . 23

It i s that aspect o f the e x t e r n a l w o r l d which M i l l e r refuses

to join. And i t i s f r o m t h a t life i n America he e s c a p e s by

going to P a r i s . The P a r i s m i l i e u i s one i n w h i c h he i s f r e e

from ties, from the "human bounds', a b l e now to find

himself.

Miller's n o v e l s , a s the s t o r y o f t h e move away from

America t o rescue h i m s e l f from the s m o t h e r i n g conformity of

all t h a t New Y o r k means t o him a s s o c i a l sickness, i n order

to find i n P a r i s the freedom and individuality to discover

h i m s e l f , and thus, f i n a l l y , to achieve c r e a t i v e insight,

are part of the l a r g e r circular journey of the hero. And

that story h a s a l l the d i m e n s i o n s o f the exaggerated hero

figure of l i t e r a r y tradition. Here, though, the hero i s out

to save himself, rather than k i n g or country or f a i r damsel.

The heroic journey i s u l t i m a t e l y an i n t r o s p e c t i v e one. It

has the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a t r i p t h r o u g h two w o r l d s a t once,

reaching i t s conclusion in a unification o f them b o t h in the

mind o f the h e r o . And the t r i u m p h a n t unification becomes

a moment o f s e l f - a w a r e n e s s w h i c h i s the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of

the hero-traveller into the c r e a t i v e a r t i s t ; i n a sense, he

becomes the man who finally finds his voice. That story

parallels the c i r c u l a r motion of l i f e , o f time, o f n a t u r e ,

and o f the s p i r i t , which Miller interweaves through those s i x

major n o v e l s .

At the most o b v i o u s l e v e l , Miller's autobiographical

tale deals with t h e e v e n t s and e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e body, of

the g r e a t man who e x p l o r e s a l l the s e n s o r y a v e n u e s o f the

earthly world. The descriptions of that full range of sensory

experience a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d on the two primal appetites of

f o o d and sex. And i n feasting on b o t h , M i l l e r d e s c r i b e s

his herd's a c t i v i t i e s as enormous, e x t r a v a g a n t l y e x a g g e r a t e d

r e v e l s which range over extremes o f language and description

comparable to the e n o r m i t y of h i s a p o c a l y p t i c v i s i o n s o f the

world. T r o p i c o f C a p r i c o r n , which contains a long disquisition

called "An I n t e r l u d e " ? 4

ranges over t h e great v a r i e t y of the

hero's sexual e x p l o i t s with v a r i o u s women, i n a p a r t i a l l y

surrealistic fantasy o f pure sexual activity. I t combines

detailed, direct d e s c r i p t i o n o f sexual encounters and p u r e l y

imaginative fantasy. The s e x u a l experiences described are

presented as a total immersion i n t h e senses; " I t was like

taking a f l a t i n the land of F u c k . " 2 5

But the simple

d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y of "fucking" itself,

u s u a l l y moves on t o become b e a u t i f u l , sensual fantasy:

I t was a n enormous c u n t , t o o , when I t h i n k back on i t .

A d a r k , subterranean l a b y r i n t h f i t t e d up w i t h d i v a n s and
c o s y c o r n e r s and r u b b e r t e e t h and s y r i n g e s and s o f t
n e s t l e s a n d e i d e r d o w n and m u l b e r r y l e a v e s . I Used
to n o s e i n l i k e t h e s o l i t a r y worm and b u r y m y s e l f i n
a l i t t l e c r a n n y where i t was a b s o l u t e l y s i l e n t , and so
s o f t a n d r e s t f u l t h a t I l a y l i k e a d o l p h i n on t h e o y s t e r
b a n k s . . . . Sometimes i t was l i k e r i d i n g t h e s h o o t -
t h e - s h o o t s , a s t e e p p l u n g e and t h e n a s p r a y o f t i n g l i n g
sea c r a b s , t h e b u l r u s h e s s w a y i n g f e v e r i s h l y and t h e g i l l s
o f t i n y f i s h e s l a p p i n g a g a i n s t me l i k e h a r m o n i c a s t o p s . 26

The sexual e x p l o i t s o f the hero detailed so p r o m i n e n t l y in

C a p r i c o r n and i n S e x u s a r e c l e a r l y part of the heroic sensory

and physical activities o f the Henry M i l l e r character, as i s

his constant, o v e r r i d i n g concern with food and d r i n k . And

here again, some huge m e a l s a r e d e t a i l e d with careful emphasis

in t h e d e s c r i p t i v e l a n g u a g e on the s e n s o r y and sensual

satisfaction the s u r f e i t provides. Here, too, M i l l e r ' s

flowing, u n i n h i b i t e d s p e e c h and d i r e c t d e s c r i p t i o n provide

much o f t h e s e n s e o f t h e r i c h n e s s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e . The
location of these sense e x p e r i e n c e s which the hero undergoes,

the preponderance of t h e i r occurrence i i i t h e two novels

mentioned, (though by no means a r e they e x c l u s i v e to>those

novels), is significant i n terms of the hero's journey.

T h e s e two n o v e l s both deal, almost i n p r o p o r t i o n to the weight

given to s e n s u a l e x p e r i e n c e s , w i t h the e a r l i e r adulthood of

the character. In f a c t , Capricorn overlaps a considerable

period of the l i f e span d e p i c t e d i n Sexus. And the coincidence

of the p a r t i c u l a r nature of these n o v e l s with the s t o r y of the

hero has t o do with the sort o f j o u r n e y he i s embarked upon t

and the stage which this period depicts. As has been s a i d in

earlier p o r t i o n s of the d i s c u s s i o n , he i s m o v i n g through;, a

great experiential realm, toward a creative, inner rebirth.

This portion of early adulthood i s that detailing of h i s travels

where he begins to attempt t o be a writer and where he enters

what seems to be largely the w o r l d of ideas. This early

p e r i o d a l s o encompasses t h a t p o r t i o n of h i s great journey

through a l l the e x t r e m e s o f l i f e , h i g h and low, mind and body,

thought and feeling. He i s , in a sense, the great explorer

ranging over the w i d e s t realms o f e x p e r i e n c e , and, i t goes

almost without saying, over the w i d e s t range of speech. This

heroic t a l e is M i l l e r ' s accounting f o r t h e o u t w a r d movement

toward success. He is travelling through these experiences to

a c h i e v e an outward success, which is really a version of complete

freedom from r e s t r i c t i o n s and inhibitions, a transforming accept-

ance o f e x p e r i e n c e . The attainment of that goal i s s i g n i f i e d

by h i s b e c o m i n g what he a l w a y s wanted to be, a writer.

Becoming a w r i t e r signifies also h i s achievement of control

over the s h a p i n g o f h i s own destiny. His early l i f e , then,

is marked by h i s e f f o r t s to participate t o t a l l y in experience,

following impulse and d e s i r e , abandoning himself to those

activities i n w h i c h he can negate the mind-thought control

a s p e c t s of himself that function only to restrict and thus

diminish the sense perceptions.

In terms o f the journey of the hero, Plexus covers the

period in M i l l e r ' s l i f e when he began h i s f i r s t real attempt

to be a writer. Here, circumstances, s u c h as h i s marriage

to the m y s t e r i o u s Mona/Mara f i g u r e , a l l o w him to quit his

job, t o g i v e u p a l l his attempts to f i n d jobs, and a c t u a l l y begin

to w r i t e on a full-time basis. The novel i s remarkably

tranquil i n t o n e and jnthe pace and d e s c r i p t i o n of events.

The calm, r e l a t i v e l y pleasant a i r of t h i s period of h i s life

comes f r o m the absence o f the v i o l e n t , almost continual

immersion i n a c t i v e experience, so pervasive i n the earlier

novels. The somnolence of t h i s book i s a l s o a r e s u l t o f the

absence o f the surrealistic, violent imagery which parallels

the vitality and activity of life c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of that

earlier period. This short period of calm seems a moment

when t h e Miller-hero f o u n d an atmosphere i n which could attempt

to b e g i n the life of a w r i t e r , i f one can think of a w r i t e r as

r e q u i r i n g a calm, u n d i s t r a c t e d kind of l i f e . For M i l l e r , it

was a false start, as i s i n d i c a t e d by the story at t h i s point.

He e i t h e r daydreamed h i s t i m e away o r w a l k e d about town

all day looking for material to w r i t e a b o u t ; and what he did

p r o d u c e was so pedestrian as to be utterly unprintable.

Even the m a t e r i a l he printed himself as broadsheets to be

peddled i n the s t r e e t was unsaleable. The recounting of that

t i m e as an i n t r o s p e c t i v e , p h i l o s o p h i c a l p e r i o d when he

entered the world of thought c o n t r i b u t e s to t h a t s e n s e of the

character experiencing that other, rather detached realm of

the mind. That i s , moving from the activity o f the body,

he here enters the w o r l d of ideas, naively b e l i e v i n g that this

was the nature o f what h i s career as a w r i t e r was to be.

As i n h i s attempts to fulfill the expectations of the more

mundane social c o n v e n t i o n s o f a h u s b a n d and a wage-earner,

the M i l l e r character here i s also a complete failure.

In terms o f the hero's s t o r y , N e x u s p i c k s up and develops

the beginning disorder that r e a p p e a r s toward the end of

Plexus. The progress of the a s p i r i n g w r i t e r ' s l i f e changes

drastically f r o m t h a t momentary, i d y l l i c period of Plexus,

with its false, detached, m i n d - t r i p . The Miller-hero now

enters the third and final phase o f h i s outward trip, as i t

now turns to a bitter inner trial of spirit and body. He is

physically reduced by the a c t i v i t i e s o f Mona who begins

more and more to n e g l e c t him. She enters into a long lesbian

love affair w h i c h p h y s i c a l l y and spiritually emasculates

Miller. C o i n c i d i n g with these events, Miller descends into

a l o n g , dark n i g h t o f the s o u l . He e n t e r s a p e r i o d of black

d e s p a i r and h a s no hope o f e v e r escaping the world to which

he i s bound, o f e v e r b e c o m i n g t h e w r i t e r he wants t o b e , o r

of ever f i n d i n g h i s true s e l f . A l l h i s attempts to write are

miserable failures. M o s t o f h i s a c q u a i n t a n c e s have l o n g ago

given up hope that he w i l l ever succeed, even i n t h e most minor

way, a n d a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f them have r e j e c t e d him a f t e r years

of being cajoled and c o e r c e d into s u p p o r t i n g him w i t h money

and food. Nexus d e p i c t s the tortuous b i r t h o f the w r i t e r ,

alienated and i s o l a t e d from the w o r l d and f r o m anyone who

could understand him. I t covers the p e r i o d when he h a s

fallen to h i s deepest and w o r s t moment o f s p i r i t u a l and p h y s i c a l

impoverishment. He I s h e r e struggling to express h i m s e l f with-

out y e t p o s s e s s i n g the t o o l s , the form o r t h e words t o do s o ,

lacking e v e n t h e k n o w l e d g e o f what he w a n t s t o s a y , n o t y e t

k n o w i n g who he i s h i m s e l f . Here, M i l l e r depicts h i s a r t i f i c i a l

efforts to w r i t e , the c u l l i n g of material from other sources,

the search f o r the e s o t e r i c b i tof information, a l l without

any realization o f what h i s a i m o r s u b j e c t a s a w r i t e r really

is. He f i r s t attempts to w r i t e almost completely without

purpose i n the larger sense o f k n o w i n g what h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p

to the world and t o h i s . a r t i s . He c o n c e n t r a t e s on t e c h n i q u e

and m a t t e r unrelated to himself. Miller undergoes h i s l a s t

painful trial prior to being free to write. H e r e , he l e a r n s

his most important l e s s o n — t h e nature o f h i s whole s t r u g g l e i s

really rooted i n self-awareness. He c a n become nothing

without first b e i n g h i m s e l f and without first realizing that

"being" i s more t h a n l i v i n g unconsciously i n an e x t e r n a l

state of a c t i v e p a s s i v i t y r a n g i n g through an a c c e p t a n c e of

all experience. He must b o t h be a p a r t of the e x t e r n a l

world and a p a r t from the man-made s y s t e m s t h a t r e d u c e the

individual to l i t t l e more than a n object i n a great human

mechanism. H e r e , one i s an o b j e c t used f o r e n d s more

demeaning than the sense of o b j e c t i v i t y in nature, because

a charade and an hypocrisy is perpetrated i n t h e name o f

individuality, while the true i n d i v i d u a l nature of man,

the soul, the s p i r i t , i s destroyed. Objectivity i n nature

means o n l y t o be, to e x i s t in itself, the purpose fulfilled

in the process. Miller's painful realization i s t h a t of

b e c o m i n g c o n s c i o u s o f t h i s new p o s i t i o n he i s m o v i n g t o assume.

He must become conscious o f h i m s e l f i n the w o r l d process,

and apart from the world of mechanical cogs. The consciousness

i s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a feeling, which w i l l unite his inner

world o f b e i n g , h i s whole, s p e c i f i c a l l y human, b e i n g , with

the nature of h i s outer experiences i n the w o r l d . The great

escape from the r e s t r i c t i o n s of h i s earlier life i s provided

by the o p p o r t u n i t y to l i v e in Paris, w h i c h Mona arranges.

It i s there t h a t he .begins anew and i t i s t h e r e t h a t he does

begin to a r r i v e at the necessary i n s i g h t which w i l l allow

him to reshape his l i f e : "Once we reached Europe I would

grow a new body a n d a new soul." ? 2

 In terms o f the c y c l e , the hero i s reborn in Paris.

H e r e , he b e g i n s to w r i t e , h a v i n g , f o r the f i r s t time, a sense

of what the great saga will be: the story of himself. He

will t u r n back on h i s own p a s t , r e - e x p l o r e h i s l i f e , and.

in w r i t i n g about i t , satisfy h i s creative urge, becoming

in the process a w r i t e r making o f a r t h i s l i f e . The triumph

of t h e hero lies i n the r e a l i z a t i o n that the c r e a t i v e intuition

is i n f a c t an i n s i g h t into the n a t u r e of himself. And t h e

insight is a circling one, i n t h a t h i s t r i u m p h a n t end i s t o

tell about h i s j o u r n e y toward that triumphant end. He comes

to find t h a t h i s purpose i s t o go back t o t h e b e g i n n i n g t o

tell the s t o r y of how "just a Brooklyn b o y " becomes a n artist,

and the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the journey i s i t s relevance to

e v e r y m a n a s a way t o the u n i f i e d soul. Its significance as

literature i s that i t details so p o i g n a n t l y t h e modern c o n d i t i o n

of the world and o f the i n d i v i d u a l i n our western society

and offers in singularly contemporary symbols, language, and

form, a s o l u t i o n which a t the p r e s e n t time' a portion of

society seems t o be p u r s u i n g a s a k i n d o f u n d e r g r o u n d sub-

culture rejecting f o r s i m i l a r reasons t h e ways and

institutions of traditional society. This i s n o t to say t h a t

the h i p p i e s a r e d o i n g a n y t h i n g new, or that M i l l e r i s saying

a n y t h i n g new; he is telling a familiar story o f man i n search

28

of himself, o f h i s own t r u e n a t u r e , o f man a t t e m p t i n g to

i d e n t i f y h i s world and a t t e m p t i n g to i d e n t i f y with i t .

What he i s s a y i n g though, has i t s significance i n the superbly

worked complexity o f t h e p r o b l e m s he p r e s e n t s which i s

contained i n the i n t e l l e c t u a l complexity, and t h e manner

of w r i t i n g h i s language and imagery d e p i c t s , and which is also

in the emotional and sensory levels of his l i t e r a t u r e .

The circle o f the " B r o o k l y n boy" returns to Miller's

first n o v e l , T r o p i c o f Cancer, the s t o r y o f t h e a r t i s t born,

setting out on the story of l i f e . We r e t u r n to a statement

29

quoted s i x t y pages e a r l i e r , which i s s i g n i f i c a n t of the

circle one f o l l o w s i n working through an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

Miller:
A y e a r ago, s i x months a g o , I t h o u g h t t h a t I was an
artist. I no l o n g e r t h i n k a b o u t i t . I am. Everything
t h a t was l i t e r a t u r e has f a l l e n from me. " T h e r e a r e no
more b o o k s t o be w r i t t e n , thank God. 30

He has unified his creative d e s i r e s w i t h h i s own life style,

his own life experience. The desperate attempts to become

a writer, t o w r i t e " l i t e r a t u r e " a r e no longer necessary because,

a s he now realizes, just to be h i m s e l f , to e x p l o r e h i m s e l f ,

which f o r M i l l e r , i s not to w r i t e "a book", i s t o be the artist

he a l w a y s s e a r c h e d after. He was l o o k i n g o u t s i d e f o r what

was finally found inside. The quest of the hero which

s t r e t c h e s over s i x volumes r e t u r n s t o the e x p r e s s i o n s of

himself J
i n those opening l i n e s of the first book. The beginning

is both rebirth as a r t i s t and the tale of t h e h e r o i c j o u r n e y

there, the i n t i m a t i o n o f what i s t o come:

 A t t h e e x t r e m e l i m i t s o f h i s s p i r i t u a l b e i n g man finds
h i m s e l f naked as a savage. When he f i n d s God, a s i t were,
he has been p i c k e d c l e a n : he i s a s k e l e t o n . One must
b u r r o w i n t o l i f e a g a i n " i n o r d e r t o p u t on f l e s h . The
word must become f l e s h ; t h e s o u l t h i r s t s . 31

What takes place i n M i l l e r ' s work is a unification of the

story of i t s hero with the form or s t r u c t u r e of the works

themselves, i n a great c i r c u l a r p a t t e r n that c o i n c i d e s with

the l a y e r s of other circular themes t h r o u g h o u t the novels.

The first novel begins, i n a sense, with the end, with the

artist d i s c o v e r i n g and expressing his creative vision. The

subsequent n o v e l s , from B l a c k S p r i n g and C a p r i c o r n on, circle

back t o the b e g i n n i n g of the p r o c e s s of the artist's'

d e v e l o p m e n t , and continue through to the t i m e when he i s about

to s e t o f f t o become what, i n T r o p i c o f C a n c e r , h h e starts

out a s . The hero, then, i s an a r t i s t - h e r o who assures h i s

immortality by v i r t u e of the e x p r e s s i o n of h i s c r e a t i v e vision.

And that v i s i o n i s a l s o the transcendent feature of his

spirit which l i f t s him out o f the o r d i n a r y w o r l d into the

realm of super-reality. That world is really the inner state

of t h e awakened p e r c e p t i o n - - t h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e u n i t y of

all t h i n g s , as w e l l as the identification of the self with

that state of being.

The a r t i s t b e l o n g s t o t h e X r o o t r a c e o f man; he i s t h e
s p i r i t u a l m i c r o b e , a s i t were, w h i c h c a r r i e s o v e r f r o m
one r o o t r a c e t o a n o t h e r . He i s n o t c r u s h e d by m i s f o r t u n e ,
h e c a u s e he i s not a p a r t o f t h e p h y s i c a l , r a c i a l scheme
o f t h i n g s . . . . He i s t h e c y c l i c a l b e i n g w h i c h l i v e s
i n the e p i c y c l e . . . . e v e r y t h i n g i s j u s t and t h e r e i s no
need t o come out o f t h e t r a n c e . . . . I was a b l e t o p a r t a k e
o f an a c t i v e l i f e w h i c h w o u l d p e r m i t t h e ^ r e a l s e l f _to h i b e r n a t e
u n t i l I was r i p e t o be b o r n . 32
 T h r e e n o n - f i c t i o n works h e l p clarify the sense o f the

artist living h i s a r t , and give some f e e l i n g of the "cosmic

consciousness" a t which M i l l e r eventually arrives. These are

The W o r l d o f Sex, The Colossus of Maroussi, and Big S u r

and the Oranges o f Hieronymus Bosch. In their chronological

arrangement, they are not completely a presentation of that

supreme s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h would f o l l o w upon t h e journey

o f the hero of the six novels. 1

But they do present aspects

of that final vision that i s attempted i n the novels, and

they do g i v e a v i e w o f the s o r t of l i f e the artist, who is

successful in Miller's terms, e v e n t u a l l y comes t o live.

The World o f Sex discusses the themes o f y o u t h and the

return to childhood innocence prevalent in his fiction works.

It presents a loosely defined philosophy of l i f e which is

comprised mainly o f h i s i d e a s a b o u t what is necessary In

one's a t t i t u d e toward l i f e . The book i s p a r t l y an attempt

to e x p l a i n some o f t h o s e aspects o f h i s works w h i c h h a v e

resulted in his reputation for obscenity and pornography.

Here, M i l l e r paraphrases Lawrence's b e l i e f that the two great

modes o f l i f e are the r e l i g i o u s and the sexual, though the

bulk of his discussion centres on his interst i n sex as one

avenue l e a d i n g to the soul. The s e x u a l and religious elements,

for Miller, are "susceptible to conversion" to other kinds

of understanding; they involve also amotion of understanding

and acceptance. "The e f f o r t to e l i m i n a t e the ' r e p u l s i v e *

aspects o f e x i s t e n c e , w h i c h i s the o b s e s s i o n of moralists,

p

is not only absurd but f u t i l e . " As f a r as M i l l e r i s concerned,

these aspects of l i f e cannot be i g n o r e d or repressed without

losing contact with the e s s e n t i a l r e a l i t y of l i f e . Miller's

understanding o f the s e x u a l i s that t h e body a s s e n s u a l

device i s connector to the s p i r i t , And t h e body h a s l o s t i t s

spiritual c e n t r e when i t l o s t i t s capability to act freely

as sense perceptor; i t h a s been d e a d e n e d i n that aspect of

its e x i s t e n c e by r e p r e s s i o n o f d e s i r e s , i m p u l s e s , urges,

feelings. So t o o , M i l l e r d e f e n d s t h e n e c e s s i t y t o u s e the

full range o f language and d e s c r i p t i o n , to f o l l o w impulse, urge,

fantasy, and dreams i n e x e r c i s i n g the f u l l r a n g e o f human

possibilities. His exit point, t h e p l a c e where l i f e i s t o be

r e g a i n e d , t h e senses r e - a w a k e n e d , a n d t h e s p i r i t re-entered,

is through the body, t h r o u g h the world of sex. The " s e x u a l

drama" i s p a r t o f t h e s o u l o f man and, i n i n t e g r a t e d individuals,

sex falls into i t s proper perspective, being neither over-

inflated i n i t s importance nor repressed and i g n o r e d .

"The g e n i t a l s a r e impressed, so t o speak, into the service

of t h e whole b e i n g . . . . What i s new, o r i g i n a l , and fecund

issues only from a complete entity." 3

The c e n t r a l theme o f

this d i s c u s s i o n again relates to M i l l e r ' s interest i n the

idea of the completely u n i f i e d man. And i t is i n t h i s direction

that h i s concern with sex p o i n t s , both here in his abstract

discussion of the t o p i c and in his novels. He never fully

e x p l a i n s what he means by unified p e r c e p t i o n ; r a t h e r he presents

illustrations t h a t approximate t h a t c o n d i t i o n . The World o f Sex

drifts back into the form o f h i s n o v e l s ; i t describes a particular

childhood experience. In order to e x p l a i n t h e sense of unified

perception t h a t M i l l e r means, he goes b a c k to r e c o u n t i n g the

world as he saw i t in childhood. That eye best approximates

the i n e x p r e s s i b l e ?vis.on w h i c h he now sees.

That peculiar travel n a r r a t i v e of M i l l e r ' s experiences

i n G r e e c e , The Colossus of Maroussi, d e t a i l s more c l e a r l y the

"arrived" p o s i t i o n o f the artist. I t conveys h i s s t a t e of

m y s t i c a l peace aroused by h i s s e n s e o f the place. The tremen-

dous s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f the p^ace M i l l e r senses'"from

his incomplete understanding of the G r e e k p a s t , i n the

atmosphere o f i t s present condition:

I do n o t p r e t e n d t o know, b u t I f e l t , a s I have s e l d o m
f e l t b e f o r e the r u i n s of the p a s t , t h a t here throughout
t h e l o n g c e n t u r i e s t h e r e r e i g n e d an e r a o f p e a c e . There
i s s o m e t h i n g down t o e a r t h a b o u t K n o s s u s , the s o r t o f
a t m o s p h e r e which- i s e v o k e d when one s a y s C h i n e s e o f
French. The r e l i g i o u s n o t e seems t o be g r a c i o u s l y d i m i n i s h e d ;
. . . a s p i r i t of p l a y i s markedly n o t i c e a b l e . In s h o r t ,
the p r e v a i l i n g n o t e i s one o f j o y . . . . K n o s s u s was w o r l d l y
i n t h e b e s t s e n s e o f the w o r d . 4

As a travel book, M i l l e r ' s Colossus i s mainly a n a r r a t i v e of

the e f f e c t o f the Greek l a n d s c a p e , local people, and the Greek

ancient past on h i s s e n s i b i l i t y . And that effect seems t o

have b e e n a g e n u i n e l y spiritual experience o f p e a c e and calm;

it is a sense of a u n i f i c a t i o n o f man and place i n harmonious exist

 G r e e c e i s what e v e r y b o d y k n o w s " . . . . I t i s what you
e x p e c t the e a r t h to l o o k l i k e g i v e n a f a i r c h a n c e . It
i s the s u b l i m i n a l t h r e s h o l d of i n n o c e n c e . I t stands,
a s i t s t o o d f r o m b i r t h , naked and f u l l y r e v e a l e d . It
i s n o t m y s t e r i o u s o r i m p e n e t r a b l e , n o t awesome, n o t
d e f i a n t , not p r e t e n t i o u s . I t i s made o f e a r t h , a i r , f i r e
and w a t e r . I t changes s e a s o n a l l y w i t h h a r m o n i o u s
;

u n d u l a t i n g rythms. I t b r e a t h e s , i t beckons, i t answers.5

The book is really a presentation of the state of the

artist expressing, ostensibly in his sense of place, h i s f e e l i n g s

o f harmony, p e a c e and fulfillment i n the w o r l d . The book i s ,

o f course, no travelogue at a l l . Miller i s rendering the

state of the a r t i s t who has achieved the c o n d i t i o n of spiritual

i n s i g h t which h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l hero reaches a t the end

of h i s great circle journey.

Another p e r s p e c t i v e o f the s t a t e of the a r t i s t is presented

in B i g Sur and the Oranges of Hieronymus Bosch. This time the

living out of that s t a t e or condition i s expressed in the

relationship o f the i n d i v i d u a l to t h e communal s e t t i n g .

Here, the artist's communal l i f e style i s recounted in an

almost d i a r y n a r r a t i v e of b i t s o f everyday events at Big

Sur, California. This book p r e s e n t s the a t t i t u d e and details

of d a i l y living t h a t compose the kind of.harmonious,

integrated life Miller felt he saw i n Greece. Again, in

recounting the ordinary, Miller communicates the sense of a

life t h a t i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n i t s range of f r e e , open, full

enjoyment. The mundane i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o the w o n d e r f u l by

self-realization, and by self-consciousness o f what i t means

to live a s one d o e s , by s a v o u r i n g the p r o c e s s o f b e i n g a l i v e .

Miller develops here the i n s i g h t s o f the i n d i v i d u a l , which

he d i s c u s s e s i n The W o r l d o f Sex, t o g e t h e r with the f e e l i n g

of harmony he e x p e r i e n c e d i n The C o l o s s u s of Maroussi into

a sense o f a s i g n i f i c a n t community l i f e . The r e t u r n i s t o a

renewed u n d e r s t a n d i n g of social relationships. H i s theme

is an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the w o r l d , of the B i g Sur area where

he l i v e s , i n t e r m s o f the v i s i o n that the p a i n t i n g s o f

Hieronymus Bosch p r e s e n t . "Seeing the world through h i s

eyes i t appears t o us once a g a i n a s a w o r l d of indestructible

order, beauty, harmony, w h i c h i t i s o u r p r e v i l e g e t o a c c e p t

as a p a r a d i s e or convert into a purgatory." 6

B i g Sur i s a

marvellous book i n p r e s e n t i n g t h e f a s c i n a t i o n o f each day

as a new and e x c i t i n g experience for itself alone, with much

of the d e l i g h t one i m a g i n e s i s felt by a condemned man who

has just been p a r d o n e d . I t h a s no l i t e r a r y value in itself,

yet i t very successfully completes the l i t e r a r y works o f

Miller. T h i s i t does b e c a u s e i t details the a r r i v e d position

of the aitist living an o r d i n a r y , y e t s u p e r - o r d i n a r y life.

His life i s o r d i n a r y i n the s e n s e t h a t he must s t r u g g l e to

e a r n money, t o l i v e , and t o work, a s p e r h a p s d o e s everyone

else. But i t i s s u p e r - o r d i n a r y i n d e s c r i b i n g M i l l e r ' s

consciousness o f what h i s l i f e i s a b o u t , what l i v i n g , i n

general, i s a b o u t , a n d what t h e p u r p o s e i s o f the p a r t i c u l a r

kind o f e x i s t e n c e he l i v e s . The d e t a i l s o f o r d i n a r y life

are interspersed with a considerable amount o f d i s c u s s i o n of

its significance. However, the main d i r e c t i o n o f the book

is pointed out i n the first s e c t i o n , which d i s c u s s e s the nature

of communal living. Here, M i l l e r ' s major insight is that

"it i s through the eyes of the soul that paradise is

visioned." 7
The reason for describing l i f e a t B i g Sur i s to

illustrate the nature of p a r a d i s e , which i s where M i l l e r now

f e e l s he has arrived. Paradise i s f o r him a matter of creative

vision, which i s u l t i m a t e l y an a t t i t u d e o f mind and body.

Miller i s t r y i n g to say that place and d i r e c t i o n are not to

be considered i n t h e way that we commonly t h i n k of them:

"One's d e s t i n a t i o n i s never a place but rather a new way of

looking at things." 0
And the way of l o o k i n g w h i c h he wants

t o make c l e a r i s one that involves seeing the world i n terms

of a u n i f i e d perspective w i t h an a t t i t u d e of a c t i v e acceptance:

"To see things whole i s t o be whole. The f e l l o w who is out

to burn things up i s the counterpart o f the fool who thinks

he can s a v e the world. The world needs n e i t h e r to be burned

not t o be saved. The wor]d.Is,we a r e . " 9

Always, the themes

Miller discusses r e l a t e to those of major concern in his

earlier novels. He n e v e r moves f a r f r o m t h e basic conception

of re-awakened a w a r e n e s s o f self as part of a cosmic order,

nor f r o m the notion of paradise found i n conscious p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in that continuing f l u x of l i f e and i n the acceptance of a l l

aspects of that process. Miller's non-fiction writing re-

e m p h a s i z e s and r e i n f o r c e s t h o s e themes e x e m p l i f i e d in his novels,

with the important exception that his l a t e r prose writings

indicate the culminating self-consciousness a t w h i c h he has

arrived. That i s , they r e p r e s e n t what were t h r o u g h o u t h i s novels

the goals of the artist-everyman: "A man writes in order

t o know h i m s e l f , and thus get r i d of self eventually. That

is the d i v i n e purpose of a r t . . . . Toomake l i v i n g Itself

an a r t , that i s the goal." 1 0

Finally, the writer, for Miller,

i s w r i t i n g "to communicate w i t h h i s f e l l o w - m a n , and thereby

establish communion w i t h him. . . ," 1 1

There are at least two major features of M i l l e r ' s writing

which could also be discussed as part o f an a n a l y s i s of the

literary q u a l i t i e s o f h i s l a n g u a g e and writing style. These afe

t h e humour o r comic d e s c r i p t i o n s o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e s , and the

range of sensual imagery i n the d e s c r i p t i v e language. Both

of t h e s e have b e e n p u r p o s e l y overlooked in this thesis since

they r e q u i r e a study of greater size than can be afforded here.

The general d i r e c t i o n of t h i s p a p e r has been t o w a r d an exposition

of the s t o r y of the development o f the artist, that i s ,

toward o u t l i n i n g what k i n d o f man he i s d e s c r i b i n g i n the novels,

and what k i n d of world he means t h a t man to l i v e in. This

sort of d i s c u s s i o n i s complicated by a fiction style which

purports a l s o t o be autobiographical, and w h i c h , by implication

at least, has been a c c e p t e d as g e n e r a l l y more c l o s e l y b a s e d

on the author's l i f e experiences t h a n the general truism

t h a t a l l of what a w r i t e r says comes from h i s own experiences.

M i l l e r ' s work i s more openly d e t a i l e d as p e r s o n a l experience

which has been e l a b o r a t e d upon. The distinction between c r e a t i v e

f i c t i o n and autobiographical f a c t i s l e s s than c l e a r i n

many p l a c e s . T h i s b l u r r i n g o f l i n e s I have a l s o implied i s

a d e l i b e r a t e process i n the p a t t e r n of a t t e m p t i n g t o u n i f y

life and art. I t was perhaps not d e l i b e r a t e l y planned at

first, i n some of M i l l e r ' s e a r l i e s t works, such as Tropic

o f Cancer and Black S p r i n g , though I would argue that the idea

became c l e a r e r from then onward. And the f o r m u l a t i o n of t h a t

approach with g r e a t e r consciousness of e x a c t l y what he was

doing q u i t e p o s s i b l y came as the r e s u l t of the indirect

i n f l u e n c e of Otto Rank's p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l t h e o r i e s of the

12
creative a r t i s t . The p o i n t heife, though, i s that we can

separate l e s s and l e s s M i l l e r ' s own outlook from that of h i s

auto-hero i n the n o v e l s . And what M i l l e r h i m s e l f says i n

some of h i s more d i s t i n c t l y n o n - f i c t i o n works d i s c u s s e d here

seems to me to have g r e a t e r credence i n e x p l a i n i n g the

p o s i t i o n of the a r t i s t and of h i s novel hero i n h i s " a r r i v e d "

or reborn p o s i t i o n . That i s , M i l l e r ' s views i n some of his

other works present very w e l l the u n i f i c a t i o n of the artist

and l i f e which h i s n o v e l c h a r a c t e r sought a f t e r , and, in

a sense, IheprosB works form p a r t of a connected, continuing

story which both i l l u m i n e the novels and present the widest

i l l u s t r a t i o n of the p r o c e s s o f development implied by the

novels. The a r t o f the s i x n o v e l s becomes t r u l y the way

of seeing l i f e t h a t M i l l e r the a u t h o r a c h i e v e s . A r t merges

w i t h l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e i n the w i d e s t s e n s e , where the a r t

o b j e c t becomes l e s s and l e s s an a r t i f i c e and l i f e becomes more

and more a c r e a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f . The c o n j u n c t i o n o f the

two demonstrates man's supreme?consciousness o f s e l f , which i s

h i s s p i r i t u a l awareness. L i k e the cowardly l i o n , the s t r a w

man and the t i n s o l d i e r , he d i s c o v e r s he always had the

n e c e s s a r y q u a l i t i e s ; the d i s c o v e r y , the s e l f - a w a r e n e s s i s the

g r e a t awakening o r r e b i r t h .
 FOOTNOTES

Chapter I

R a l p h Waldo E m e r s o n , " N a t u r e , " "The A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r " and

"The O v e r s o u l " i n The A m e r i c a n T r a d i t i o n i n L i t e r a t u r e ,
( s h o r t e r e d i t i o n ) , e d s . B r a d l e y , B e a t t y , and Long,(New Y o r k :
N o r t o n & Co., 1 9 6 7 ) .

Morse Peckham, "Toward a T h e o r y o f R o m a n t i c i s m , " PMLA,

LXVT (March 1 9 5 1 ) , p . 16.
3
W i l l i a m G o r d o n , "Henry M i l l e r and the Romantic Tradition,"
( d i s s . Tulane, A p r i l , 1963).
4
I am t h i n k i n g h e r e o f M i l l e r ' s g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e toward
l i f e and h i s c o n c e r n w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s o f d e f i n i n g the n a t u r e o f
a r t and a r t i s t . I n t h i s r e g a r d , he s p e a k s a b o u t t h e u n i f i e d l i f e
i n t e r m s o f an a t t i t u d e o f a c c e p t a n c e and an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e
a s p r o c e s s i n " R e f l e c t i o n s on W r i t i n g " i n The Wisdom o f t h e
H e a r t , New Y o r k , New D i r e c t i o n s , 1941,pp.242-251, an e s s a y f i r s t
appearing i n C r e a t i v e Writing, Chicago. And he p r e s e n t s h i s
view of the p o s i t i o n at which the a r t i s t a r r i v e s i n the
e s s a y on D. H. L a w r e n c e , " U n i v e r s e o f D e a t h . " Other a s p e c t s
of t h i s c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t i n d e f i n i n g t h e s e t e r m s a p p e a r i n
"Of A r t and the F u t u r e " and a number o f o t h e r e s s a y s c o l l e c t e d
and p u b l i s h e d by New D i r e c t i o n s i n The Wisdom o f t h e H e a r t ,
The C o s m o l o g l c a l E y e , Remember To Remember, S t a n d S t i l l L i k e
t h e Hummingbird, and T h e H e n r y M i l l e r .• R e a d e r .

H e n r y M i l l e r , T r o p i c o f C a n c e r , New Y o r k , G r o v e P r e s s ,
5

1961, ( P a r i s , 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 8 9 . A l l subsequent r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s
text are taken from t h i s e d i t i o n .
6
"My a f f i n i t y i s more w i t h L a w r e n c e , o b v i o u s l y , My
a n t e c e d e n t s a r e t h e r o m a n t i c , demonic, c o n f e s s i o n a i , s u b j e c t i v e
types of w r i t e r . " H e n r y M i l l e r , The Books i n My L i f e , New
Y o r k and L o n d o n , New D i r e c t i o n s and I c o n Books, 1951 and
1952, pp. 219-220.
7
M i l l e r s p e n t a t l e a s t two y e a r s i n t h e t h i r t i e s w r i t i n g
a book on L a w r e n c e . He e v e n t u a l l y abandoned i t , a l t h o u g h
some o f h i s e s s a y s , " C r e a t i v e D e a t h " and "The U n i v e r s e o f D e a t h "
among them, a r e e x c e r p t s f r o m t h a t m a n u s c r i p t . Both o f these
works a r e v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n s of M i l l e r ' s a p p r o v a l
o f L a w r e n c e and h i s i n s i g h t i n t o L a w r e n c e ' s a t t i t u d e . They a l s o
draw some of the s i m i l a r i t i e s i n M i l l e r and L a w r e n c e i n t e r m s
o f d e f i n i t i o n s o f a r t and t h e r o l e o f t h e a r t i s t . C f . pp.
218-19 o f The Books i n My L i f e f o r a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n o f
how he b e g a n the L a w r e n c e s t u d y and why he n e v e r c o m p l e t e d i t .

M i l l e r met and d i s c u s s e d t h e o r i e s o f a r t w i t h O t t o Rank

t h r o u g h A n a i s N i n , i n P a r i s , w h i l e M i l l e r was w r i t i n g T r o p i c
o f C a p r i c o r n i n 1933. ( C f . A n a i s N i n , D i a r y , 1951^1934, e d .
G u n t h e r k t u h l m a n n , The S w a l l o w P r e s s and H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and
W o r l d : New Y o r k ) . Rank, a c c o r d i n g t o :Nin, was a l s o e x t r e m e l y
i n t e r e s t e d i n Lawrence, as w e l l as d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n d e v e l o p i n g
h i s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l t h e o r i e s o f a r t and a r t i s t s , some o f w h i c h
a p p e a r e d i n h i s book A r t and A r t i s t , t r a n s . C h a r l e s F r a n c i s
A t k i n s o n , New Y o r k , A l f r e d A. K n o p f , 1932.
9
M i l l e r makes an i n d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o B e r d y a e v in a letter
p u b l i s h e d i n The Books i n My L i f e , pp. 229-230.

K i n g s l e y Widmer, H e n r y M i l l e r ,
1 0
New Haven, Conn., Twayne
P u b l i s h e r s , 1963, pp. 140-1.

x
John W i l l i a m s , "Henry M i l l e r : The Success of Failure,"
VQR, 44 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , 225-245.

1 2
Ibid., p. 234.
13
The o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e and p e n e t r a t i n g
d i s c u s s i o n of M i l l e r ' s w o r k s I have been a b l e to l o c a t e i s t h a t
done by W i l l i a m G o r d o n : The M i n d and A r t o f H e n r y M i l l e r ,
B a t o n Rouge, L a . , L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967,
and W r i t e r and C r i t i c : A Correspondence w i t h Henry M i l l e r ,
B a t o n Rouge, L a . , L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1968.
Most o f the o t h e r c r i t i c a l p i e c e s on M i l l e r a p p e a r to be
e i t h e r u n c r i t i c a l p r a i s e b o r d e r i n g on a d u l a t i o n , o r p i e c e m e a l '
and p o o r l y a r g u e d r e j e c t i o n . I n t h i s r e g a r d , a good s a m p l i n g
o f t h e s e two a t t i t u d e s i s d i s p l a y e d i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f
c r i t i c a l e s s a y s on M i l l e r e d i t e d by G e o r g e W i c k e s i n H e n r y M i l l e r
and t h e C r i t i c s , C a r b o n d a l e , 111., S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v .
P r e s s , 1963. Some r e c e n t a r t i c l e s o f much b e t t e r q u a l i t y a r e
a p p e a r i n g . ( C f . I h a b H a s s a n ' s "The L i t e r a t u r e o f S i l e n c e , "
E n c o u n t e r , v o l . 28 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , 74-82. Perhaps the best new
s c h o l a r l y work t h a t has emerged on M i l l e r i s J a n e A. N e l s o n ' s
Form and Image i n the F i c t i o n o f H e n r y M i l l e r , D e t r o i t :
Wayne S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1970. (Unfortunately, i t
a p p e a r e d t o o l a t e t o be i n c l u d e d i n any m a j o r way i n t h i s
discussion.)

Phillip
1 4
Rahv, "Sketches i n C r i t i c i s m : Henry M i l l e r , "
Henry M i l l e r and the C r i t i c s , e d . G. W i c k e s , pp. 81-82.

1 5
I h a b Hassan, "The L i t e r a t u r e o f S i l e n c e , " p. 79.
Chapter II

•^•A C o l l e c t i o n o f e a r l y n o t e s and t h e f i r s t m a t e r i a l M i l l e r
managed t o have p u b l i s h e d i s r e p r i n t e d i n H e n r y M i l l e r
M i s c e l l a n e a , San M a t e o , C a l i f : B e r n P o r t e r , Greenwood P r e s s ,
1945. Page 22 i n d i c a t e s a p l a n o u t l i n e f o r the n o v e l s p r e p a r e d
i n 1932. I n terms of a u n i f i e d g r o u p B l a c k S p r i n g s h o u l d be
excluded since i t i s r e a l l y a c o l l e c t i o n o f p i e c e s of s t o r i e s ,
but i n f a c t i t does n o t a f f e c t o u r g r o u p i n g v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

2
Miller, T r o p i c o f Cancer, p. 9.

3
I_bid., pp. 88-89.

4
Ibid., pp. 146-47

5
I_bid., p. 219.

6
Ibid., p. 220.
7
H e n r y M i l l e r , T r o p i c o f C a p r i c o r n , New Y o r k , G r o v e P r e s s ,
1961, ( P a r i s , 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. 12-13. A l l s u b s e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s
to t h i s t e x t are taken from t h i s e d i t i o n .
8
I_bid., p. 35.

H e n r y M i l l e r , B l a c k S p r i n g , New Y o r k , G r o v e P r e s s ,
9
1963,
( P a r i s , 1 9 3 6 ) , pp. 20-21. A l l s u b s e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s
text are taken from t h i s e d i t i o n .

1 0
Cf. C h a p t e r I,, f o o t n o t e 9.

^ N i c o l a s B e r d y a e v , The D e s t i n y o f Man, trans. Natalie

D u d d i n g t o n , L o n d o n , G e o f f r e y B l e s j ( 1 9 3 7 ) , 1948, p . 290.
1 2
C a p r l c o r n , p. 287.

H e n r y M i l l e r , P l e x u s , The R o s y C r u c i f i x i o n , Book
1 3
Two,
New Y o r k , G r o v e P r e s s , 1963, p. 320. A l l subsequent r e f e r e n c e s
to t h i s t e x t are taken from t h i s e d i t i o n .
1 4
Capricorn, p. 13.
1 5
Berdyaev, Destiny o f Man, pp. 288-89.

H e n r y M i l l e r , Sexus, The Rosy C r u c i f i x i o n , Book

1 6
One,
New Y o r k , G r o v e P r e s s , 1962, p . 404. A l l subsequent references
to t h i s t e x t a r e t a k e n f r o m t h i s e d i t i o n .

A l l a n T a t e , "The Man o f L e t t e r s i n the Modern W o r l d , "

1 7

i n The Man o f L e t t e r s i n t h e Modern W o r l d , S e l e c t e d E s s a y s :

1928-1955, New Y o r k , M e r i d i a n B o o k s , 1955, pp. 1 1 - 2 2 .
 1 8
C a n c e r , pp. 227-28.

1 9
Ibid., p. 225

c u
Capricorn, p . 68.

21
C a n _ c e r , pp. 129-30.

2 2
Sexus, p . 280.

2 3
Capricorn, p p . 288-89.

2 4
Ibid., p . 120.

2 5
Cancer, p . 167.

2 6
C a p r i c o r n , pp. 230-31.

2 7
I b i d . , pp . 128-29.

2 8
Plexus, p . 630.

29
Berdyaev, D e s t i n y o f Man, p . 290.

Chapter I I I

•*-Caprloorn, p p . 60-61.
2
C a n c e r , p . 1.

A l l o f t h e w r i t i n g w h i c h he h a s d e s c r i b e d h i m s e l f a s
d o i n g i n t h e e a r l i e r n o v e l s was n e v e r p u b l i s h e d . Apparently,
most o f i t was a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y a d o p t e d l i t e r a r y s t y l e o f
o n e - o f a number o f a u t h o r s whose work i m p r e s s e d M i l l e r most
a t t h e t ime .

4
0tto Rank, A r t and A r t i s t , p. 83.
5
Ibid., p . 48.

Capricorn, p p . 286-87.
7

Otto Rank, A r t and A r t i s t , p . 374.

P l e x u s , p . 418.
8

N o r m a n 0. Brown, L i f e
9
Against D e a t h . New Y o r k , Random House,
1959, p . 318.
 1 0
Plexus, pp. 634-35.

1 1
Cancer ) p . 229.

l 2
Capricorn, p p . 76-77.

1 5
Ibid., p . 149.

1 4
Sexus, p p . 269-70.

1 5
Plexus, p . 640.

1 6
Ibid., p. 83.

1 7
Capricorn, pp. 63-64.

l 8
Plexus t p . 313.

1 9
Cancer, pp. 163-64.

2 0
Sexus, p p . 272-73.

2 1
Cancer, p p . 232-33.
22
P l e x u s , p . 384. He h a s a l s o w r i t t e n a s u r r e a l i s t i c
s h o r t s t o r y e n t i t l e d " I n t o the N i g h t L i f e , " which i s p a r t of
B l a c k S p r i n g (pp. 133-158). I t i s a combination o f nightmare,
dream, and f a n t a s y , a p p r o p r i a t e l y s u b t i t l e d "A Coney I s l a n d
of the Mind."
23
P l e x u s , p. 319.
24
J a n e A. N e l s o n , i n Form and Image i n t h e F i c t i o n o f H e n r y
M i l l e r , devotes a major p o r t i o n o f her study t o a b r i l l i a n t ,
d e t a i l e d , s c h o l a r l y a n a l y s i s o f t h e women i n M i l l e r ' s n o v e l s
( c f . p p . 17-104) i n t e r m s o f t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e a s emblems o f
the " t h r e a t e n i n g u n c o n s c i o u s " ( p . 5 5 ) .
2 5
S e x u s , p . 268.
2 6
Ibid., p . 266.
2 7
Ibid., p . 318.

Chapter IV

1
W i l l i a m G o r d o n , " H e n r y M i l l e r and
x
the Romantic T r a d i t i o n , "
p. 146.
Norman 0. Brown, L i f e A g a i n s t D e a t h , p p . 318-19.
 H e n r y M i l l e r , Nexus, The R o s y C r u c i f i x i o n , Book T h r e e ,
New Y o r k , G r o v e P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 , ( P a r i s , 1 9 6 0 ) , p . 301. A l l
subsequent r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s t e x t are taken from t h i s e d i t i o n .

4
Plexus, p . 632.

5
Black Spring, p p . 159-182.

6
Anais Nin, Diary, 1931-34, p . 256.

7
C a n c e r , pp. 231-32.

8
Ibid., p p . 221-22.
q

Capricorn, p. 305.
1 Q
Sexus, p . 27.

•^Berdyaev, Destiny o f Man, p . 39.

1 S
Ibid., p . 286.
1 5
Capricorn, p. 331.
1 4
Ibid., p . 11.
x o
Berdyaev, Destiny o f Man, p . 295.
1 6
Ibid., p . 129.
1 7
Ibid., p . 130.
1 8
Plexus, p . 317.
T!li'- X
Black Spring, p. 9.
20
Ibid.,
21
Cf. M i l l e r ' s l a t e r l i f e a t B i g Sur, There his l i f e style
is c l o s e t o t h a t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y d r o p o u t s from s o c i e t y .
22
C a p r i c o r n , p . 64.
23
C a n c e r , p . 231.
24
C a p r i c o r n , p p . 176-333, commonly called an " I n t e r l u d e i n
the L a n d o f F u c k . "
2 5
Capricorn, p . 181

2 6
Ibid., p p . 182-83.
 2 7
N e x u s , p. 304.
2 8
William G o r d o n , The M i n d and Art o f Henry M i l l e r , p. 113.

2 9
Quoted i n Chapter I I I , footnote 2.

Cancer, p. 1.
5 1
Ibid., p. 90.
3 2
Capricorn, pp. 319-20.

Chapter V

-••They were w r i t t e n a t r a t h e r w i d e l y s p a c e d i n t e r v a l s ;
W o r l d o f Sex was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1941, t h e n r e v i s e d and
r e p u b l i s h e d i n 1948. C o l o s s u s came o u t i n 1941 and B i g S u r
was p r i n t e d i n 1957. My p u t t i n g them t o g e t h e r as one u n i f i e d
e x p r e s s i o n i s somewhat a r t i f i c i a l i n the s e n s e t h a t t h e y c o v e r
a s e v e n t e e n y e a r p e r i o d o f time, though I t s t i l l t h i n k they
r e p r e s e n t a c u l m i n a t i o n o f M i l l e r ' s p o s i t i o n on a r t and a r t i s t .

2
Henry M i l l e r , The W o r l d o f Sex, p. 13.
5
World o f Sex, p. 107.
4 m

H e n r y M i l l e r , The C o l o s s u s o f M a r o u s s i , New York,

New D i r e c t i o n s , 1941, pp. 121-22.
5
Colossus, p. 153.
• 6
H e n r y M i l l e r , B i g S u r and t h e O r a n g e s o f H i e r o n y m u s Bosch,
New Y o r k , New D i r e c t i o n s , 1957, p . 23.
7
Ibid., P. 25.
8
Ibid., P. 25.
9
Ibid., P. 144.
1 0
Ibid., P. 400.

U
Ibid., P. 57.

1 2
C f . C h a p t e r I , f o o t n o t e 7. A l s o the Henry M i l l e r M i s c e l l a n e a
c o n t a i n s a n o t e b o o k e n t r y w r i t t e n i n the early t h i r t i e s ,
r e f e r r i n g t o Rank's A r t and A r t i s t w h i c h w o u l d seem t o i n d i c a t e
M i l l e r ' s f a m i l i a r i t y with those t h e o r i e s of the a r t i s t .
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