Rural Electrification

‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬
‫‪REPUBLIC OF YEMEN‬‬ ‫الجمهورية اليمنيــــــــــة‬

‫‪SANA'A UNIVERSITY‬‬ ‫جامعــــــــة صنعــــــــــاء‬
‫‪FACULTY OF ENGINEERIN‬‬ ‫كليـــــــــة الهندســـــــــة‬
‫‪ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT‬‬ ‫قسم الهندسة الكهربائية‬
‫‪POWER AND MACHINES SECTION‬‬ ‫تخصص قـــــوى وأالت‬
‫إعداد‪:‬‬
‫ياســـــــر محمد علـــي الشـرجبي ‪2005/136‬‬ ‫صالح أحمد عبدالوهاب الجنيد ‪2005/185‬‬
‫صالح محمد عبد الجبار عبد الحميد ‪2005/27‬‬ ‫محمــد مسعــد قــايد الفتينــي ‪2005/257‬‬
‫حميــر قاســم ناجــي المرنعــي ‪2005/77‬‬
‫إشراف‪:‬‬
‫األستاذ الدكتور‪ /‬توفيق محسن سفيـــــــــــــــــــــان‬
‫مشروع مقدم لقسم الهندسة الكهربائية وهو جزء من متطلبات نيل درجة البكالوريوس‬
‫في الهندسة الكهربائية تخصص القوى واآلت الكهربائية‬
‫‪2009‬‬ ‫صنعاء‬
Scope
We chose this research because it is the main focus in our specialization, it is considered
as a review and covers most subjects that we studied during the five years in the collage;
the other reasons are summarized as follow:
 There are more than 73.5% of the population of Yemen living in rural areas, and
70% of this population are without electricity. [Central Statistical organization,
Yemen,2003]
 There are no existing studies for the alternative options for electrifying rural areas.
Rural areas need to be focused on from the point of view of electrification.
 This project is practical and realistic and can be implemented.
Abstract
In this research we chose a district that consists of five villages in Dhamar governorate,
Alhada because we found information for this area, this information includes; weather,
terrain, climate and the information of the available alternatives. After that we studied
the four available alternatives (solar energy (PV), wind energy, fossil energy “Diesel”
and the extension with the national grid) in general form. Then from the information of
the available alternatives we excluded the wind energy for the following reasons:
 The direction of wind speed is not stable during the seasons of the year.
 Transportation process of wind farms components is very difficult such as wind
turbines due to unavailability of the roads required for this purpose.
 Lack of technical or commercial skills and information: in Yemen markets, skilled
personnel who can install, operate, and maintain wind energy.
After that we estimated the approximate electrical loads in the five villages for next 20
years and with percentage development of 3% we found the average load for the five
villages to be (234.3, 83.8, 50.4, 77.8, 76.3 kVA). After load estimation we designed the
remaining three supply systems for each village.
We began in the design with the photovoltaic system by selecting the power ratings and
voltages for all required equipments and their quantities in each village. The second
design was the selection of the diesel generators where we chose the ratings of these
generators according to the available ratings in the markets and the estimated loads. The
third design was the extension of the national grid, in this design we chose five
transformers with the available ratings and according to the loads for each village and
also we chose the remaining equipments and it’s ratings after we got a dimensions map
for these villages from the Rural Electricity Sector. All designs were done at full load
condition.
After all calculations for the three alternatives, we estimated all costs for each supply
system which include the capital cost, the running cost and the cost of losses (only for
the extension of the national grid). We then calculated the total annual cost for each
system from which we estimated the cost of the energy for each system to be as follows:
 Solar PV supply system (0.3535 $/kWh)
 Diesel generator supply system (0.3296 $/kWh)
 Extension with the national grid (0.0419 $/kWh)
After that we chose the best supply system in accordance to its reliability, its
environmental impacts and its cost factors. However, due to the loads not needing much
reliability, reliability factor was excluded from comparison as well as environmental
impacts. We found that the extension with the National Grid is the best economical
supply system to feed these villages.
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Rural Electrification
Chapter 2 Electrical Load estimation Page
2.1 Introduction 3
2.2 Importance of load estimation 3
2.3 The consideration of electrical load estimation 3
2.4 Load Estimate versus Load Calculation 4
2.5 Type of loads 4
2.6 Load curves and load duration curves 5
2.7 Installed power 5
2.8 Installed apparent power 5
2.9 Methods of estimation 5
2.10 Future expansion 10
2.11 Losses 11
2.12 References 12
Chapter 3 Supply systems
3.1 Photo voltaic supply system 13

3.1.1 Introduction 13
3.1.2 Solar cells 13
3.1.3 Module 16
3.1.4 Array 19
3.1.5 Photovoltaic (PV) orientation designs 21
3.1.6 Solar PV Systems 21
3.1.7 Protection 26
3.1.8 System situation 28
3.1.9 Reliability 29
3.1.10 Environmental impact 30
3.1.11 Maintenance 30
3.1.12 Field of applications 31
3.1.13 Advantages and Disadvantages 31
3.2 Wind energy 33
3.2.2 Wind Turbines 33
3.2.3 Wind farms 38
3.2.8 Advantages and Disadvantages 40
3.3 Diesel power plant 42
3.3.2 Fuel characteristics 42
3.3.3 Fuel transportation 42
3.3.4 Principle of operation 42
3.3.5 Main Components of diesel generator 43
3.3.6 Performance of diesel generator 46
3.3.7 Diesel generator system Type 47
3.3.8 Accessories 47
3.3.9 General layout of diesel generator 48
3.3.13 Maintenance 50
3.3.15 Advantages and disadvantages 50
3.4 Extend with the network 51
3.4.2 Network conditions 51
3.4.3 System configurations 51
3.4.4 Type of extension 52
3.4.5 Main components of Overhead lines 52
3.4.6 Overhead Construction 59
3.4.7 Calculations 62
3.4.8 Protection 69
3.4.11 Advantages and disadvantages 69
3.5 References 69
Chapter 4 Project information
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Project position 71
4.3 Environment description 72
4.4 Information of the available alternatives 72
4.5 Importance of electricity for the project 76
4.6 Maximum Power demand estimation 76
4.7 Maximum Energy demand estimation 80
4.8 References 82
Chapter 5 supply systems design
5.1 Solar PV supply system 83
5.1.2 Sizing 83
5.2 Diesel power plant 86

5.2.2 Sizing 86
5.2.3 Fuel consumption 87
5.2.4 Lubricating oil 87
5.2.5 Accessories 87
5.3 Extension with national grid 88

5.3.2 Dimensions map 89
5.3.3 Sizing 90
5.3.4 Spacing 95
5.3.5 Calculations 96
5.4 References 97
Chapter 6 Economic evaluation and comparison
6.1 Introduction 98
6.2 Photo voltaic supply system 98
6.3 Diesel generator supply system 102
6.4 Extend with network supply system 104
6.5 comparison 106
6.6 More economical supply system layout 108
6.7 Conclusion 109
6.8 Difficulties faced us 109
6.9 Recommendations 109
6.10 References 109
Appendix (A)
Appendix (B)
Appendix (C)
Appendix (D)
Appendix (E)
Appendix (F)
Appendix (G)
Appendix (H)
Chapter 1
Introduction To
Rural Electrification
Chapter 1 Introduction to Rural Electrification with the Best Economic Way
Energy is essential and without it societies can neither function socially nor
commercially. Without sufficient and adequate energy resources, developing countries
will not be able to foster the social and economic developments that are crucial for
growth especially in third world countries such as in our country (Yemen) where the rural
consumption does not exceed 3% [Central Statistical organization, Yemen,2003], which
is very little.
Where the provision of electricity supply to rural areas requires either the extension of the
distribution network or the establishment of standalone, decentralized networks not
connected to the national grid.
Basically, the concept of rural electrification refers to the electricity supply to areas
outside of cities or rural electrification is the process of bringing electricity to rural
communities.
Rural electrification projects bring a range of benefits to the intended communities it’s
including:
 Access to lighting
 The ability to use household appliances such as televisions, fans, and refrigerators
 Improved access to information
 The ability to use labor-saving devices for agriculture and others activities.
 Improved public services such as schools, community halls and health facilities
through such benefits, electrification projects help to improve the overall quality of
life including hygiene And leisure, in addition to rural productivity.
This research consist of six chapters covered main parts for generation of power sources
and complete details about design of some power sources and describes the most
important subject that it is the rural electrification process and its benefits by using
different sources of supply that includes solar energy (photo voltaic), wind energy, fossil
fuel energy (diesel generators) or extension with national grid. And this research
determine the most economic way for generate the required power from the studied
different available alternatives and this research depend on the international codes and
standards (IEC) because that IEC used in most world countries and it is especially for 50
Hz power system countries as in our country.
The second chapter covers the electrical load estimation, which consists of importance of
loads estimation, loads estimation considerations, types of loads, load and load duration
curves, installed power and installed apparent power (KVA), the different methods for
load estimation, future expansion, and the final title is power system losses.
The third chapter covers the supply systems, which shows the whole details about four
types of energy sources they are photovoltaic system (solar energy), wind energy, diesel
energy (isolated generator) and extension with national grid as an alternative of other
alternatives.
1
Chapter 1 Introduction to Rural Electrification with the Best Economic Way
Section one describes the PV system that includes solar cells, modules, arrays and its
design, photovoltaic orientations design ,solar PV systems, solar system situation,
reliability of PV system, environmental impacts ,maintenance, field applications of PV,
and advantages and disadvantage of this type of supply system.
Section two describes wind developing, wind turbines and wind parks (wind farms),
system situations, reliability, environmental impacts, field of applications, and
advantages and disadvantages of wind energy.
Section three explains diesel generators that includes fuel characteristics, fuel
transportation, principle of operation ,main components of diesel generators, performance
of diesel generators, diesel generator system types, accessories of diesel power station,
system situations, reliability, environmental impacts, maintenance ,field of applications,
and advantages and disadvantages of diesel energy.
Section four describes the extension with the national grid and includes network
conditions, system configurations, type of extension, main components of over head
lines, over head construction, calculations(voltage selection, voltage regulation, voltage
drop, load to be supplied, fault analysis, losses),protection, reliability, operating and
maintenance, field applications, and advantages and disadvantages.
The fourth chapter covers the required information for the intended villages, which
includes project position, environment description, information of the available
alternatives, and importance of electricity for the project, maximum power demand
estimation, and maximum energy estimation.
The fifth chapter contains all supply systems design:
Part one solar PV system that includes sizing (PV arrays, Inverters, batteries, load
growth), Part two diesel power plant that includes sizing, Fuel consumption, lubricating
oil, Accessories, Part three extension with the national grid that covers sizing (Voltage
selection, choosing transformers, choosing of fuses, Choosing Conductors, Choosing
poles, Choosing insulators, Choosing of surge arresters, Choosing accessories),spacing
(clearance between poles),and calculation (voltage drop, power losses). All supply
system designs are designed under full load condition that's mean after 20 years.
The sixth chapter shows the economic evaluation for the different designs and includes
capital cost, running cost, annual cost, cost of electricity, cost of losses for the network,
and the final comparison between all alternatives.
2
Chapter 2
Electrical
Load Estimation
Chapter (2) Electrical load estimation
2.1 Introduction
In order to design any installation, the actual maximum load demand likely to be
imposed on the power-supply system must be assessed. To base the design simply on
the arithmetic sum of all the loads existing in the installation would be extravagantly
uneconomical, and bad engineering practice. The aim of this chapter is to show how
some factors taking into account, the diversity (non simultaneous operation of all
appliances of a given group) and utilization (e.g. an electric motor is not generally
operated at its full-load capability, etc.) of all existing and projected loads can be
assessed. The values given are based on experience and on records taken from actual
installations. In addition to providing basic installation-design data on individual
circuits, the results will provide a global value for the installation, from which the
requirements of a supply system (distribution network, MV/LV transformer, or
generating set) can be specified.
If all the lights, irons, refrigerators, televisions, motors, and other equipments in all
the consumers‟ premises were to be turned on at one time, it would be impossible for
the utility company to supply the energy necessary to run all these appliances. For a
company to install generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, and
other equipment to provide for this total connected load would be extremely
uneconomical since all this equipment will not be operating at the same time.
The electrical design professional should determine a building‟s electrical load
characteristics early in the preliminary design stage of the building to select the
proper power supply system and equipments having adequate power capacity with
proper voltage levels, and sufficient space and ventilation to maintain proper
ambient. The most feasible method of supplying and distributing electrical power will
be determined by first quantifying the electrical power requirements (or maximum
demand load) for the installation. In the early design stages, this demand should be
based on area or population; in later design stages, summation of individual building
connected loads modified by suitable demand and diversity factors will be used.
2.2 Importance of load estimation

An accurate load estimate is needed to get the process of designing, installing, and
operating a project off to a good start. The load estimate numbers provide the data for
subsequent calculations, selections and decisions. Among these items are: appliances
of HVAC system selection; equipment selections for fans, coils, pumps, duct,
electrical feeder sizing and water piping design.
An accurate estimate will provide the correct cooling and heating requirements, offer
options for load reductions at the least incremental cost, provide properly sized
equipment, yield efficient air, water, and electrical distribution designs.
2.3 The consideration of electrical load estimation

 Types of loads (characteristics and used)
 Size of project and its life expectancy
 Methods of load estimation
 Codes of specific (standard) load per m2 (IEC, BS, ASHRAE/IESNA, NEC)
3
 Experience and skills from similar old project

 Factors standard (demand, diversity, simultaneity… etc)
2.4 Load Estimate versus Load Calculation

Load estimate and load calculation used synonymously. A load estimate is an
approximation gained from methods that are not detailed, such as a rule of thumb,
check figures, or quick hand calculations based on assumptions by using a service
factors method, energy consumption, and using power/area method, indicate they are
explained in section (2.9). [3]
Load calculation is more detailed analysis of load components based on actual
building design knowledge, and is usually performed by computer software and
programs. Even though a load calculation is considered more accurate, all details of
them are known.
2.5 Type of loads

It is impractical to model each individual load connected to a power system to the
level of detail at which power is delivered to each individual utilization device. Loads
are normally lumped together to represent all of the “downstream” power system
components and individual connected loads and can be divided into:
Residential loads
This type covered houses electrical loads such as
 Lighting
 Heaters
 Refrigerator
 Clothes washers
 Fan, Iron, Radio and TV … etc
Commercial loads
This type covered electrical load such as
 Outdoor and roads lighting
 Elevators
 Air-conditioning and refrigeration… etc
Industrial loads
These types of loads cover electrical loads such as:
 Electrical drivers
 Lighting
 Space heating, cooling and refrigerating
 Processing food
 Transportation… etc
4
2.6 Load curves and load duration curves

Load curves and load duration curves graphically convey the whole details about the
characteristic of loads over time. Load curves typically display the load of a customer
class, feeder, or other portion of a power system over a 24-hour period.
Load curves represent the demand of a load or groups of load over a period of time,
typically 24 hours. The curves provide „„typical‟‟ load levels for a customer class on
an hour-by-hour or minute-by minute represent. The curves demand of a certain
class of customers or portion of the system. [2]
The area under the curve represents the corresponding energy use over the time period
under consideration. Load curves provide easily interpreted information regarding the
peak load duration as well as the variation between minimum and maximum load
levels. Load curves provide key information for daily load forecasts allowing planners
and operators to ensure system capacity is available to meet customer needs.
2.7 Installed power (kW)

Most electrical appliances and equipments are marked to indicate their nominal power
rating (Pn). The installed power is the sum of the nominal powers of all power
consuming devices in the installation. This is not the power to be actually supplied in
practice. This is the case for electric motors, where the power rating refers to the
output power at its driving shaft. The input power consumption will evidently be
greater. Fluorescent and discharge lamps associated with stabilizing ballasts are other
cases in which the nominal power indicated on the lamp is less than the power
consumed by the lamp and its ballast. [3]
The installed power (kW) is necessary to choose the rated power of a generating set or
battery, and where the requirements of a prime mover have to be considered. For a
power supply from a (LV) public-supply network, or through a (MV/LV) transformer,
the significant quantity is the apparent power in (kVA).[4]
2.8 Installed apparent power (kVA)

The installed apparent power is commonly assumed to be the arithmetical sum of the
kVA of individual loads. The maximum estimated (kVA) to be supplied however is
not equal to the total installed (kVA).
All individual loads are not necessarily operating at full rated nominal power nor
necessarily at the same time. Factors kd and ks allow the determination of the
maximum power and apparent power demands actually required to dimension the
installation. [3]
2.9 Methods of estimation

To estimate actual maximum demand we use different methods which are the
following:
2.9.1 Service factors
5
This method is the wide spread method in load estimation, because it‟s easy to change
its tables to gives similarity with weather conditions and it gives more accuracy than
other methods for calculating load demand, this method is used to estimate the
maximum power demand for un similar loads, it includes some factors as following:
Demand factor (kd)
In normal operating conditions the power consumption of a load is sometimes less
than that indicated as its nominal power rating, where this factor must be applied to
each individual load, with particular attention to electric motors, which are very rarely
operated at full load. In an industrial installation this factor may be estimated on an
average at 0.75 for motors.
For incandescent-lighting loads, the factor always equals one. For socket-outlet
circuits, the factors depend entirely on the type of appliances being supplied from the
sockets concerned, the tables below show the demand factor of some domestic load
appliances and general lighting of some costumer loads.
Kind of load Demand factor (kd)

Lighting 1
Television & receiver 1
Radio & cassette player 1
Water heater 1
Pump 0.6
Refrigerator 1
Washer 0.8
Blender 1
Clothes iron 1
Vacuum cleaner 1
Computer 0.7
Mobile charger (4) 1
Heater 0.8
speaker 0.8
Socket-outlets 0.1 to 0.3
Table (2.1) demand factor for some domestic loads [2]
For example
The maximum kW demand of Customer at some moment was found to be 6.18 kW,
in order to determine the demand factor; the total connected load of the customer
needs to be known. The total connected load will be the sum of the ratings of all of
the electrical devices at the customer‟s location. Assume that this total comes to 35
kW; then, the demand factor is computed to be
Maximum demand
Demand factor  (2-1)
Total connected load
Simultaneity factor (ks)
6
The simultaneous operation of all installed loads of a given installation never occurs
in practice, the factor (Ks) is applied to each group of loads. The determination of this
factor is the responsibility of the designer, since it requires a detailed knowledge of
the installation and the conditions in which the individual circuits are to be exploited.
For this reason, it is not possible to give precise values for general application.
Factor of simultaneity for an apartment block
Some typical values for this case are given in table (2.3), they are applicable to
domestic consumers supplied at 230/400 V (3-phase 4-wires). In the case of
consumers using electrical heat-storage units for space heating, a factor of 0.8 is
recommended regardless of the number of consumers.
Number of consumers Factor of simultaneity (Ks)

2 to 4 1
5 to 9 0.78
10 to 14 0.63
15 to 19 0.53
20 to 24 0.49
25 to 29 0.46
30 to 34 0.44
35 to 39 0.42
40 to 49 0.41
50 and more 0.40
Table (2.2) Simultaneity factors in an apartment block [2]
For example
Assume 5 stories (36, 24, 30, 36, 24) kVA apartment building with (25) consumers,
each having (6 kVA) of installed load.
The total installed load for the building is: 36 + 24 + 30 + 36 + 24 = 150 kVA
From table (2.2), for (25) consumers (KS = 0.46), so the apparent-power supply
required for the buildings is: 150 × 0.46 = 69 kVA
Factor of simultaneity for distribution boards
Table (2.3) shows hypothetical values of (Ks) for a distribution board supplying a
number of circuits for which there is no indication of the manner in which the total
load divides between them. If the circuits are mainly for lighting loads, it is prudent to
adopt (Ks) values close to unity. [2]
Number of circuits Factor of simultaneity(ks)

2 and 3 0.9
4 and 5 0.8
6 to 9 0.7
10 and more 0.6
Table (2.3) Factor of simultaneity for distribution boards [2]

Factor of simultaneity according to circuit function
7
Simultaneity factors which may be used for circuits supplying commonly-occurring

loads are shown in table (2.4).
Circuit function Factor of simultaneity (ks)

Lighting 1
Heating and air conditioning 0.8
Socket-outlets 0.1 to 0.2
Lifts and catering hoist
 For the most powerful motor
1
 For the second most powerful motor 0.75
 For all motors 0.6
Table (2.4) Factor of simultaneity according to circuit function [2]

Diversity Factor
Diversity factor is the value placed on a small collection of loads. The value for the
whole system itself, which is comprised of smaller collections of loads, is called the
diversity factor. Specifically, diversity factor is the mathematical ratio of a system‟s
individual maximum demands divided by the maximum demand of the system as a
whole. The formula used to calculate diversity factor is total maximum demand
divided by total incoming kW times 100.
Total Max. Demand kW
Diversity Factor   100 (2-2)
Total Incoming kW
On the other hand we can find diversity factor from this equation
1
Diversity Factor  (2-3)
simultaneity factor
Elements of system between which Residence Commercial General Large
diversity factors are stated lighting Lighting power users
Between individual users. 2.0 1.46 1.45 -
Between transformers 1.3 1.3 1.35 1.05
Between feeders 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.05
Between substations 1.1 1.10 1.1 1.1
From users to transformer 2.0 1.46 1.45 -
From users to feeder 2.6 1.90 1.95 1.15
From users to substation 3.0 2.18 2.24 1.32
From users to generating station 3.29 2.40 2.46 1.45
Table (2.5) diversity factor for some loads [4]
Load factor
Load factor is a term that is often used when describing a load. It is defined as the
ratio of the average demand to the maximum demand. In many ways load factor gives
an indication of how well the utility‟s facilities are being utilized. From the utility‟s
standpoint, the optimal load factor would be 1.00 since the system has to be designed
to handle the maximum demand.
8
Average demand
Load factor  (2-4)
Max. kW demand
The above formula is used to find the load factor.
Sometimes utility companies will encourage industrial customers to improve their
load factors. One method of encouragement is to penalize the customer on the electric
bill for having a low load factor.[1]
2.9.2 Using energy consumption

All connected equipments are operate in different times with different periods, so
each equipment multiple by its period of operation in day or in month or year, then
collect the sum of this energy of the total equipments. This method is performed as
follow steps:
List all electrical appliances
We will need to make a list of everything in home that uses electricity (or every
appliance we plan to be in our home). For the purposes of this evaluation, all these
items will be called appliances. Besides the obvious items like televisions,
refrigerators and microwaves, appliances we may not immediately think of must also
be included.
Determine power draw for each item
For each appliance listed, the wattage should be noted, as well as whether it runs on
AC or DC current. If wattage information cannot be found on the product labeling or
in the manual, amperage and voltage should be noted instead. Most household
appliances will run on 110 volt AC power, but some major appliances require 220
volt AC instead. The voltage requirements of AC appliances should be easily
determined. For DC appliances, the voltage should match whatever our DC system
voltage is (or will be), whether 12V, 24V, or more rarely, 32V or 48V. We will put
average power usage for most common household appliances in a table.
Estimate appliance usage time
For each appliance, we should estimate how many hours per day the appliance is
used. Such as, a refrigerator may be used seven days a week, but on average the
refrigerator motor only runs up to 1/2 of the time, depending on the temperature
settings and how warm the house is kept. That would be 12 hours/day. For a pump
may have a large wattage rating, but may only be used for 1/2 hour or less per day.
For appliances we only use occasionally (1/2 hour or less per week, total use 0.1 as
our hours per day). This may lead to a slightly high estimation, but when in doubt,
always estimate high. It's far better to have a slightly larger system than you need to
have a system that regularly shuts down due to overloads.
Look for extra efficiency
The overall load evaluation is necessary for determining how much power our system
needs to produce on an average day, as well as the amount of battery storage we will
need. It can also be used to find areas where our electrical consumption can be
reduced. Large electric appliances such as hot water tank heaters and electric ovens
and ranges are not practical in an alternative energy system. Household lighting draws
9
can be greatly reduced by using DC lighting. In an existing home, wiring a DC

lighting system may not be practical, but lighting loads can still be reduced by using
energy efficient compact fluorescent bulbs in as many outlets as possible.
Determine AC power needs
Once we have finished total load calculations, we will need to take the information for
all the AC appliances on our list, and determine two more tables. First, find the AC
appliance on the list with the highest wattage. Then determine how many of the AC
items will be connected (plugged in) at the same time. The AC appliance table is
important in determining what size inverter our system will need.
This method is used for loads which supplied from renewable energy which consist of
battery storages, such as solar system or wind turbine. Keep in mind that alternative
energy systems are generally easy to expand, so our initial system does not
necessarily need to be oversized to allow for future load increases. If our electrical use
increases, we can easily add more solar panels, batteries or wind turbines, and often a
single inverter can be wired to a second inverter to increase AC output.[4]
Energy load estimation
The energy demand for customers:
m
E  ( N ( ( DF  P rating  h day)))  K s (2-5)
i 1
Where:
E is the energy consumption
N is the number of houses, mosques, schools or healthy centers
m is the number of the loads
2.9.3 Using power/area method
In this method we use standard tables to give how much watt per square meter are
used. First step is to determine the layouts of the location which we estimate its load,
then use the standard tables to find the load for this location, such as houses, hospitals
or schools. It can be used for specific circuit such as lighting. [5]
For example
The room area is (25m2) and from the tables the lighting is need (6W/m2), then the
room needs total power (25×6) = (150W).
There are general tables for all circuits such as lighting, air conditioning, pumping,
heating, etc. These tables give the total power which the consumers need.
For example
The house area is (400m2) and from tables the consumer needs (12.5W/m2) for all
circuits, then the house needs total power (400×12.5) = (5000W).
Because the table was designed for urban loads and for specified weather conditions,
this method is not used in rural design.
2.10 Future expansion
The estimated load by using the above methods is not the final load which we design
the generations or substations according to it, because of the population growth and
10
load expansion. For this reason the designers must be taking into account the future
expansion and the period of the project in years.
Future expansion is given by a percentage of country development, and then this
percentage is multiply by the first load and too sum with first load.
For example
If the total load of the consumers (50kVA), future expansion percentage (4%) and the
period of the project 20 years, then the installed power is equal to (50×0.04×20+50)
= (90kVA) by Ignoring distribution and transmission losses.
2.11 Losses
2.11.1 Loss Allocation Process
IEC 61968 standard calculates supplier hourly loads, including distribution and
transmission losses, in two step process. First, the hourly loads of each retail
customer are estimated at the customer‟s meter and multiplied by one of three
distribution loss factors, depending upon the customer‟s rate class. Customer hourly
loads including these distribution loss factors are then summed by supplier and the
total is compared to Distribution Company “Delivered load.” Delivered load is
defined as load measured at substation and tie-line metering points inside the IEC
61968 standard. Delivered load includes all distribution line losses but no
transmission losses. Differences between the sum of estimated customer hourly
loads, including distribution loss factors, and actual delivered loads are allocated to
suppliers based on their share in total estimated load. These differences can be
positive or negative and vary by hour, but their expected value is zero.
Second, IEC 61968 standard calculates transmission losses as the difference between
System load and delivered load. [6]
2.11.2 Distribution Loss Factors

The distribution loss factors which IEC 61968 standard multiplies by the estimated
hourly loads – at the meter – of each retail customer are as follows:
 Primary Voltage Customers: 1.038
 Secondary Voltage Customers: 1.069
 Primary Voltage Customers with High Voltage Discount: 1.027
2.11.3 Transmission Loss Factors

IEC 61968 standards allocates transmission losses to each supplier based on its share
in total Delivered load. This loss factors average 1.001 for all hours and customers,
the table (2.6) below presents values the Supplier can expect to have allocated to it for
transmission losses. The losses are expressed as the ratio of System load to Delivered
load.
2.11.4 Total Loss Allocation
The table below shows the total amount of losses suppliers can expect to have
allocated to them, on average, for different types of customer load
Secondary Voltage High Voltage Primary Voltage
Loss type
Customers Discount Customers Customers
11
1.069 1.027 1.038 Distribution

1.001 1.001 1.001 Average Transmission
1.070 1.028 1.039 Total
Table (2.6) loss factor for different type of customer [6]

For example
For the total load (90kVA), to select substation capacity we use only distribution
losses. Using the table (2.6), If the load is domestic (Secondary Voltage Customers),
the load is multiple by (1.069) which equal (1.069×90) = (96.21kVA) after
transmission losses the capacity of generation equal (96.21×1.001) = (96.306kVA) or
(90×1.07) = (96.306kVA).
2.12 References
1. Nodal Load Estimation for Electric Power Distribution Systems-July 2003
2. Electric load forecasting: literature survey and classi®cation of methods, Hesham
K. Alfares* and Mohammad Nazeeruddin; International Journal of Systems
Science, 2002, volume 33, number 1, pages 23±34 Calculating Total power
requirements for data center- By Richard Sawyer
3. Electrical installed guide according; Dr. Khaled Y. Al-Khalaf Vice Chairman,
Board of Directors and Director General, SASO.
4. Electrical engineering portable handbook; ROBERT B. HICKEY, P.E.Electrical
Engineer, second edition2002.
5. ELECTRIC POWER application, engine& GENERATOR SIZING 2004.
6. Supplier load estimation allocation of losses to suppliers;Scovild;2003
12
Chapter 3
Supply Systems
Chapter 3 supply systems
3.1 Photovoltaic supply system

3.1.1 Introduction
The energy travels from sun to the earth in the form of electromagnetic radiation. At
any given time the amount of solar energy depends upon the weather, location, and
the time of year. The amount of solar energy that can be converted to useable energy
is dependent upon the technology and the application used, where sunlight is directly
converted into electricity via solar cells. PV is a proven technology that is most
appropriate for small-scale applications to provide power to individual houses and
businesses. Solar PV cells are already cost effective for power generation especially
for rural regions. Today, PV systems have an important use in areas remote from an
electricity grid where they provide power for lighting, telecommunications and many
other applications. However, with the global demand to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions, PV technology is also gaining popularity as a mainstream form of
electricity generation. The daylight needed is free, but the cost of equipment can take
many years before receiving any payback.
3.1.2 Solar cells

3.1.2.1 Principle of operation
Two facts are important to understand how solar cells work:
 First, sunlight is composed of photons of various energies.
 Second, photons can interact with atoms, and if a photon has sufficient energy, it
can break the bond between an electron and the atom.
The physics of the PV cell is very similar to the classical p-n junction diode figure
(3.1). When light is absorbed by the junction, the energy of the absorbed photons is
transferred to the electron system of the material, resulting in the creation of charge
carriers that are separated at the junction. The charge carriers may be electron-ion
pairs in a liquid electrolyte or electron hole pairs in a solid semiconducting material.
The charge carriers in the junction region create a potential gradient, get accelerated
under the electric field and circulate as the current through an external circuit. The
current squared times the resistance of the circuit is the power converted into
electricity. The remaining power of the photon elevates the temperature of the cell.
The origin of the photovoltaic potential is the difference in the chemical potential,
called the Fermi level, of the electrons in the two isolated materials.
Figure (3.1) p-n junction of diode
13
When they are joined, the junction approaches a new thermodynamic equilibrium.
Such equilibrium can be achieved only when the Fermi level is equal in the two
materials. This occurs by the flow of electrons from one material to the other until a
voltage difference is established between the two materials which have the potential
just equal to the initial difference of the Fermi level. This potential drives the
photocurrent.
3.1.2.2 Types of solar cells materials

All modern, commercial PV devices use silicon as the base material, mainly as mono-
crystalline or multi-crystalline cells, but more recently also in amorphous form. From
Other materials such as copper indium and cadmium telluride are being developed
with the aim of reducing costs and improving efficiencies.
1) Monocrystalline silicon: This is the most efficient technology to date. The PV is
made from single crystals of silicon. This type of PV is the most expensive. Sliced
from single-crystal of grown silicon, these wafers/cells are now cut as thin as
200 microns. Research cells have reached nearly 28 percent efficiency; with
commercial modules of single-crystal cells exceeding 18 percent.
2) Multicrystalline silicon: Multicrystalline PV involves a cheaper manufacturing
process than monocrystalline silicon with the cells being cut from an ingot of
melted and re-crystallized silicon. Sliced from blocks of cast silicon, these
wafers/cells are both less expensive to manufacture and less efficient than
single-crystal silicon cells. Research cells approach 24-percent efficiency, and
commercial modules approach 16-percent efficiency.
3) Thin film: Various materials are used to make thin film PV, such as amorphous
silicon, Cadmium Telluride and Copper Indium. These are cheaper technologies
with lower efficiencies than for crystalline silicon PV. Amorphous silicon PV in
particular is suited to low cost applications where a high efficiency is not
required.
3.1.2.3 Equivalent Electrical Circuit of PV cell

The complex physics of the PV cell can be represented by the equivalent electrical
circuit shown in figure (3.2). The circuit parameters are as follows.
The output-terminal current I is equal to the light-generated current IL , less the
diode-current ID and the shunt-leakage current Ish. The series resistance Rs
represents the internal resistance to the current flow, and depends on the p-n
junction depth, the impurities and the contact resistance. The shunt resistance R sh is
inversely related with leakage current to the ground. In an ideal PV cell, R s = 0 (no
series loss), and Rsh = ∞ (no leakage to ground). In a typical high quality one square
inch silicon cell, Rs = 0.05 to 0.10 ohm and Rsh = 200 to 300 ohms. The PV conversion
efficiency is sensitive to small variations in Rs, but is insensitive to variations in Rsh. A
small increase in Rs can decrease the PV output significantly. In the equivalent circuit,
14
the current delivered to the external load equals the current I L generated by the
illumination, less the diode current ID and the ground-shunt current Ish. [7]
The open circuit voltage Voc of the cell is obtained when the load current is zero, i.e.,
when I = 0, and is given by the following equation:
Voc = V+IRs (3-1)
IL Rs
I
 Id Ish
Rsh V
Figure (3.2) Equivalent electrical circuit of PV module
Equivalent electrical circuit of PV module, showing the diode and ground leakage
currents, the diode current is given by the classical diode current expression:
  AQKVocT  
I d  I D e  
 1 (3-2)
 
Where:
ID is the saturation current of the diode
Q is the electron charge = 1.6 · 10–19 Coulombs
A is the curve fitting constant
K is Boltzmann constant = 1.38 · 10–23 Joule/Ko
T is the temperature on absolute scale Ko
The load current is therefore given by the expression:
  QVoc   V
I  I L  I D e A K T   1  oc (3-3)
  Rsh
Ish is the ground-leakage current, in practical cells is small compared to IL and ID, and
can be ignored. The diode-saturation current can, therefore, be determined
experimentally by applying voltage Voc in the dark and measuring the current going
into the cell or exit in manufactures data. This current is often called the dark current
or the reverse diode-saturation current.[5]
Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Current:
The two most important parameters widely used for describing the cell electrical
performance is the open-circuit voltage Voc and the short circuit current Isc. The
short-circuit current is measured by shorting the output terminals, and measuring
15
the terminal current under full illumination. Ignoring the small diode and the ground-
leakage currents under zero-terminal voltage, the short-circuit current under this
condition is the photocurrent IL. The maximum photo voltage is produced under the
open-circuit voltage. Again, by ignoring the ground-leakage current, equation (3-3)
with I = 0 gives the open-circuit voltage as the following:
A K T  IL 
Voc  Log n 
I  1
 (3-4)
Q  D 
The constant (K×T/Q) is the absolute temperature expressed in voltage (300K o =
0.026 volt).
3.1.2.4 (I-V) Curve

The electrical characteristic of the PV cell is generally represented by the current
versus voltage (I-V) curve. Figure (3.3) shows the (I-V) characteristic of a PV module
under two conditions, in sunlight and in dark. In the first quadrant, the top left of the
(I-V) curve at zero voltage is called the short-circuit current.
Figure (3.3) Current versus voltage (I-V) characteristics of the PV module in sunlight
and in dark [3]
This is the current we would measure with the output terminals shorted (zero voltage).
The bottom right of the curve at zero current is called the open-circuit voltage. This is
the voltage we would measure with the output terminals open (zero current). In the
left shaded region, the cell works like a constant current source, generating voltage to
match with the load resistance. In the shaded region on the right, the current drops
rapidly with a small rise in voltage. In this region, the cell works like a constant
voltage source with an internal resistance. Somewhere in the middle of the two shaded
regions, the curve has a knee point. If the voltage is externally applied in the reverse
direction, say during a system fault transient, the current remains flat and the power is
absorbed by the cell. However, beyond a certain negative voltage, the junction breaks
down as in a diode and the current rises to a high value. In the dark, the current is zero
for voltage up to the breakdown voltage which is the same as in the illuminated
condition. [3]
3.1.3 Module
The solar cell described above is the basic building block of the PV power system.
Typically, it is a few square inches in size and produces little over 0.4 Vdc in bright
16
sunshine and about one watt of power. For obtaining higher voltages and high
power, numerous such cells are connected in series and parallel circuits on a panel
(module) area of several square feet. The actual construction parts of a module are:
1) Frame 2) Weatherproof junction box

3) Rating plate 4) Weather protection for 30-year life
5) PV cell 6) Tempered high transmissivity
7) Outside electrical bus 8) Frame clearance
9) Coverglass
Peak Watt (Wp): PV modules are rated by their total power output, or peak Watts. A
peak Watt is the amount of power output a PV module produces at Standard Test
Conditions (STC) of a module operating temperature of 25°C in full noontime
sunshine (irradiance) of 1,000 Watts per square meter.
Bypass Diode
A diode connected across one or more solar cells in a photovoltaic module such that
the diode will conduct if the cell(s) become reverse biased. It protects these solar cells
from thermal destruction in case of total or partial shading of individual solar cells
while other cells are exposed to full light.
De-rating module Performance
There are various factors effects solar modules performance thus reducing its
efficiency and they are:
 Manufacturers Output Tolerance(  Man ): The output of a PV module is specified
in watts, with a manufacturing tolerance of (normally) ±5% and is based on a
temperature of 25°C for example the adjusted output of a typical 80W PV
module is : Module power = 80 × 0.95 (← minus 5%) = 76W
 Derating Due to Dirt (  Dirt ): the output of a PV module can be reduced as a

result of a buildup of dirt on the surface of the Module and the actual value of
this de-rating will be dependent on the actual location but in some city Locations
this could be high due to the amount of pollution in the air. The commonly value
for this de-rating is about 5% and it is an acceptable de-rating so the de-rating
factor value is 95%. According to the last example the adjusted power is:
Module power = 76 × 0.95 = 72.2W.
 Derating Due to Temperature: With increasing temperature, the short-circuit

current of the cell increases, whereas the open-circuit voltage decreases the
effect of temperature on the power is quantitatively evaluated by examining the
effects on the current and the voltage separately. Say Io and Vo are the short
circuit current and the open-circuit voltage at the reference temperature T, and α
and β are their respective temperature coefficients. If the operating temperature is
increased by ∆Τ, then the new current and voltage are given by the following:
17
I sc  I ( 1  α  ΔT) (3-5)
And Voc  V( 1  β  ΔT) (3-6)

Since the operating current and the voltage change approximately in the same
proportion as the short circuit current and open-circuit voltage, respectively, the new
power is as follows:
P  Voc  I sc  I ( 1  α  ΔT)  V( 1  β  ΔT) (3-7)
This can be simplified in the following expression by ignoring a small term:
P  Po   1  (α  β)  ΔT  (3-8)
The three different solar modules available on the market each have different
temperature Coefficients these are:
1) Monocrystalline Modules: Monocrystalline Modules typically have temperature
coefficient (0.45% /Co). That is, for every degree above 25Co the output power is
derated by 0.45%
2) Multicrystalline Modules: Polycrystalline Modules typically have temperature
coefficient (0.5% /Co).
3) Thin Film Modules: Consult the manufacturer’s data.
The de-rating of the array due to temperature will be dependent on the type of module
installed and the average ambient maximum temperature for the location.
The temperature de-rating factor is calculated as follows:
F Temp  1    T (3-9)
Where:
FTemp = temperature de-rating factor, (dimensionless).
    (3-10)
Power temperature coefficient per degree Celsius (see above)
T  T Cell.eff  T Stc  Ta.day (3-11)
Tcell.eff =Ta.day+25 (3-12)

Where:
Tcell.eff : is the average daily cell temperature, (in Co).
Ta.day: daytime average ambient temperature, (in Co).
Tstc: cell temperature at standard test conditions is (25C o).
For the previous worked example, assume the average varying in ambient temperature
is 25 Co and the module is Multicrystalline and Power the temperature coefficient (δ)
is (–0.5%/ Co) therefore the effective derating factor due to temperature is:
1 + (50 – 25) × - 0.5%/Co = 1 - 12.5% = 0.875
So the adjusted power is
Module power = 72.2 × 0.875 = 63.2W [2]
18
3.1.4 Array
The solar array or panel is defined as a group of several modules electrically
connected in series-parallel combinations to generate the required current and voltage.
3.1.4.1 Array design

The major factors influencing the electrical design of the solar array are as follows:
 Tilt angle: A solar module is always mounted at certain angle of tilt from
horizontal. The tilt angle should be 15 o or more to ensure that rain water drains
off easily, washing dust away with it. The best tilt angle for any PV array is the
one that produces the highest annual energy output for that particular location.
The primary reference point is the latitude but other factors are involved as
well. The arc of the sun varies with time of year so, typically, the shallow tilt
angles produce more energy in the summer months while the steeper angles
produce more energy in the winter months. The best, fixed angle is the
compromise between the extremes that allows for the greatest delivered energy
on an annualized basis.
 Array Shading or soiling: When selecting the roof area for the
photovoltaic array, efforts should always be made to avoid shading or areas
known for accumulation of substances that will result in cell shading (soiling).
Any material or object that reduces the amount of solar energy that falls on the
PV panel will cause a reduction in energy output of that panel. However, due to
the design of the individual solar panels, a small amount of soiling or shading
can cause a huge decrease in panel capacity.
 The sun intensity: figure (3.4) shows (I-V) curves for one module at irradiances
of 100, 500, and 1000 W/m2. As the irradiance increases, the current at 16 V also
increases because the I-V curves cross the 16 V line at higher positions.
The (I-V) curve at 1000 W/m2 is for the module that faces the sun directly.
1000 W/m2
1.0
0.8
Current (A)
0.6
500 W/m2
0.4
0.2
100 W/m2
0 4 8 12 16 20
Voltage (V)
19
Figure (3.4) the effect that light intensity has on the I-V curve for a module [3]
Therefore the current from a module fixed in one position varies through the day;
even when the weather is clear with no clouds. The charging current rises during
the morning, reaches its highest level at midday, and then fall during the
afternoon. Most charging of a battery happens over a few hours in the middle of
the day.
To extend the period of charging, the angle of module can be changed during the
day so that it faces the sun more closely for longer. Changing the angle is called
tracking.
When the sun is covered by clouds, light still reaches the ground and some
current is generated by the module. With a thin layer of clouds, the irradiance
reaching the module from all part of the sky might be as much as 300 W/m2.
With thicker cloud cover, the irradiance could be reduced to100 W/m2 or less.
The (I-V) for 100 W/m2 in figure (3.4) is very low. This shows that with thick
cloud cover, the current at 16 V is almost zero and there is very little charging.
 Module mismatch and wiring losses: The maximum power output of the total
PV array is always less than the sum of the maximum output of the individual
modules. This difference is a result of slight inconsistencies in performance from
one module to the next and is called module mismatch and amounts to at least a
2% loss in system power. Power is also lost to resistance in the system wiring.
These losses should be kept to a minimum but it is difficult to keep these losses
below 3% for the system. A reasonable reduction factor for these losses is 95%.
 The operating temperature: This factor as mentioned above in module performance.
 Effect of Climate: On a partly cloudy day, the PV module can produce up to 80
percent of their full sun power. Even on an extremely overcast day, it can
produce about 30 percent power. Snow does not usually collect on the modules,
because they are angled to catch the sun. If snow does collect, it quickly melts
mechanically.[1]
3.1.4.2 Final array configuration

The actual array configuration will be dependent on the inverter chosen. The
different inverters available on the market do not have a common string
configuration. Some allow a set number of modules in a string, while others allow a
range in the number of modules in the string (parallel strings). It is important to
obtain from the manufacturer the operating voltage input of the inverter. After
selecting the number of modules in the string ensures that minimum Vmp and the
maximum Voc expected do not fall outside this range.
calculate the final array configuration by using the following formulas:
E PV
P PV  (3-13)
H K1  K 2

Where K1   Man  F Temp   Dirt (3-14)
20
K 2   inv  loss  cc (3-15)
Where ηMan, FTemp, and ηDirt are mentioned above and

Where ηInv is the inverter efficiency, ηcc is charger controller (Regulator) efficiency
and ηloss is the losses factor due to the losses in the connections lines (between panels,
batteries and inverters and the losses of distribution lines).
And for calculate the modules per string we use the following formula:
V Bb
N MS  (3-16)
V MP
Where VBb: Battery bus (string) voltage
The total number of modules by using the following formula:
PPV N
NM  , N MP  M (3-17)
PMax N MS
If we have gotten non integer number we round it to integer number and calculate
again the new value of the modules we have to purchase them after that we calculate
the exact new array size by using the following formulas:
N MN  N MS  N MP
Nominal rated array output = N MN  PMax (3-18)
3.1.5 Photovoltaic (PV) orientation designs

 Fixed flat panel PV: The simplest configuration for a PV system is a fixed
position flat panel module. A fixed flat panel system has no moving parts and
offers the solution with the least cost of the PV options. Its output will however
be less per module than the PV systems that track the sun.
 Tracking flat panel PV: A tracking array can move on one or two axes in order to
follow the sun and capture the greatest amount of solar radiation possible.
 Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV): In order to
reduce the net cost of the expensive PV cells, mirrors or lenses can be used to
focus energy onto a smaller area of PV material. Due to the high solar
concentration, this system generates waste heat that must be dissipated.
3.1.6 Solar PV Systems

Solar Electric (or Solar PV) systems convert sunlight to electricity. The systems
consist of modules - or solar panels - inverter, charger and batteries. The PV modules
generate DC electricity and send it to the inverter; the inverter transforms DC power
into AC electricity and regulates the charge of batteries. The batteries store electricity
that can be used at night or during blackouts. The Main components of PV System
include the following:
21
3.1.6.1 Modules and arrays

The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired
voltage; the individual strings are then connected in parallel to allow the system to
produce more current.
3.1.6.2 DC combiner box

It is an essential part of most solar electric systems and it is an electrical enclosure
which allows multiple series strings of solar panels to be combined in parallel. For
example, if you want to wire together two 12 Volt panels for your 12 Volt system,
you will wire each panel’s output directly to terminals inside the combiner box. From
the combiner box you can then run just one positive and one negative wire (in
appropriate conduit) to the next system component (the charge controller).The
combiner box will also house series string fuses or circuit breakers.
3.1.6.3 Charge Controller

Charge controller in any solar system is used to charge batteries from Solar Panels.
Some Solar panels normal give 15-17 volt, charge controller converts that to 12-14
volt and charges battery. Charge controller prevents batteries to be over charged.
And stops to charge when battery is fully charged. Proper Charging will prevent
damage and increase the life and performance of the batteries.
The efficiency of the charge controller is in the range of (85% - 95%) or more.
3.1.6.4 Power Inverter

The Power Inverter is the heart of the system which converts the DC power from
batteries to AC power. It can also charge the batteries if connected to a generator or
the AC line. Dc to Ac inverter’s efficiency ranges from 80 to 95 %.The inverter is also
consisting of transformer to step up the voltage from batteries voltage to the load
voltage.
Selection of the inverter
When selecting an inverter, clarify how the inverter is rated with the manufacturer. This will
ensure that you choose the correct size inverter for the array. Also ensure that the associated
circuit breakers and switches that are installed on the input or output of the inverter are rated
correctly.
The selection of the inverter for the installation will depend on
 The energy output of the array
 The potential for an increase in the size of the array in the future
 Whether the system will have one central inverter or multiple smaller inverters
Selection of the arrangement of inverter
The inverters may be central inverter or multiple inverters so there are advantages and
disadvantages for each arrangement, the advantages of multiple inverters compared
with central inverter:
 If the array is spread over a number of roofs that have different orientations and
tilt angles then the maximum power points and output currents will vary from
22
roof to roof. If economic, installing a separate inverter for each section of the
array which has the same orientation and angle will maximize the output the
total array.
 Multiple inverters allow a portion of the system to continue to operate if one
inverter fails.
 Allows the system to be modular, so that increasing the system involves the
adding a predetermined number of modules with one inverter (allowing the
system to growth). The unique disadvantage of multiple inverters is that in
general, the cost of a number of inverters with lower power ratings is generally
more expensive then one single inverter with a higher power rating.
3.1.6.5 Batteries
One of the main components in PV system is the energy storage facility. The need for
storage arises when electricity is required during night time and on cloudy days. the
basic element for electrical energy storage in the PV system is the battery. The types
and characteristics of batteries that can be used will be discussed below. Most
professional photovoltaic system incorporates stationary application lead-acid
batteries (sealed battery construction).
There are many Types of Batteries:
a) Nickel-Cadmium
b) Lithium-Ion
c) Lead-acid
Lead-acid battery
There are two main types of lead acid batteries. The first type is the flooded/wet cell battery.
The second type of lead acid battery is the Value Regulated Lead Acid battery
(VRLA). This designation stands for maintenance-free lead-acid batteries. Two types
of VRLA batteries are the Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) and Gel cell batteries. The gel
cell batteries are considered the most commonly used type.
A gel battery is another type of VRLA battery with a jellified electrolyte. Unlike a
traditional wet-cell lead-acid battery, these batteries do not need to be kept upright. In
addition, gel batteries virtually eliminate the electrolyte evaporation, spillage common
to the wet-cell battery, and boast greater resistance to extreme temperatures, shock,
and vibration. As a result, they are primarily used in automobiles, boats, aircraft, and
other motorized vehicles. These batteries are often referred to as sealed lead-acid
(SLA) batteries due to their non-leaking containers; chemically they are the same as
wet batteries except the lead plates are replaced by calcium. This preserves the
mechanical characteristics but helps ensure that gas does not escape from the battery.
The sealed battery construction despite its high cost is now becoming more widely
used especially in PV system due to the advantages of low maintenance as it requires
no replenishment of electrolyte. It is easier to install as the stationary electrolyte
eliminates the possibility of acid leakage and has high efficiency. [10]
The Battery Bank
23
The basic building block of a lead-acid battery is a 2-volt cell. A battery bank is a
collection of connected 2, 6, or 12-volt batteries that supply power to the load in case
of outages or low production from renewable energy sources. The batteries are wired
together in series to produce 12, 24, or 48-volt strings. These strings are then
connected together in parallel to make up the entire battery bank. The battery bank
supplies DC power to an inverter, which produces AC power that can be used to run
appliances. The decision to select a 12, 24, or 48-volt battery bank will be determined
by the inverter‘s input, the type of battery you select, and the amount of energy
storage you require.
Size of batteries
To determine the number of batteries you need, you must first determine how much
energy storage you need in kilowatt-hours (kWh). If you are connected to the utility
grid, you can use your monthly utility bill to calculate past energy usage for your
household. A second way to determine your required kWh of energy storage is to
multiply the wattage of your appliances by the number of hours you use them in a
day.
Power for batteries that have to be stored in them for whether conditions:
EB  number of cloudy days  Eload (3-19)
The capacity of battery can be calculated using the following equation:
E B (Wh/days)
C Ah  (3-20)
V Bb   CC   B  DOD
And the number of required batteries can be calculated using the following equations:
C Ah
N BP  (3-21)
B Ah
V Bb
N BS  (3-22)
VB
N B  N BS  N BP (3-23)
Batteries items
 The maximum depth of discharge (DOD): refers to the lowest point to which the
battery can be discharged before having to be recharged; where DOD often
ranges from 20 to 80 %.
 Days of autonomy (DOA): the number of days of those batteries will supply the
loads instead of PV in cloudy days and this may be safely taken to be 2 to 3 days
per week this depends on where the system is to be located especially in remote
areas.
 Self discharge: it is a process that occurs in every battery and is the gradual loss
of available energy even when the battery is not connected to a load. The self
discharge may be irreversible (i.e. the capacity of the battery cannot be
recovered) or reversible (i.e. when it is recharged the battery will have the same
24
energy as before). A lead-acid battery typically has a self discharge of 2 – 30%

per month at 30°C depending on the battery type.
 Long lifetime: The battery should have the longest life possible, because
replacement is an expensive business, especially if the installation is in a remote
location. For example Lead-acid batteries may have a shelf life of up to 20 years
under ideal conditions. However, life in a solar installation is far from ideal.
Lead-acid batteries live longest if they are not allowed to discharge too much
and are occasionally fully recharged. In a solar application the batteries often
stay at relatively low states-of-charge during the winter months, when there is
insufficient sun to recharge them and simultaneously supply the load. This can
enormously reduce the life of a lead-acid battery as large; the lifetimes of lead-
acid batteries are also rated at 20Co or 25Co. However, for every 10Co rise in
temperature the lifetime of the battery is roughly halved. Therefore, a battery
rated for 16 years life at 20Co, would have only 4 years life at 40Co This serious
problem is sometimes combated by fitting air-conditioning units to the battery
containment in warmer regions. However, cooling the air requires energy and
this necessitates a larger overall system, with the associated costs. [10]
Grid corrosion is a problem affecting lead-acid batteries, where the lead or lead-alloy
frames that hold the electrode material can be gradually corroded away, causing the
resistance of the electrode to increase (and hence the performance of the battery to
decrease), until it fails altogether. In practice lead-acid batteries in solar installations
can have widely varying lifetimes (2 – 5) years, but is not uncommon.
3.1.4.3 Wires & Cables

To prevent dangerous overheating or inefficient transfer of power, the wires and
cables in a solar power system must be correctly sized. This tutorial provides a
convenient chart to determine wire size based on solar panel power output and the
distance between the solar panels and the batteries. For safety and good
performance of your solar power system you will have to use the appropriate size
wires when connecting the components of your system.
Selection of System DC voltage
The factors that impact the selection of the system voltage are primarily the input
DC voltage range for the inverter, and the desire to minimize wiring losses by
keeping the system voltages as high as is practical (IEC). Most of the grid-tied PV
systems designed today use nominal DC voltages of 300 to 500VDC.
Selecting the size of the cables
Voltage drop: To ensure that the appliances operate properly the drop in voltage
between the supply and any point in an installation should not exceed a certain
percentage of the supply voltage.
For the wiring of the main systems many countries have regulation values for the
maximum voltage drop as an example, regulation by the IEE in the United Kingdom
25
state that the voltage drop should not exceed 2.5% of the nominal voltage when the
conductors are carrying the full load current. The 2.5% limit is 6v in a mains voltage
of 240v. For solar systems the voltage drop is not set by any statutory regulations but
depends on the operating range of the battery supply and the appliances. Considering
the variation in voltage of the supply, lead acid batteries with nominal voltage of 12v
actually supply between 11.5 and 12.5v depending on the state of charge and how
much current is being drawn. The upper limit rises to 15v when they are being charge
during the day. The maximum acceptable voltage drop a long a cable is the difference
between the minimum supply voltage and the minimum voltage that appliances need.
But in order to ensure high reliability and effective operation of all appliances the
voltage drop that should be used is 5% which corresponds to 0.6v for 12v systems and
1.2v for 24v systems and it is considered the international standard.
Cable size from solar modules to batteries: the cable carrying the charging current
from the solar modules to the batteries must also be selected according to voltage drop
that has to be kept to 5%.
For one module, the short circuit current under STC (Standard Testing Conditions)
should be used for the maximum current in the below formula. When there is an array
of modules with a single cable leading to the batteries the short circuit current of each
module is combined using the following formula:
I max  N pv  I S.C.pv (3-24)
And the cross section area is calculated by the following formula:
I max  L cable  0.03

A Cable  (3-25)
Vd
Three core cables can be used with two wires for the negative conductor and one for
the positive conductor as long as the three wires are the same size, the size can be
calculated by the last formula with 0.04 replaced.[8]
3.1.4.4 Control unit

some type of control unit is necessary for all solar electric systems .functions of the control
unit include switching the loads either manually or automatically ,protection of batteries and
wiring ,monitoring the performance of the system ,and giving warnings when something is
not working properly.
3.1.7 Protection
3.1.7.1 Overcurrent Protection of PV Systems
Fuses and a circuit breaker are used to provide protection for the PV modules, charge
controller, inverter, batteries and appliances against system faults. Fuse sizes are
usually determined on the basis of fault currents which exceed rated currents by (20 –
56%). Necessary fuses or circuit breakers must be properly sized and specified for
each circuit. The IEC standard defines the maximum circuit current as 125% of the
short-circuit current of the PV module (Isc). The conductors and the over current
protective device are then sized at 125% of the maximum circuit current. [5]
Selecting Fuse Links for PV String Protection
26
Depending on the desired capacity of the PV system, there may be several PV strings
connected in parallel to achieve higher currents and subsequently more power.
Procedures of selecting of string fuse:
1. Define solar panel specifications: Ipm , Isc, max system voltage
2. Define conductor/fuse size per string 1.25 × Isc = I conductor/fuse rating
withstand.
3. Define number of parallel solar panels/strings N = parallel panels/string.
4. PV String Fuse In= 1.25 × Isc select equal to or next higher standard fuse rating
PV String Fuse Vn => max system voltage
Battery over current protection
It must have a sufficient voltage and ampere-interrupt rating (AIR) to withstand the
operating conditions of the battery system.
Inverter Output Circuit over current protection
It should be sized and protected according the manufacturer's directions. The circuit
and corresponding over current protection should be sized at a 125% of the maximum
continuous output of the inverter [Over current for Feeder Circuits].
3.1.7.2 Grounding and lightening protection

Lightning and related static discharge is the number one cause of sudden, unexpected
failures in PV systems. Lightning does not have to strike directly to cause damage to
sensitive electronic equipment, such as inverters, controls, radios and entertainment
equipment. It can be miles away and invisible, and still induce high voltage surges in
wiring, especially in long lines. Fortunately, almost all cases of lightning damage can
be prevented by proper system grounding.
Grounding: it means connecting part of your system structure and/or wiring
electrically to the earth. During lightning storms, the clouds build up a static electric
charge. This causes accumulation of the opposite charge in objects on the ground.
Objects that are insulated from the earth tend to accumulate the charge more strongly
than the surrounding earth. If the potential difference (voltage) between sky and the
object is great enough, lightning will jump the gap.
Grounding your system does four things:
1. It drains off accumulated charges so that lightning is not highly attracted to your
system.
2. If lightning does strike, or if a high charge does build up, your ground connection
provides a safe path for discharge directly to the earth rather than through your
wiring.
3. It reduces shock hazard from the higher voltage (AC) parts of your system.
4. Reduces electrical hum and radio caused by inverters, motors, fluorescent lights
and other devices.
Ground system connecting: ground the metallic framework of your PV array (If your
framework is wood, metallically bond the module frames together, and wire to
ground) and ground the negative side of your power system.
27
PV array wiring should be done with minimum lengths of wire, tucked into the metal
framework, then run through metal conduit. Positive and negative wires should be
run together wherever possible, rather than being some distance apart. This will
minimize induction of lightning surges. Bury long outdoor wire runs instead of
running them overhead. Place them in grounded metal conduit if you feel you need
maximum protection.
Surge protection devices bypass the high voltages induced by lightning. They are
recommended for additional protection in lightning-prone areas or where good
grounding is not feasible (such as on a dry rocky mountain top), where Surge
protectors must be special for low voltage systems.
3.1.8 System situation

3.1.8.1 Stand-Alone System
Off-grid stand alone systems operate independent of the electrical grid.
Solar array
Charger Power
Controller inverter
Load
Batteries
Busbar
Figure (3.5) stand alone system
3.1.8.2 Grid-Connected System

Photovoltaic power systems have made a successful transition from small stand-alone
sites to large grid-connected systems. The utility interconnection brings a new
dimension in the renewable power economy by pooling the temporal excess or the
shortfall in the renewable power with the connecting grid. This improves the overall
economy and the load availability of the renewable plant; the two important factors of
any power system. The grid supplies power to the site loads when needed, or absorbs
the excess power from the site when available. Figure (3.6) is a typical circuit diagram
of the grid-connected photovoltaic power system.
Grid-Tie Solar Systems (GTS)
A valuable feature of grid-tie or grid-connected photovoltaic systems is the ability to
connect with the existing power grid and sell excessive electricity back to the utility
28
with a plan known as Net Metering. At times when you are not using all of the
electricity produced by your system, your meter will spin backwards selling the
electricity back to the grid at retail rate. These systems do not include a battery. Power
is obtained from the utility grid when the system is not producing electricity.
Figure (3.6) grid-Tie solar system
Grid-Tie Systems with Battery Backup (GTB)

Grid-Tie Solar Electric Systems with Battery Backup have all the features of the Grid-
Tie Systems with the addition of a Battery. The battery can store power for use when
the system is not producing electricity such as during the night or during blackouts.
Solar array
Grid
Charger Power
Controller inverter
Load
Batteries
Busbar
Figure (3.7) grid-Tie system with battery backup
3.1.9 Reliability
29
Modern solar electric systems have been shown to be very reliable. With no moving
parts, the reliability depend on warranties of key components and some others factors
that affect the operation of these components.
Most solar photovoltaic modules have warranties of 25 years and there are various
factors effects solar modules performance and reduce its efficiency, they previously
mentioned in de-rating module performance in section (3.1.3). Modern inverters also
have minimum warranties of 5 years with some manufacturers increasingly offering
10 year warranties. Realistically, there will be some solar modules that fail "out of the
box", but these are spotted immediately by the installer. Some inverters have also
failed quickly, but are also quickly replaced. And the whole Solar photovoltaic
systems are given service lifetimes between 30-50 years.
The reliability of the PV system is also determined by the design of arrays, inverters
and the batteries. For more reliability the arrays are divided into various arrays where
if one of the existing arrays has a failure however the remaining arrays continue
supplying the load without any barriers and the same thing has done for the inverters
as mentioned in section (3.1.6.3) and the batteries, But we can‘t forget the high cost
for this design but it is necessary for more reliable so the PV system is considered
from the most reliable systems.
3.1.10 Environmental impact

Solar energy is free, and its supplies are unlimited. Using solar energy produces no
air or water pollution but does have some indirect impacts on the environment. For
example, manufacturing the photovoltaic cells used to convert sunlight into
electricity consumes silicon and produces some waste products.
3.1.11 Maintenance
A solar electric system requires a regular maintenance to ensure proper operation and
the full life of the components.[9]
3.1.11.1 Solar cell modules

Monthly maintenance
 Clean the front of the module
 Check for shadowing of the modules.
3.1.11.2 Batteries
Daily
 Check that the charging indicator is on when it is sunny
 Check the state of charge from state-of-charge meter.
Weekly
If the state of charge is less than 50% for more than two weeks, a decision must be
taken on how to relive the batteries, either reduce daily use of electricity by a half
so that the batteries gradually charge up each day, or take the batteries for charging
elsewhere; Battery removed from system
- Take for charging to full capacity
30
- Recharge every six months while in storage
3.1.11.3 Changing and adding parts to the system

Parts may need to be replaced or added for the following reasons:
 Replace faulty or old parts.
 Correcting for under sizing.
 Expanding the system.
A good guide to under sizing of a system is the condition of the batteries as recorded
over several months. If the batteries often reach a low state of charge but only the
short periods each time, the total capacity of the battery bank should be increased.
This done by adding batteries to the battery bank in parallel. If the batteries are
frequently at a low state of charge, more modules should be added in parallel to the
solar array. Check the voltage rating of appliances and control units before
connecting. When expanding a system, check than the control unit has sufficient current
capacity for both charging and switching the circuit when the appliances are all on.
3.1.12 Field applications

P.V. is used as a power source for different purposes: Telecom, TV transmission,
water pumping, electrification of rural houses and some other, e.g. clinics, schools,
boarding house . . . etc.
 Telecommunication Transmission.
This was one of the early important markets for PV technologies, and continues
to be an important market. Isolated mountaintops and other rural areas are
ideal for stand-alone PV systems where maintenance and power accessibility
makes PV the ideal technology.
 Television Transmission also uses in many of transmission stations located at the
tops of mountains PV as a power source.
 Pumping water is one of the most competitive arenas for PV power since it is
simple, reliable, and requires almost no maintenance. Agricultural watering
needs are usually greatest during sunnier periods when more water can be
pumped with a solar system. PV powered pumping systems are excellent for
small to medium scale pumping needs (e.g., livestock tanks) and rarely exceed
applications requiring more than a 2 hp motor.
 PV for Domestic Application in Rural areas this area of application is the most
promising and important one.
3.1.13 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
In spite of its cost versus other sources of energy, solar power is attracting interest
due to the following:
 Solar energy makes use of a renewable natural resource that is readily available
in many parts of the world.
31
 The process used to generate solar energy is emission-free.

 Technological advances have reduced costs to a point that it can compete with
fossil fuel alternatives in specific circumstances.
 The technology is scalable in that it can be used for domestic heating purposes
or on a larger scale for commercial electricity generation, as solar water heaters
are an established technology, widely available and simple to install and
maintain.
Disadvantages
 The biggest barriers to increasing solar power generation are the cost, the
amount of land required for large-scale electricity production, and the
intermittent nature of the energy source.
 In terms of the latter, thermal systems do not work at night or in inclement
weather. Storage of hot water for domestic or commercial use is simple,
needing only insulated tanks, but storage of the higher-temperature liquids
needed to generate electricity on a large scale or storage of the electricity itself
requires further technological development.
32
3.2 Wind Energy

3.2.1 Introduction
Wind energy, like most terrestrial energy sources, comes from solar energy. Solar
radiation emitted by the sun travels through space and strikes the Earth, causing
regions of unequal heating over land masses and oceans. This unequal heating
produces regions of high and low pressure, creating pressure gradients between these
regions. The second law of thermodynamics requires that these gradients be
minimized--nature seeks the lowest energy state in order to maximize entropy. This is
accomplished by the movement of air from regions of high pressure to regions of low
pressure, what we know as wind. Large-scale winds are caused by the fact that the
earth's surface is heated to a greater degree at the equator than at the poles.
Prevailing winds combine with local factors, such as the presence of hills, mountains,
trees, buildings and bodies of water, to determine the particular characteristics of the
wind in a specific location. Because air has mass, moving air in the form of wind
carries with it kinetic energy. A wind turbine converts this kinetic energy into
electricity. The energy content of a particular volume of wind is proportional to the
square of its velocity. Thus, a doubling of the speed with which this volume of air
passes through a wind turbine will result in roughly a fourfold increase in power that
can be extracted from this air. In addition, this doubling of wind speed will allow
twice the volume of air to pass through the turbine in a given amount of time,
resulting in an eightfold increase in power generated. This means that only a slight
increase in wind velocity can yield significant gains in power production.
3.2.2 Wind Turbines

A wind turbine is a mechanical assembly that converts the energy of wind into
electricity. The three key elements of any wind turbine are the rotor, the nacelle -
which contains the gearbox, the generator and control and monitoring equipment (see
Figure (3.8) and the tower (details below). For a horizontal axis wind turbine, the
amount of power Pt that a turbine is capable of producing is given by
Pt  0.5  CP    A  V 3 (3-26)
33
Where  is the air density (1.225 kg/m3), A is the swept area of the turbine and V
is the wind velocity, The Cp parameter is called the power coefficient It has a
theoretical maximum value of 0.593 (the Betz limit) and rather lower peak values are
achieved in practice and is dependent on the ratio between the linear velocity of
the blade tip (r  t ) and the wind velocity (V ) . This ratio, known as the tip-speed
ratio, is defined as
(r  Wt )
 (3-27)
V
Where 'r' is the radius of the turbine. [1]
3.2.2.1 Main Components of Wind Turbine

The wind turbine consists of Rotor, Generator, Transmission, towers and tip speed
ratio; these components are shown in the figure (3.8) below.
Gear-box
transmission
Main shaft Brake Generator

Rotor
High-speed
Housing shaft
Blades Tower
Figure (3.8) Main Components of Wind Turbine
Rotor
The portion of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called the rotor.
The rotor usually consists of two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which
rotate about an axis at a rate determined by the wind speed and the shape of the
blades. The blades are attached to the hub, which in turn is attached to the main shaft.
The rotor is converting the wind energy to mechanical energy.
Drag Design: Blade designs operate on either the principle of drag or lift. For the
drag design, the wind literally pushes the blades out of the way. Drag powered wind
34
turbines are characterized by slower rotational speeds and high torque capabilities.
They are useful for the pumping, or grinding work, For example, a farm-type
windmill must develop high torque at start-up in order to lift water from a deep well.
Lift Design: The lift blade design employs the same principle that enables airplanes,
and birds to fly. The blade is essentially an airfoil, or wing. When air flows past the
blade, a wind speed and pressure differential is created between the upper and
lower blade surfaces. The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to
"lift" the blade. When blades are attached to a central axis, like a wind turbine rotor,
the lift is translated into rotational motion. Lift-powered wind turbines have much
higher rotational speeds than drag types and therefore well suited for electricity
generation.
Generators
The generator is what converts the mechanical energy of a wind turbine's blades into
electricity. The generator's rating, or size, is dependent on the length of the wind
turbine's blades because more energy is captured by longer blades. An important
step for installation of wind energy system is to select the turbine rating, the
generator, and the distribution system. In general, the output characteristics of the
wind turbine power do not follow exactly those of the generator power; so they
have to be matched in the most reasonable way possible. Based on the maximum
speed expected for the turbine and taking into account the cubic relationship
between the wind speed and the generated power, the designer must select the
generator and the gearbox so as to match these limits. The most sensitive point here
is the correct selection of the rated speed for the generator. If it is too low, the high
speed of the primary source wind will be wasted; if it is too high, the power factor
will be harmed. The characteristics of the commercially available turbines and
generators must be matched to the requirements of the project with regard to cost,
efficiency, and maximum generated power in an iterative design process. Several
types of generators can be coupled to the rotating wind power turbines: dc and ac
types, parallel and compound dc generators, with permanent magnets or electrical
field excitation, synchronous or non-synchronous, and, especially, induction
generators. The dc machines are not usually employed because of their high cost,
bulky size, and maintenance needs. The right choice of generator depends on a wide
range of factors related to the primary source, the type of load, and the speed of the
turbine. Besides, systems differ with respect to their applications, whether they are
stand-alone or connected to the grid or batteries, their degree of interrupt ability,
and the quality and cost of their output. Because of the way it works as a motor or
generator, the possibility of variable speed operation, and its low cost compared to
other generators. [2]
35
The induction machine offers advantages for rotating power plants, like the wind
power, in both standalone and interconnected applications, Because they are widely
and commercially available and very inexpensive. It is also very easy to operate them
in parallel with large power systems, because the utility grid controls voltage and
frequency while static and reactive compensating capacitors can be used for
correction of the power factor and harmonic reduction. Although the induction
generator is mostly suitable for hydro and wind power plants, it can be efficiently
used with prime movers driven by diesel, biogas, natural gas, gasoline and alcohol
motors. Induction generators have outstanding operation as either motor or
generator; they have very robust construction features, providing natural protection
against short-circuits, and have the lowest cost with respect to other generators.
Abrupt speed changes due to load or primary source changes, as usually expected in
small power plants, are easily absorbed by its solid rotor, and any current surge is
damped by the magnetization path of its iron core without fear of demagnetization,
as opposed to permanent magnet based generators. [4]
Transmission
The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) of a wind turbine rotor can range
between 40 rpm and 400 rpm, depending on the model and the wind speed.
Generators typically require rpm's of 1,200 to 1,800. As a result, most wind turbines
require a gear-box transmission to increase the rotation of the generator to the
speeds necessary for efficient electricity production.[3]
Towers
The tower on which a wind turbine is mounted is not just a support structure; it also
raises the wind turbine so that its blades safely clear the ground and so it can reach
the stronger winds at higher elevations. Larger wind turbines are usually mounted
on towers ranging from 40 to70 meters tall. [3]
Tip Speed Ratio
The tip-speed is the ratio of the rotational speed of the blade to the wind speed. The larger this
ratio, the faster the rotation of the wind turbine rotor at a given wind speed. [3]
3.2.2.2 Turbine orientation

According to the design the wind turbines are classified into two general types:
horizontal axis and vertical axis. A horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on
an axis parallel to the ground. A vertical axis machine has its blades rotating on an
axis perpendicular to the ground.
Horizontal axis
This is the most common wind turbine design. In addition to being parallel to the
ground, the axis of blade rotation is parallel to the wind flow. Some machines are
designed to operate in an upwind mode, with the blades upwind of the tower. In this
36
case, a tail vane is usually used to keep the blades facing into the wind. Other
designs operate in a downwind mode so that the wind passes the tower before
striking the blades. Without a tail vane, the machine rotor naturally tracks the wind
in a downwind mode. Some very large wind turbines use a motor-driven mechanism
that turns the machine in response to a wind direction sensor mounted on the
tower.
Figure (3.9) downwind turbine Figure (3.10) upwind turbine Figure (3.11)
Vertical Axis
Although vertical axis wind turbines have existed for centuries, they are not as
common as their horizontal counterparts. The main reason for this is that they do
not take advantage of the higher wind speeds at higher elevations above the ground
as well as horizontal axis turbines.
3.2.2.3 Operating Characteristics

Cut-in Speed
Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the blades will turn and generate
usable power. This wind speed is typically between 3 and 5 m/s.
Rated Speed
The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate
its designated rated power. For example, a "10 kilowatt" wind turbine may not
generate 10 kilowatts until wind speeds reach 11 m/s. Rated speed for most machines
is in the range of 11 to 16 m/s.
Cut-out Speed
At very high wind speeds, typically between 45 and 80 mph, most wind turbines cease
power generation and shut down. The wind speed at which shut down occurs is called
the cut-out speed. Having a cut-out speed protection is a safety feature which protects
the wind turbine from damage Normal wind turbine operation usually resumes when
the wind drops back to a safe level.
37
Figure (3.12)
Betz Limit
It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that makes a wind
turbine function. The wind turbine extracts energy by slowing the wind down. The
theoretical maximum amount of energy in the wind that can be collected by a wind
turbine's rotor is approximately 60%. This value is known as the Betz limit. In
practice, the collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as 59%. A more typical
efficiency is 35% to 45%. A complete wind energy system, including rotor,
transmission, generator, storage and other devices, which all have less than perfect
efficiencies, will (depending on the model) deliver between 10% and 30% of the
original energy available in the wind. [1]
3.2.3 Wind farm

The production of large quantities of electricity will require the installation of many
wind turbines. There are many economical benefits if these turbines are installed in
the clusters that we call wind power plants or wind farms. That is, installation can
proceed more efficiently than if the turbines are widely distributed. Operation and
maintenance can be done with minimum personnel. Collection of the electricity
generated can be accomplished efficiently. The larger amounts of concentrated power
can be more easily transformed to higher voltages and distributed on the utility grid.
Dcw
Dr
Ddw
Figure (3.13) Dimensions of Turbines in wind farms
38
CB
T
Utility
Turbine
Figure (3.14) 0ne line diagram of wind farm electrical network [2]

3.2.4.1 Stand-alone Systems
This type of system is used where it is not necessary or practical to have a connection
to the mains electricity supply. Typically this system would generate power to charge
batteries so that a constant supply was available to cover times of low wind speed.
Typical installations would include power provision to remote locations, where the
cost of installing a mains connection is uneconomical or impractical, isolated
buildings and community projects, boats and caravans etc. Typical uses are lighting,
water pumping and other small power applications. It is also becoming more common
for this type of system to be used in conjunction with other forms of power generation
e.g. [2]
Rectifier Filter Inverter
Wind turbine Inverter

control
Power
control
Batteries
Figure (3.15) Load
3.2.4.2 Grid Connected Systems

In this situation, power from the turbine is used to supplement power taken from
the electricity grid. In times of low wind speed, power is predominantly supplied
39
from the grid to meet the demand. However, in times of good wind speed and low
power
demand, it is possible for additional generation from the turbine to be fed back into
the electricity grid. [2]
Grid
Synchronizing
breaker
Rectifier Filter Inverter
Wind turbine Inverter

control
Power
control
Figure (3.16)
Load
3.2.5 Reliability
The availability of a wind farm, defined as the percentage of time it is able to produce
electricity, is function of the reliability, maintainability and serviceability of the hard
and software used in the whole system.
The required reliability levels to achieve sufficient availability have been investigated
in Figure (3.17). It shows for various levels of reliability of the technology how the
wind farm availability varies as a function of the accessibility (percentage of the time
in which the plant is available for service operations, depending on weather
circumstances).
Today onshore wind turbines reliability levels result in an estimated availability of
only due to the limited access. Improved technology will lead to availability of 88 %.
In order to increase availability to 98 %, the technology should be highly improved
technology, see figure (3.17). Wind turbines only produce energy when the wind is
blowing, and energy production varies with each gust of wind. The variable forces
acting on a wind turbine throughout its expected lifetime of 120,000 operating hours
could be expected to exert significant.
High quality modern wind turbines have an availability factor above 98 percent, i.e.
the turbines are on average operational and ready to run during more than 98 percent
of the hours of the year. This availability factor is beyond any other electricity
generating technology.
40
Figure (3.17)
Figure (3.17) show the relationships between availability and accessibility for
different grades of wind turbine reliability [5]

The air pollution that results from fossil fuel powered electricity generation
threatens human health, the environment, and the long-term economic viability of
the region concerned. Electricity generation is responsible of the SO 2 emissions,
almost a third of the oxides of nitrogen and mercury, and half of the carbon dioxide.
Investing in wind energy can reduce the harmful effects of air pollution from fossil
fuel fired power plants. Wind energy can provide us with cleaner air and a healthier,
safer environment.
3.2.7 Field of applications

 To feed the national grid
 Power provision to remote location
 Power supply for islands
 To feed pump water
3.2.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy

Advantages
 Wind Power is Cost Effective in the last century, coal, oil, and natural gas were
cheap sources of energy, but their hidden costs have been enormous. Wind
power has no hidden costs, and it has become more cost-effective with each
new round of technological advancements. Since wind is free, the price of wind
power is stable, unlike electricity from fossil fuel powered sources which
depends on fuels whose prices are costly and may vary considerably.
 Wind turbines can be built on farms or ranches, thus benefiting the economy in
rural areas, where most of the best wind sites are found. Farmers and ranchers
can continue to work the land because the wind turbines use only a fraction of
the land. Wind power plant owners make rent payments to the farmer or
rancher for the use of the land.
41
 Global climate change is an increasing concern of the scientific community and

governments around the world, and it is a reality we must begin to address.
Carbon dioxide released from fossil fuel combustion is one of the primary heat
trapping gases that contribute to global warming. Wind energy produces no
byproducts that contribute to global warming, and the power from single utility-
scale wind turbine can prevent the emission of 5,000 tons of carbon dioxide
(CO2) into the atmosphere each year. Wind energy is one of the most useful
tools we have to decrease the global warming gases we release into the
atmosphere every day.
Disadvantage
The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that the wind is
intermittent and it does not always blow when electricity is needed. Wind energy
cannot be stored
(unless batteries are used); and not all winds can be harnessed to meet the timing of
electricity demands.
Although wind power plants have relatively little impact on the environment
compared to other conventional power plants, there is some concern over the noise
produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts, and sometimes birds have
been killed by flying into the rotors.
Another of the disadvantages is that the wind turbines can be damaged in
thunderstorms, partially because of their tall and thin shape. And so that most damage
to wind turbines is caused by lightening. This is more of a problem in warmer parts of
the world, where they are frequent. The technology of generation in wind requires a
higher initial investment than fossil-fueled generators.
3.3 Diesel Generators

3.3.1 Introduction
This type of generation usually consists of a diesel engine, which uses diesel fuel as a
source of energy. Electricity is produced by connecting the output shaft of the engine
to an electrical generator. Diesel engine improvements have resulted in considerable
42
reductions in weight and improvement in efficiency. Diesel engines are generating

electrical energy with small capacity. They use to supply isolated areas from main
electrical national grids especially country –side or rural areas. That has advantages
in operation and break speed, but they need huge amounts of fuel and their cost is
relatively higher in many countries. These plants are easy installations and used for
emergency and peak loads conditions. Many generators units work in parallel
arrangement to cover the need demand of power.
3.3.2 Fuel characteristics

Diesel or diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of fuel oil (mostly petroleum)
that is used as fuel in a diesel engine. Petroleum derived diesel is composed of about
75% saturated hydrocarbons, and 25% aromatic hydrocarbons (including naphthalene
and alkyl benzene). The average chemical formula for common diesel fuel is C12H26,
ranging from approx. C10H22 to C15H32. Diesel is produced from petroleum, and is
sometimes called petro diesel when there is a need to distinguish it from diesel
obtained from other sources. As a hydrocarbon mixture, it is obtained in the fractional
distillation of crude oil between 250 °C and 350 °C at atmospheric pressure. The
density of diesel is about 850 grams per liter whereas gasoline has a density of about
720 g/l, 15% less. When burnt, diesel typically releases about 40.9 mega joules (MJ)
per liter, whereas gasoline releases 34.8 MJ/L, also about 15% less.[1]
3.3.3 Fuel Transportation

The mode of transporting fuel from their source of supply to generating stations varies
from station to station. Diesel is generally transported from the mines to stations by
lorry, in some cases, due to the location of generating stations and regional
geography. After delivery, the diesel is deposited onto a diesel storage pile. From
there it is fed by conveyors into the hoppers of the generating stations. These hoppers
are large tank designed to hold enough diesel to run the generating unit for up to 24
hours between refills, depending on the output level of the unit.
3.3.4 Principle of operation

Diesel generator is consist of diesel engine , governer and electrical generator. Diesel
engine is used to convert the chemical energy (diesel fuel) to mechanical energy, this
energy transmitted to electrical generator by cranck shaft. The generator function is to
convert mechanical energy to electrical energy. Governer function is to keep voltage
and frequency to be constant with any variation of loads.
3.3.5 Main Components of diesel generator

There are three components of diesel generators; diesel engine, electric generator and
governor.
3.3.5.1 Diesel engine
43
Diesel engine is one type of internal combustion engine; more

specifically, it is a compression ignition engine, in which the fuel is
ignited by being suddenly exposed to the high temperature and
pressure of a compressed gas, rather than by a separate source of
ignition, such as a spark plug, as is the case in Diesel engines have
the highest thermal efficiency of any internal or external
combustion engine, because of their compression ratio. The
defining feature of the diesel engine is the use of the heat of Figure (3.18)
compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion
chamber during the final stage of compression. This is in contrast to a petrol
(gasoline) engine or gas engine, which uses the Otto cycle, in which a fuel/air mixture
is ignited by a spark plug of the gasoline engine.
There are two classes of diesel engines: two-stroke and four-stroke. Most diesels
generally use the four-stroke cycle, with some larger diesels operating on the two-
stroke cycle.
Principle of operation:
The diesel internal combustion
engines use a higher compression of
the air to ignite the fuel. In the
diesel engine, only air is introduced
into the combustion chamber. The
air is then compressed with a
compression ratio typically between
15 and 22 resulting into a 40 bar
pressure. This high compression
heats the air to 550 °C. At about this
moment (the exact moment is
determined by the fuel injection Figure (3.19)
timing of the fuel system), fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the
combustion chamber. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small
droplets, and that the fuel is distributed as evenly as possible. The heat of the
compressed air vaporizes fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then
ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets
continue to vaporize from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in
the droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporization causes a delay period during
ignition, and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition
temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston. The rapid
expansion of combustion gases then drives the piston downward, supplying power to
the crankshaft. As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take
place without a separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases
the engine's efficiency. [2]
3.3.5.2 Electrical generator
44
Electrical generator is used to convert the mechanical power on the shaft to electrical
power. Electric generators may be classified many ways, but the following are
deemed as fully representative:
 By application domain
 By principle
The application domain implies the power level. The
classifications by principle unfolded here include commercial
(widely used) types together with new configurations, still in
the laboratory (although advanced) stages.
By principle, there are three main types of electric generators:
 Synchronous
 Induction
Figure (3.20)
 Parametric, with magnetic anisotropy and permanent magnets
Parametric generators have in most configurations doubly salient magnetic
circuit structures, so they may be called also doubly salient electric generators.
In diesel generator, synchronous generators are used.
Larger industrial generators can range from 8kVA - 30kVA for homes, small shops
and offices up to 2000kVA used for large office complexes, factories. [1]
Generator Ratings and Sizing
Rating: Generators must be capable of delivering the power required for the hours per
day anticipated by the designer to allow reliable operation and prevent damage.
Typically a given set can deliver more power for fewer hours per day, or less power
continuously. That is a standby set is only expected to give its peak output for a few
hours per day, whereas a continuously running set, would be expected to give a
somewhat lower output. To meet the above criteria manufactures give each set a
rating based on internationally agreed definitions. These standard rating definitions
are designed to allow correct machine selection and valid comparisons between
manufacturers to prevent them from misstating the performance of their machines,
and to guide designers.
Sizing: Typically it is the size of the maximum load that has to be connected and the
acceptable maximum voltage drop which determines the set size, not the maximum
load. If the set is required to start motors, then the set will have to be at least 3 times
the largest motor, which is normally started first. This means it will be unlikely to
operate at anywhere near the ratings of the chosen set.
3.3.5.3 Governor
The purpose of a governor is to control the speed of an engine. If an
engine is loaded beyond its rated capacity, it will slow down or may
45
even stop. Governors act through the fuel injection system to control the amount of
fuel delivered to the cylinders. The quantity of fuel delivered, in turn, governs the
power developed.
Description and operation
The principal parts of the governor are shown in the figure (3.23) when the engine is
running at the speed set on the governor; the land on the pilot valve plunger covers the
regulating port in the bushing. The plunger is held in this position by the flyweights.
However, if the engine loads decreases, the engine speeds up and the Figure (3.21)
additional
centrifugal force move the flyweights outward raising the pilot valve plunger. This
opens the regulating port of the bushing, and trapped oil from the power cylinder is
then allowed to flow through the pilot valve cylinder into a drainage passage to the oil
sump. As the trapped oil drains to the oil sump, the power spring forces the piston
down, actuating the linkage to the
fuel system controls, and the
supply of fuel to the engine is
diminished. As the engine speed
returns to the set rate, the
flyweights resume their original
position and the, pilot valve
plunger again covers the regulating
port. If the load increases, the
engine slows down, and the
flyweights move inward. This
lowers the pilot valve plunger,
allowing pressure oil to flow
through the pilot valve chamber to
the power cylinder. This oil
supplied by a pump is under a
pressure sufficient to overcome the
pressure of the power spring. The
power piston moves upward,
actuating the linkage to increase Figure (3.22)
the amount of fuel injected into the
engine cylinders. Once again, as the speed returns to the set rate, the flyweights
resume their central position. [1]
3.3.6 Performance of diesel generator

The performance of the diesel generator means the power and efficiency. The engine
develops as various parameters, e.g. piston speed, air-fuel ratio, compression ratio,
inlet air-pressure and temperature are varied. A series of tests are carried out on the
46
engine to determine its performance characteristics, such as: Indicated power (I.P),
Brake power (B.P), Frictional power (F.P), Mechanical efficiency (ηm), Indicated
thermal efficiency (ηi), fuel consumption and also specific fuel consumption etc.
Below, we shall discuss how these quantities are measured. [2]
Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
In order to determine the power developed by the engine, the indicator diagram of
engine should be available. It is possible to find the average gas pressure that while
acting on piston throughout one stroke would account for the national grid done. This
pressure is called Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP).
Indicated horse power (I.H.P)
The indicated horse power (I.H.P) of the engine can be calculated as follow:
Pm .L. A.N .n
I .H .P  (3-28)
4500 
Pm = indicated mean effective pressure.
L = length of stroke in metres.
A = piston area in cm2.
N = speed in ‗rpm‘.
n = number of cylinders.
К = 1 for two stroke engine and 2 for four stroke engine.
Brake horse power (B.H.P)
Brake horse power is defined as the net power available at the crankshaft. It is found
by measuring the output torque with dynamometer.
2NT
B.H .P  (3-29)
4500
Where
T = torque in kg.m
N = speed in ‗rpm‘.
Frictional horse power
The difference of I.H.P and B.H.P is called F.H.P. it is utilized in overcoming
frictional resistance of rotating and sliding parts of the engine.
F.H .P  I .H .P  B.H .P (3-30)
Indicated thermal efficiency (ηi)
It is defined as the ratio of indicated work to thermal input.
I .H .P  4500
i  (3-31)
W  Cv  J
Where
W = weight of fuel supplied in kg per second
Cv = calorific value of the fuel in kcal/kg.
J = Joules equivalent = 427.
47
Brake thermal efficiency (ηb) (overall efficiency)

It is defined as the ratio of brake output to thermal input.
B.H .P  4500
b  (3-32)
W  Cv  J
Mechanical efficiency (ηm)
It is defined as the ratio of B.H.P to I.H.P therefore,
B.H .P
m  (3-33)
I .H .P
Electrical efficiency (ηe)
It is the efficiency of the electric generator which equal,
output(kW )
e  (3-39)
B.H .P
3.3.7 Diesel generator system Types

Prime Duty Electric Generating Plants
Prime duty electric generating plants are designed for continuous service and are sized
for peak electrical demand during normal peacetime operations. Continuous service
is defined as operations exceeding 4,000 hours per year or when a plant is run, or
planned to be run, more than 40,000 hours within the initial 10 years of operations. A
generating plant is also considered to be prime duty if it is the only source of
electricity, regardless of the operating schedule. [1]
Standby/Emergency Duty
Any generating plant operating fewer hours per year than a prime duty plant is
considered a duty plant as long as it is not also the prime source of electric power.
The standby/emergency source of power shall be sized to satisfy mobilization and
emergency loads in the event of an outage of the prime source of power. [1]
3.3.8 Accessories
The accessories include the following:
Water storage
Is used for cooling the diesel generator, this tank must be opened from the above to
expose the water to the air. The capacity of the tank for small diesel generator less
than (0.5 MW) approximated to (10-15 barell) depending on the ambient temperature.
Diesel storage
Diesel storage is used for storage diesel for feed the diesel generator along months or
weeks or days depending on the capacity of the diesel generator and the fuel
consumption. We can calculate the capacity of diesel tank if we knew the period
which we need to storage it, the capacity of the generator and the fuel consumption of
the diesel generator as follows:
48
Tank capacity(litre) = fuel consumption(litre / kWh) × rated load(kW )× 24(hr)

(3-34)
Pipes & valves
The connections between the tanks and the diesel generator are pipes and valves, for
example the water tank must has two pipes, one for incoming and the second for
outgoing and two valves, but in diesel tank we need only one pipes for incoming and
one valve.
3.3.9 General layout of diesel generator
Main source Mechanical Storage of Chemical

of fuel connections diesel energy
Internal
Mechanical
Gears box combustion
energy
chambers
Electrical Electrical
generator energy
Figure (3.23)
3.3.10.1 Stand alone system
This type of system is used where it is not necessary or practical to have a connection
to the mains electricity supply. The diesel generator in this situation is connected
directly to the loads. Typical installations would include power provision to remote
locations, where the cost of installing a mains connection is uneconomical or
impractical, isolated buildings and community projects, boats and caravans etc, the
connections of this system are shown below.
Diesel generator
Bus
Load
Figure (3.24)
3.3.10.2 Grid connected system
49
In this system the diesel generator is connected to the load and power grid. This
system is used as stand by system for critical loads and to meet peak demand in the
grid, the connections of this system are shown below.
Grid
Diesel generator
Bus
Load
Figure (3.25)
3.3.11 Reliability
Diesel-electric generating plants should be designed to maximize operating reliability
and ease of maintenance. Space must be provided around equipment and components
for easy access. Controls should be provided in multiple unit installations to prevent
maintenance activity taking place on one unit from interfering with operating units.
Spare diesel-engine generator sets are required for electric generating plants in
accordance with the applicable duty type criteria. Packaged electric-generating units
may be considered for stand-alone installations but they must comply with applicable
criteria.

Diesel engines produce very little carbon monoxide as they burn the fuel in excess air
even at full load, at which point the quantity of fuel injected per cycle is still about
50% lean of stoichiometric. However, they can produce black soot (or more
specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust, which consists of unburned
carbon compounds. This is caused by local low temperatures where the fuel is not
fully atomized. These local low temperatures occur at the cylinder walls and at the
outside of large droplets of fuel. At these areas where it is relatively cold, the mixture
is rich (contrary to the overall mixture which is lean). The rich mixture has less air to
burn and some of the fuel turns into a carbon deposit. Modern engines use a diesel
particulate filter (DPF) to capture carbon particles and then intermittently burn them
using extra fuel injected into the engine.
3.3.13 Maintenance
50
The maintenance of diesel generator includes the following:

 Check the purity of the oil every day
 Continuity measuring the temperature of the engine
 Changing diesel filter ‗every month‘
 Changing oil filter ‗every month‘
 Changing pistons and it‘s accessories ‗according of its type and operation‘
3.3.14 Field of applications

 Industries of small power requirement.
 Peak load plants in combination with other power plants.
 Mobile power plants- transporting systems- rail road, ships,
automobiles and air crafts.
 Stand by power plants- emergency services.
 Frequent power cut areas.
 Central power stations.
3.3.15 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
 Higher thermal efficiency than thermal plant.
 Wide range of fuels can be used.
 Easy fuel handling.
 Simple layout, easy to install.
 Quick to respond to load variations.
 Initial investment is less than other plants.
 Low fuel cost.
 Quickly started and put on load.
Disadvantages
 Does not work satisfactorily under continuous overload conditions.
 Noise pollution.
 Maintenance cost is high.
 Capacity limited to 20 MW.
 Life less than other power supply systems.
3.4 Extension with the national grid
51
3.4.1 Introduction
In this supply the process involves taking power from the transmission system to
customers by using overhead lines or underground cables depend on the condition of
the site. And also we need geographical information about the site which we supply it
by electricity. In addition we need the distances between the loads and exists
transmission lines. There are two types of extension configurations, radial, which the
feeder is installed in one path to the load, loop, the feeder in this design is installed
from more paths to the load. In this part we will study many subjects; national grid
conditions, system configurations, calculations which is show (voltage selection,
voltage regulation, conductor selection, losses, fault analysis) and we will talking
about Reliability, Environmental impact, Field of applications and finally we will list
the advantages and disadvantages of extension with the national grid.
3.4.2 National grid conditions

National grid conditions are defined as a comprehensive knowledge of all information
of the national grid, and the nearest transmission line to the location, these include the
existing voltage, capacity of the transmission line and the future expansion for the
national grid.
3.4.3 System configurations
The design of power supply by the national grid extension can be provided to
different areas of the system in a different ways, depending on the load density and
system voltage level. We will discus two types of system configuration, radial and
loop systems. [10]
3.4.3.1 Radial Systems
The feeder radial systems are installed in one path to the load, this type is cheap, but
its reliability is less. The radial system is a widely used, economical system often
found in low-load density areas and used for unimportant load like domestic load and
the load in the rural area. To reduce the duration of interruptions sectionalizing fuses
are installed on branches of radial feeders allowing unaffected portions of a feeder to
remain in service and also automatic reclosing devices are located at the substation or
at various locations on the feeder.
3.4.3.2 Loop Systems
The feeder in this design is installed from more paths to the load or it's supplied from
ring feeder, this type is expensive, but it has more reliability. The loop system is used
where a higher level of service reliability is desired. Two feeders form a closed loop,
open at one point, so that load can be transferred from one feeder to another in the
event of an outage of one circuit by closing the open point and opening at another
location. One or more additional feeders along separate routes may be provided for
critical loads, such as hospitals that cannot tolerate long interruptions. Switching from
the normal feeder to an alternate feeder can be done manually or automatically with
circuit breakers and electrical interlocks to prevent the connection of a good feeder to
a faulted feeder.
52
3.4.4 Type of extension

3.4.4.1 Underground cables
Underground means that the feeders are putting under the ground, is much more
hidden from the view than overhead circuits, and is more reliable. One of the main
applications of underground circuits is for underground residential distribution; other
uses are river crossings, highway crossings and transmission line crossings.
Underground construction is expensive, and costs vary widely. For these reason
underground cables are not use in rural mountainous areas, so we will discuss only
overhead lines in this part.
3.4.4.2 Over head lines

An overhead utilizes air to insulate bare conductors for the majority of its length. An
overhead transmission line is a very complex, continuous, electrical/mechanical
system. Its function is to transport power safely from the circuit breaker on one end to
the circuit breaker on the other. Overhead transmission of electric power remains one
of the most important elements of today‘s electric power system.
The table below shows the advantages and disadvantages between Overhead lines and
underground cables:
Overhead lines Underground cables

Cost- Significantly less cost, especially Aesthetics- Much less visual clutter.
initial cost. Safety — Less chance for public contact.
Longer life - 30 to 50 years vs. 20 to 40 for Reliability — Significantly fewer fault
new underground works. chances and long-duration interruptions.
Reliability — Shorter outage durations O&M — Notably lower maintenance costs
because of faster fault finding and faster Longer reach — Less voltage drop because
repair. reactance is lower.
Loading — Overhead circuits can more
readily withstand overloads.
Table (3.1) [7]

From the comparison above, over head lines will be selected for extension and will be
the unique type that is used in this project.
3.4.5 Main components of Overhead lines

3.4.5.1 Conductors
Conductors are made up from specific metal materials which give high conductivity
to allow current to pass through it. Conductors may vary in size according to the rated
current and frequency. The design conductor tension under the everyday load
condition is that the horizontal tension shall be no greater than the percentage of its
calculated breaking load.
There is much type of conductors according to their conductivity (common use):
53
Copper Conductors
Copper has high conductivity, more Weights and it is more expensive. Copper is used
in three forms: hard drawn, medium-hard drawn, and soft drawn (annealed). Hard-
drawn copper wire has the greatest strength of the three and is, therefore, mainly used
for distribution circuits of long spans (60m or more). Soft-drawn wire is the weakest
of the three. Its use is limited to short spans and for tying conductors to pin-type
insulators. It used widely for services to buildings and some distribution circuits. [11]
Aluminum Conductors
Aluminum has lesser conductivity than copper; it is used because of its light weight
and low cost for transmission line systems, except for short distribution spans. It
hasn‘t good mechanical properties, so aluminum wires are stranded on a core of steel
wire. Such steel reinforced aluminum wire has great strength for the weight of the
conductor and is especially suitable for long spans.
Steel Conductors
Steel wire is rarely used alone. However, where very cheap construction is needed
steel offers an economic advantages. Because steel wire is three to five times as
strong as copper, it permits longer spans and requires fewer supports.
Our range of conductors includes:
 All Aluminum Conductors (AAC)
 Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
 All Aluminum Alloy Conductors (AAAC)
 Insulated Copper Conductors
 Insulated Aluminum Conductors
In manufacturing this measure take in considerations:
 Capacity to have higher load resistance
 Durable & tension
 Corrosion resistant properties
Resistivity and Temperature Coefficients of Some Conductors are shown in the table
below:
Resistivity at 20 Temperature Coefficients at
Material
C0(Ω.m) (20C0)
Silver 1.59 x10-8 0.00380
Annealed copper 1.72 x10-8 0.00393
Hard-drawn copper 1.77 x10-8 0.00381
Aluminum 2.83 x10-8 0.00377
Table (3.2) [12]
Conductor Stranding
As conductors become larger, they become too rigid for easy handling. Bending can
damage a large solid conductor. For these practical reasons, the stranded conductor
was developed. Stranded conductor consists of a group of wires twisted into a single
conductor. The more wires in the conductor‘s cross section, the greater will be its
54
flexibility. Usually, all the strands are of the same size and same material (copper,
aluminum, or steel).
Aerial Bunched Cables (ABC)
This type of cable is used for LV distribution in
residential areas. These cables are not practical more
than 500m distance [6]. Most utilities commonly
install triplex secondary for overhead service to single- Figure (3.26)
phase customers, where three insulated phase conductors are wrapped around the
neutral. The neutral supports the weight of the conductors. These cables have high
capacitance and low inductance leading to low impedance of lines, lower voltage
drop, higher current carrying capacity, better voltage regulation, easy maintenance
and many more.
Applications:
 As replacement of bare lines where reliability of supply is important.
 As replacement of bare lines where high degree of stability of supply voltage
is important.
 In hilly terrains where cost of erection of underground cable becomes very
high.
 As reinforcement of existing system without increasing voltage.
3.4.5.2 Insulators
Overhead conductors are electrically insulated from each other as well as from the
pole or tower by nonconductors which are called insulators. We use different type of
insulator according to their mechanical strength and electrical properties. There are
three practical insulator materials; porcelain, glass and polymer insulators. Polymer
insulators are not so restricted and have the advantage also of being lighter in weight
than porcelain or glass. Porcelain can stand compression force and high temperature
and cannot stand tension force. Polymer may be used both in tension and
compression.
There are many types of insulators we will discuss only six types:
Pin-Type Insulator
The pin-type insulator is designed to be mounted on a pin which in
turn is installed on the cross arm of the supporting structure. This
type of insulator is applicable for rural and urban distribution
circuits, and it is usually constructed as one solid piece of porcelain Figure (3.27)
or glass. Larger and stronger pin-type insulators are used for high-voltage
transmission lines. These differ in construction in that they consist of two or three
pieces of porcelain cemented together. These pieces form what are called petticoats.
They are designed to shed rain and sleet easily.
Disc-type insulator
These disc type porcelain insulators have high force tension, they
are used in the power transmission and distribution systems in
which there are a change in the level of the support structure,
Sometimes a line must withstand great strain, for instance at a Figure (3.28)
55
corner, at a sharp curve, or at a dead-end. It helps in smooth transmission and

distribution of electrical power.
Post-type insulator
Post-type insulators are somewhat similar to pin-type insulators but it
is not having mechanical properties as pin type. They used in the
node end of conductor which transmit the conductor from side to
another side (from receiving disc insulators to sending disc
insulators) and also they used in the corners with disc insulators. Figure (3.29)
Suspension type insulator

The higher the voltage, the more insulation is needed. At
these voltages the pin or post-type insulator becomes too
bulky and cumbersome to be practical, and the pin which
must hold it would have to be inordinately long and large.
The suspension insulator hangs from the cross arm, as
opposed to the pin insulator which sits on top of it. The line
conductor is attached to its lower end. Figure (3.30)
Tension or strain type insulator
Strain insulators are designed for handling mechanical
stresses for guy poles at angle position where a change in
the direction of the line is. Sometimes a line must withstand
great strain, for instance at a corner, at a sharp curve, or at a
dead-end. Strain insulator must have considerable strength Figure (3.31)
as well as the necessary electrical properties. This type is commonly used in
distribution system.
Spool type (D-Iron) insulators
The spool-type insulator, which is easily identified by
its shape, is usually used for low voltage customers.
The spool insulator may be mounted on a secondary
rack or in a service clamp. Both the secondary low-
Figure (3.32)
voltage conductors and the house service wires are
attached to the spool insulator. [10]
3.4.5.3 Conductor Supports
Structure
Conductors need supports to get from one place to another. Supports may be towers,
poles, or other structures. The latter may be made of steel, concrete, or wood. The
choice of a type of support depends on the terrain to be crossed, the size of conductors
and equipment to be carried, availability, economy and weather conditions. The steel
sections are considered to carry the full bending and compressive loads. The concrete
and bolts provide restraint against buckling of the steel section under compressive
load. The bolts also serve to transmit shear loads from the steel to the concrete.
Towers are used for long transmission line and high voltages. Wooden poles are used
for distribution (low voltages). Two factors must be considered in choosing poles:
length and strength required.
56
The length of poles depends on the required clearance above the surface of the
ground, the number of crossarms to be attached, and other equipment which may be
installed. Required pole strength is determined by the weight of crossarms, insulators,
wires, transformers, and other equipment it must carry, as well as by ice and wind
loadings. There are factors must be considered in deciding how deep a pole must be
planted in the ground: Soil conditions, the height of the pole, weight and pull. [12]
Guying pole
Earlier great detail was given about how carefully poles are chosen to carry the load
placed on them by the conductors. Careful specifications have been drawn regarding
the length, strength, measurements, and setting depth of a pole for every individual
situation. In spite of all this care and planning, situations arise where the conductor
tries to force the pole from its normal position. This happens because of abnormal
loads of ice, sleet, snow, and wind as well as because of uneven spans, corners, dead-
ends, and hills.
In this work anchor type guy sets are to be used. These guys shall be provided at
 angle locations
 dead end locations
 Steep gradient locations.
 Double Pole, & four poles
3.4.5.4 Distribution transformer

An electrical component used to transfer electric energy from
one alternating current (AC) circuit to another by magnetic
coupling. The purpose of a transformer is to reduce the primary
voltage of the electric distribution system to the utilization
voltage serving the customer.
There are two types of distribution transformer, three phase
Figure (3.33)
and single phase transformers, three phase Distribution
Transformers shown in figure (3.34) are manufactured in the range
(50–30000) kVA, for operating voltages up to 72.5 kV.
The single phase transformer shown in figure (3.35) is typical for
5kVA to 100kVA and 6.35/0.22kV transformers. Many
transformers are equipped with a surge arrestor, a low-voltage
circuit breaker, and an overload warning light. A partial-range Figure (3.34)
current-limiting fuse is mounted on the primary bushing, connected
to the primary winding to prevent a violent failure of the transformer if an internal
fault develops.[1]
3.4.5.5 Drop out fuse

Fuses are also not classified as ‗switchgear‘, but rather as protection
devices. However, a short discussion of fuses is warranted in the context
of electrical distribution equipment. The fuse is probably the oldest,
simplest, cheapest and most-often used type of protection device. The
operation of a fuse is very straight forward, the thermal energy of the
Figure (3.35)
57
excessive current causes the fuse-element to melt and the current path is interrupted.
Technological developments have served to make fuses more predictable, faster and
safer. Drop out fuse is implied to power system with voltage being 35kv or lower,
used as overload and short protector of wire and power transformer as well as
separating or closing rated load current. [12]
3.4.5.6 Surge arresters

Surge Arresters are tireless protectors of expensive equipment against
transient voltages. Surge arresters shall be installed at all primary
equipment; this includes transformers, auto-reclosers, CT/VT metering
units, voltage regulators and sectionalizers. Surge arresters shall also be
installed on both ends of the underground cable that is interconnecting
with an overhead line. The surge arrester provides a path over which Figure (3.36)
the surge can pass to ground. There is usually an air gap in series with a resistive
element, and whatever the resistive (or valve) element is made of, it must act as a
conductor for high-energy surges and also as an insulator toward the line energy. [12]
Three types of surge arrestors are used:
1. Rod spark gapped
2. Multiple gapped arrestors
3. Zinc (metal) oxide surge arrestors.
3.4.5.7 Voltage Regulators

Voltage regulators usually are an autotransformer with automatic tap-changing under
load. Automatic measuring and tap-changing equipment holds the output voltage
within a predetermined bandwidth. By using the smallest practical bandwidth, more
voltage drop can be allowed along the feeder, still keeping the consumer voltage
within acceptable limits. The means for achieving this are an integral part of the
regulator controls called the line drop compensator. In an 11KV overhead distribution
national grid voltage drop can become an issue after only 20Km from the substation.
3.4.5.8 Capacitors
Capacitors are applied as an economic tool to reduce system
losses by supplying kilovars locally. Shunt capacitor banks
including fixed and switched banks are used on primary feeders
to reduce voltage drop, reduce power loss, and improve power
factor. The closer to the load they can be installed the greater the Figure (3.37)
economic benefit. Capacitors are not only an economic tool for the distribution
system, but they can eliminate the need for adding reactive sources in the bulk power
system. Kilovars supplied directly to load areas reduce the current in all portions of
the system. [12]
3.4.5.9 Switches
Switches are used to interrupt the continuity of a circuit. They classified to: air
switches, oil, vacuum and gas (SF6) switches. In distribution air switches are used. In
58
an air switch the interruption of the circuit occurs in air. In this process air is the
insulation medium between contacts. [4]
3.4.5.10 Reclosers
A recloser consists essentially of an oil switch or breaker
actuated by relays which cause it to open when
predetermined current-values flow through it. The switch or
breaker is arranged to reclose after a short interval of time
and re-open again if the fault or overload which caused the
excess current-flow persist. The recloser can be set for three
or four operations before it locks itself open for manual Figure (3.38)
operation. [12]
3.4.5.11 Line accessories

 Operating rod
 Galvanized Cross arm.
 Tie strap.
 Section strap (connect two cross arms).
 Eye bolt (catch the disc insulators in the
corners).
 Machine Bolt with nut and washer.
 Machine Bolt with nut and washer.
 Tension suspension clamp for ACSR.
 Tie wire, soft aluminum.
 Tension set.
 Earthing set. Figure (3.39) Clamps
59
3.4.6 Overhead Construction

We have covered some of the basic elements of overhead construction Conductors,
insulators, and the supports which carry them, transformers, surge arresters, switches,
and fuses. Now consider some of the obstacles that the utility company must
overcome when constructing its overhead lines. Trees, pedestrians, railroads, rivers,
weather, and hill all present problems.
3.4.6.1 Spacing and Clearances

In constructing overhead distribution lines, the voltage of the wires to be strung must
be considered. The higher the voltage, the farther away it must be strung from people,
traffic, and other wires. Sometimes, wires must cross other wires. Here the voltages of
both must be considered to make certain that there is no overstrain on the insulation
and no flashover. Span: It is the distance between the poles. The span is changing
with different voltages. Sag: Notice how a conductor is strung between poles. It is not
pulled tight; it sags. In hot weather it sags even more than in cold weather. Consider
Figure (3.40) Main accessories
the analogy of the clothesline. The same applies to stringing wire. When metallic wire
is strung tightly, it produces a greater strain on the insulator pins and on the pole.
Scientific sag is an important factor in stringing wire. [7]
The minimum vertical clearance in meter between conductors and places for different
voltages according to (IEC 60079 standard) is shown below:
Location LV 11kV 33kV 66kV

Open Ground 5.2 5.2 5.2 6
Accessible to Vehicles 5.2 6 6 6
Roads 5.8 6 6 6
Trees 2 2.3 2.3 2.8
Buildings 2.24 2.64 2.97 3.42
Rail ways (Height of support +6m) 2 4 5 7
Table (3.4) [12]

The minimum horizontal clearance in meter between conductors for different voltages
according to (IEC 60079 standard)
Location LV 11kV 33kV 66kV

Phase / phase 0.15 0.23 0.43 0.79
Phase / neutral 0.025 0.178 0.38 0.69
Jumper / phase 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3
Rail ways 5 6 7 9
Telephone lines 2 5 7 8
Table (3.5) [12]
60
The table below shows the average span in the same level for different conductor‘s
cross section area (11kV) according to (sector of rural electricity).
Cross section Span in (m)

area (mm2)
35 80
50 70
70 70
100 60
150 60
200 50
300 50
Table (3.6) [1]

The following table is show the minimum sag for different conductor‘s cross section
area (ACSR) at these conditions (sector of rural electricity):
Rated voltage =11kV
Span = 80 m
Pole length = 11m
Cross section Breaking load Total weight

Sag (m)
area (mm2) (kN) (kg/m)
35 11.25 0.195 0.32
50 18.35 0.216 0.63
70 25.75 0.308 0.81
100 33.45 0.349 0.97
150 53.26 0.592 1.09
200 71.38 0.728 1.12
300 103.45 1.151 1.18
Table (3.7) [1]
How the Weather Affects Conductors
A line sags more in hot weather and less in cold weather. The reason for this is
because conductors expand in hot weather, in other words the length of the conductor
increases as the temperature increases. If the wire were strung without sag, it would
snap during cold weather. Besides the temperature, there are other factors that must be
considered in determining the sag of a conductor; for example, the length of the span,
the weight of the conductors, wind, and ice loading.
3.4.6.2 Lines parameters

The general equation relating voltage and current on a transmission line recognize the
fact that all four of the parameters of a transmission lines (resistance, inductance,
capacitance and conductance) are uniformly distributed along the line. Put here we
use lamp parameters which give good accuracy for short lines and for lines of medium
61
length. If an overhead line is classified as short shunt capacitance is small that it can
be omitted entirely with little loss of accuracy and we need to consider only the series
resistance R and the series L for the total length of the line.
A medium length line can be represented sufficiently by R and L as lumped
parameters as shown in the figure (3.41) with half the capacitance to neutral of the
line lumped at each end of the equivalent circuit shunt conductance G as a mentioned
previously, is usually neglected in overhead power transmission lines when
calculating voltage and current. The same circuit represents the short line if capacitors
are omitted. [7]
According to the standards length of the transmission lines the short line up to 80 km,
medium length lines are roughly between 80Km and 240Km long. Lines longer than
240Km require in terms of distributed constants if a high degree of accuracy is
required.
L R
+ +
Z=R+JwL
Vs C/2 C/2 VR
- -
Figure (3.41) equivalent circuit of medium transmission lines

The equivalent circuit of a short transmission lines is shown in figure (3.47) where IS
and IR are the sending and receiving end currents respectively, VS and VR are the
sending and receiving end line to neutral voltages.
The circuit is solved as a simple series AC circuit so
IS  IR (3-35)
VS  V R  I R Z (3-36)
Where Z is the total series impedance of the line
IS L R
+
+ Z=R+JwL
G Vs VR load
- -
Figure (3.42) equivalent circuit of short transmission lines
62
3.4.7 Calculations
3.4.7.1 Voltage selection
The design of electric supply and distribution systems can proceed only after a
distribution voltage level has been determined. The electrical impact of the
installation or facility as well as its location will influence the selection. A new
service may be necessary or extension of an existing service may be acceptable.
Before discussing selection of the system voltage, system voltage terminology and
preferred voltage ratings need to be defined, refer to the glossary for definitions of
standard voltage terms.
A preferred nominal system voltage such as 11kV, 12.5 kV, 13.2 kV, 13.8 kV, or 15
kV, will be selected for the primary distribution system. On sizable installations
where distances to loads are considerable or loads are large, the use of 33 kV or
24.9kV primary distribution systems may be more economical. Primary distribution
voltages of the nominal 11kV class and under will not be used, unless an off-site
supply of a higher voltage is not available. For such cases, the size of the installation
and the distances involved must make the use of voltages below 11 kV more
economical in order to justify the selection. [6]
3.4.7.2 Voltage regulation

One of the most important issues is to deliver voltage to customers within a suitable
range. On distribution circuits, voltage drops due to current flowing through the line
impedances Primary and secondary voltage drop can be allocated as necessary along
the circuit to provide end users with suitable voltage.
Voltage Standards
(IEC-61000-2-8) standard specifies acceptable operational ranges at two locations on
electric power systems:
 Service voltage: The service voltage is the point where the electrical systems of
the supplier and the user are interconnected. This is normally at the meter.
 Utilization voltage: The voltage at the line terminals of utilization equipment.
This voltage is the facility’s responsibility. Equipment manufacturers should
design equipment which operates satisfactorily within the given limits.
The standard allows for some voltage drop within a facility, so service voltage
requirements are tighter than utilization requirements.
The standard also defines two ranges of voltage:
 Range A: Most service voltages are within these limits, and utilities should design
electric systems to provide service voltages within these limits.
 Range B: These requirements are more relaxed than Range A limits. According
to the standard: ―Although such conditions are a part of practical operations, they
shall be limited in extent, frequency, and duration. When they occur, corrective
measures shall be undertaken within a reasonable time to improve voltages to
meet Range A requirements.‖ Utilization equipment should give acceptable
performance when operating within the Range B utilization limits, insofar as
practical‖ according to the standard.
63
For medium-voltage (1kV-100kV)systems, IEC-61000-2-8 gives tighter limits for

Ranges A and B. Range A is 2.5 to +5%, and Range B is n5 to +5.8%. [12]
Improper voltage regulation can cause many problems for end users‖ over voltages or
under voltages‖:
 Improper or less-efficient equipment operation For example, lights may give
incorrect illumination or a machine may run fast or slow.
 Tripping of sensitive loads For example, an uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
may revert to battery storage during high or low voltage. This may drain the UPS
batteries and cause an outage to critical equipment.
 Overheating of induction motors -For lower voltage, an induction motor draws
higher current.
 Equipment damage or failure - Equipment can suffer insulation damage.
 Higher no-load losses in transformers - Magnetizing currents are higher at higher
voltages.
Voltage Drop
In describing circuits, it is often desirable to specify the voltage at particular points
along the line. The difference in voltage between two points in a circuit is referred to
as the voltage drop across the wire or other component in between. The actual voltage
drop along the line is:
Vdrop  Vs  VR  I R  R  I X  X (3-37)
Where
Vdrop: voltage drop along the feeder, V
R: line resistance, Ω
X: line reactance, Ω
IR = IX =I: line current due to reactive power flow, A
We can approximate the voltage drop along a circuit as:
For single phase circuit
V  2I  R (3-38)
For three phase circuit
V  I  R (3-39)
Where
ΔV: voltage drop along the feeder, V
R: line resistance, Ω
I: line current due to power flow (in phase with the voltage), A
Voltage drop is higher with lower voltage distribution systems, poor power factor,
single-phase circuits, and unbalanced circuits. The main ways to reduce voltage drop
are to:
 Increase power factor (add capacitors).
 Re-conductor with a larger size.
 Balance circuits.
 Convert single-phase sections to three-phase sections
64
Regulation Techniques
Distribution utilities have several ways to control steady-state voltage. The most
popular regulation methods include:
 Substation load tap-changing transformers
 Bus voltage regulators
 Line voltage regulators
 Fixed and switched capacitors
3.4.7.3 Conductor selection

When selecting a conductor for your specific application, a number of variables
require attention. These are:
 Application
 Size and type of load to be supplied
 Permissible voltage drop
 Prospective fault current
And several electrical, mechanical, and economic characteristics affect conductor
selection: Ampacity-Economics-Mechanical strength-Corrosion.
Load to be supplied
In order to select the appropriate conductor, it is necessary to know the voltage and
the load current, as the first step in the selection process.
The following formulae apply:
For three phase circuits
S
I FL  (3-40)
3 *V
For single phase circuits
S
I FL  (3-41)
V
Use this value of current to determine the conductor size by reference to the relevant
manufacturer‘s tables for copper or aluminum conductors. [11]
Permissible voltage drop
The voltage drop may be calculated in two different ways:
 Multiplying the current by the impedance of the length of cable. Calculate the
percentage volt drop by reference to the phase-to-earth voltage.
 Multiply the current by the length of cable, and then multiply the result by the
voltage drop per amp per meter.
For example; from voltage drop standard the allowable voltage drop percentage is
5%, then we will use this value to calculate the cross section area of the conductors by
using this equations:
For single phase circuits
V
V  2I  R » R (3-42)
2I
65
For three phase circuits

V
V  I  R » R (3-43)
I
Where:
L L
R Ω » A  mm 2 (3-44)
A R
Prospective fault current
Electric wires and cables are designed to operate below a certain maximum
temperature, this being dependent on the conductor material and the type and
thickness of the insulation. Cable selection for a particular installation must therefore
be made on the basis of not exceeding these temperature limits.
Suppose the fault is cleared after 0.2 s. We need to determine what short-circuit
current the cable can withstand for this time. This can be found from the expression:
A K
I sc  (3-45)
t
K: constant combining temperature limits and conductor material properties
A: the conductor cross-sectional area in mm2
t: the duration of the fault in seconds
Wire sizes have been for many years indicated in commercial practice almost entirely
by gage numbers, especially in America and England. This practice is accompanied
by some confusion because numerous gages are in common use. The most commonly
used gage for electrical wires, in America, is the American wire gage. [11]
3.4.7.4 Neutral Conductor Sizing

Because the neutral conductor carries less current than the phase conductors, utilities
can use smaller neutral conductors. On three-phase circuits with balanced loading, the
neutral carries almost no current. On single-phase circuits with a multi grounded
neutral, the neutral normally carries 40 to 60% of the current (the earth carries the
remainder). On single-phase circuits, some utilities use fully rated neutrals, where the
neutral and the phase are the same size. [11]
3.4.7.5 Losses
Systems have two types of energy losses: losses in the conductors and feeders due to
the magnitude of the current and transformer core losses that are independent of
current. Current related losses are equal to the current squared time the resistance of
the feeder or transformer. Accompanying these losses are reactive losses,
For single phase:
PLoss  I 2  R (3-46)
QLoss  I 2  X (3-47)
For three phase:
PLoss  3I 2  R (3-48)
QLoss  3I 2  X (3-49)
66
The core losses result from the energy used in transformer cores as a result of
hysteresis and eddy currents. These losses depend on the magnetic material used in
the core. Core losses in a power system can exceed 3% of the power generated
constituting as much as 40% of the total loss on the system. The capacity of
generation and reactive sources must be sufficient to supply these losses. [12]
3.4.7.6 Fault analysis

Electrical faults usually occur due to breakdown of the insulating media between live
conductors or between a live conductor and earth. This breakdown may be caused by
any one or more of several factors, e.g. mechanical damage, overheating, voltage
surges (caused by lightning or switching), ingress of a conducting medium, ionization
of air, deterioration of the insulating media due to an unfriendly environment or old
age, or misuse of equipment.
Faults are classified into two major groups, symmetrical and unbalanced
(asymmetrical). Symmetrical faults involve all three phases and cause severe fault
currents and system disturbances. Unbalanced faults include phase-to-phase, phase-to-
ground, and phase-to-phase-to-ground. They are not as severe as symmetrical faults
because not all three phases are involved. The least severe fault condition is a single
phase-to-ground fault with the transformer neutral earthed through a resistor or
reactor. However, if not cleared quickly, unbalanced faults will usually develop into
symmetrical faults. [8]
Exact calculations of prospective fault currents can be quite complex, and are usually
performed with the aid of computer simulation software. However, when a few
allowable assumptions are made, approximate fault currents can be determined quite
easily and quickly. These approximate values will be conservative, giving the worst
case, and can therefore be confidently used for the ratings of switchgear. These
assumptions are the following:
 Assume the fault occurs very close to the switchgear. This means that the line
impedance between the switchgear and the fault may be ignored.
 Ignore any arc resistance.
 Ignore the line impedance between the transformer secondary and the switchgear,
if the transformer is located in the vicinity of the substation. If not, the cable
impedance may reduce the possible fault current quite substantially, and should
be included for economic considerations (a lower-rated switchgear, at lower cost,
may be installed).
 When adding cable impedance, assume the phase angle between the cable
impedance and transformer reactance as zero, hence the values may be added
without complex algebra, and values readily available from cable manufacturers‘
tables may be used.
 Ignore complex algebra when calculating and using transformer internal
impedance.
Fault currents are then easily calculated as follows:
The magnitude of the fault current is then only limited by the transformer‘s internal
impedance, which is usually indicated by a percentage value on the nameplate of the
67
transformer. This value expresses the impedance value as a percentage of the base
value. This is illustrated in the following calculation:
Assume
Vp: Primary voltage, Vs: Secondary voltage, S: Capacity, Z: Impedance,
Vb: base voltage
Calculation of base value, Zb:
2 2
V V
S b  Zb  b
Z S
(Referred to secondary side of transformer)
Z actual  Z %  Z b (3-50)
VS
I fault  (3-51)
3  Z actual
Manipulation of the above formulas will give a quick reference formula to determine
the fault current at the secondary terminals of the transformer:
S
I fault  (3-52)
3  Z %  VS
For lines we use this formula:
VL
I fault  (3-53)
3  ZL
Where:
VL: line voltage, ZL: The impedance of the line
3.4.8 Protection
The design optimization of power systems tolerates the disturbance of mentioned
process in term of evaluated risk based on probability theory. Therefore disturbances
may occur in any time and anywhere. The disturbances can be caused by: Shunt
Faults, lightning over voltages leading to insulation breakdown, generating unit trips,
etc. From previous section should have learned fault analysis and fault calculation
techniques, types of faults, fault levels and fault current calculations (transient and
steady state), system parameters affecting fault levels, system voltages during the
faults, etc. Usually, the shunt faults cause large currents, which can lead to great
damages to the power system due to localized release of a considerable amount of
energy. The rapid isolation of these faults will minimize the damages and disruption
to the system. The protection can be achieved by using relays or fuses. This is the
ultimate objective of the protection system. There are three types of protection:
68
Overcurrent and earthing protection

The overcurrent protection is a non-unit protection (graded protection). This
protection should be differed from overload protection, as it responds to the excess of
current in power system, i.e.fualt currents.
Overcurrent protection is used to protect the feeders.
Differential protection
Differential protection is a unit protection. It is based on a relay responding to vector
difference of two electrical quantities, e.g. currents, such that if this difference
deviates from zero the relay will operate.
Differential protection is used to protect the following components of power system
as main protection:
 Generators
 Transformers
 Bus bars
 Feeders (pilot protection)
Distance protection
Distance Protection is non unit protection. Its ability to discriminate between faults
in different parts of the system depends on the measurement of impedance.
Distance protection is used to protect transmission lines. [9]
3.4.9 Reliability
Reliability can be measured by the frequency of interruption of the power supply as
well as the duration of this interruption. Making the system more reliable may involve
more investment due to the duplication of the cables, switchgears, transformers,...etc.
The increase of cost may be justified if the estimated cost of the power outage is high.
Complete reliability is unattainable but loads which require higher reliability can be
provided with one of the following:
- Use of duplicated feeders.
- Feed the distribution system from multiple bulk supply points.
- Install enough on-line local generation.
- Use of uninterruptible power supply to feed very critical loads.
3.4.10 Operating and maintenance

The operating of this supply is depending on the operating of the PEC grid and its
consumption in the power plant and so on the maintenance. There is some
maintenance for the transmission lines put is very rare during the years, this
maintenance include the following:
 Cleaning the insulators and surge arresters
 Inspection the resistance of the earthing
 Check the oil of the transformers
69
3.4.11 Advantages and disadvantages

 More economical for nearer area to the national grid.
 Provide stable voltage and frequency.
 Rare maintenance for transmission equipments during the alive expectancy of

the project.
 More reliability in compared with other individual supply systems.
 High capacity power supply system.
 More exposed for circumstances ambient and weather conditions
 Need more space for transmission line.
3.5 Reference
PV supply system
1. TECHNICAL TRAINING OF PV SUPPLIERS, Boniface Gissima Nyamo-Hanga -
(Energy Consultant)
2. RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY; Lahmeyer International
GmbH ; Dr. Romeo Pacudan, Dr. Andreas Wiese; February 2007, Bad Vilbel
3. Solar Electricity, practical guide to designing and installation small
photovoltaic systems; Simon Roberts; 1991
4. Optimal Wire Size for Photovoltaic Systems Operating at Maximum Power
Point: A Closed Form Approach Version 2.1 march 2006
5. Lead-Acid Battery Guide for Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems; IEA Task III
Report IEA-PVPS 3-06:1999 December 1999.
6. Photovoltaic Power Systems and The 2008 National Electrical Code AN
UPDATE; John C. Wiles
7. A GUIDE TO PHOTOVOLTAIC PV system design installation. Endecon
Engineering 347 Norris Court
8. Use of photovoltaic systems for rural electrification in Thailand N.
Rapapate and O. Goln Ubon Ratchathani Raja hat University Ratchathani
Road, Muang, Ubon Rachathani 34000. Thailand.
9. Power conditioning in photovoltaic system; Brian Johnson-
10. Characterization of solar batteries through extended time; tests in
accordance with IEC 614271Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Wiesner FH-Köln
11. ELECTRONIC CONTROL CIRCUIT for solar battery charging; A.A.
AZOOZ, J.M. SULAYMAN March 4, 2005
12. Dimensioning of a solar/battery backup system; May 2008
13. Solar Battery Charging Stations an analysis of viability and best
practices Submitted BySGA energy limited Ottawa ,Ontario Canada;
February 1999
14. 1990 -- ‫تكنىلىجيا الطاقة البذيلة –د يىسف عياش‬
70
15. Solar Electric System Meter Installation & User Manual(2002)

16. -‫دراسة اقتصادية لمنظىمة كهربائية بالخالية الكهروشمسية في المناطق الشرقية لسىريا‬
2001 -‫دمسعىد صبيح‬
Wind supply system

1. Electrical design of al-mokha wind farm and its impact on national grid
2. Dr .Ali.M. ALASHWAL 2007-2008.
3. RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY; Lahmeyer International
GmbH; Dr. Romeo Pacudan, Dr. Andreas Wiese; February 2007, Bad Vilbel.
4. Wind energy explained theory, design and application, Copyright 0 2002
by John Wiley & Sons Ltd Baffins Lane, Chichester. , West Sussex PO19
IUD, England
5. Wind Power in Power Systems: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium,
Southern Gate, Chichester,West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, Copyright
2005
6. Wind and Solar Power Systems; Mukund R. Patel, Ph.D., P.E.; 1999 .
7. WIND ENERGY HANDBOOK; Copyright #2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
Bafﬁns Lane, Chichester ;West Sussex, PO19 1UD, England
Diesel generator system

1. DIESEL ELECTRIC generating plants; 16 January 2004; DR. JAMES W
WRIGHT, P.E ;Chief Engineer ; Dr. GET W. MOY, P.E
2. Power Plant Notes; Dr. Abdulmalik Mo'men.
3. Juma'an company
4. Hiziaz Power Station
5. Tehama Company for tractors
Extend with national grid supply system

1. Rural electricity sector
2. Electrical wires/and cables guide
3. Electric Power distribution hand book- (T.A. Short)-2004
4. Power Distribution Design(January 2006)
5. ELECTRICITY (WIRING) REGULATIONS Electrical and Mechanical services
department(2003)
6. IEEE Recommended Practice for electrical power distribution for industrial
plants
7. High Voltage Notes; Dr.Tawfeeq Sufian
8. Electrical power system; Ashfaq Husain; Third edition; 1990
9. Protection Note; Dr .Ali.M. ALASHWAL 2007-2008.
10. OVERHEAD LINE CONSTRUCTION standard-2002
71
11. Electrical cable selection Kevin Boone, all rights reserved-2001)

12. OVERHEAD LINE DESIGN STANDARD FOR TRANSMISSION &
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Issue: October 2004
72
Chapter 4
Project
Information
Chapter (4) Project information
4.1 Introduction
In every design for any project we must know all information about the site of the
project, so in this chapter we will summarize this information for project position,
environmental description, general information about the supply systems in the
country and special information for all supply systems in this site. Understanding the
project information gives knowledge for the function, importance, form of the site,
position.
4.2 Project position

The location which we study is located in Yemen, Dhamar governorate shown in
Yemen map figure (4.1), Alhada town, kauman between latitude line (14, 15) northern
and between longitude line (43.3, 44.5) eastern in the east of Dhamar city. The center
of this location is far from (PEC) existing line about 11 km. The numbers of project’s
villages are five, and they are: (kauman, Al_sabalah al_hamra, Bani juma’ah, Bait
al_esal and Al_mianeed). [1]
Figure (4.1) project position map
71
4.3 Environment description

Terrain
Kauman Sanama is a flat area lied on a mountain its height is about 2800 meters
above sea level. [ref 6]
Climate
From the Metrological Data shown in appendix (A) the climate in general is quite in
summer and cold in winter the average temperature in summer is between (20, 31) Co
and in winter is between (18,-2) Co at night and morning, And the average relative
humidity during the year (35%), Maximum Annual rainfall = 47 mm, Maximum wind
Pressure 75 (Kg/m2). [1]
Buildings and Population
Healthy
Villages Population houses mosques schools
center
Kauman 588 74 3 1 1
Al_sabalah 154 22 1 ----- -----
Bani juma’ah 63 10 1 ----- -----
Bait al_esal 140 20 2 ----- -----
Al_mianeed 138 19 1 ----- -----
Table (4.1) [4]

It has noted that the average of size of family equal to 7 persons
The sources of water for building
In kauman Sanama the source of water is from the rain and wells which depth is about
(30 – 50) m, the water pumped from the wells by using diesel pumps. [6]
The economic activity
Most people are working in agriculture and the other immigrates to some main cities
such as Sana'a and Aden to get theirs. [6]
4.4 Information of the available alternatives

We get all information from Civil Aviation and Metrology Authority in Yemen,
ministry of petroleum and national control center. This information includes solar,
wind, diesel, national grid and other information; this is shown in appendix (A). [5]
4.4.1 General information

Solar energy
Yemen is one of the regions in the world with high levels of solar irradiation. The
annual average global solar irradiation in Yemen ranges (5.2 - 6.8 kWh/ m2/day) Map
in figure (4.1) show the average daily solar irradiation in Yemen.
High insolation levels are experienced in the Highlands with the highest average of
(6.8kWh/m2/day) occurs in Al-Beida and Dhamar Governorates. Other areas in the
Highlands particularly in Sana’a, Ibb, Al-Dhalee and southern parts of Amran and
Marib have also very high irradiation levels ranging from (6.6- 6.7 kWh/ m2/day).
72
Figure (4.2) Average Daily Solar Irradiation

Low irradiation levels occurred in the coastal areas with the lowest average ranging
from (5.1-5.2 kWh/ m2/day) experienced around the southern part of Hajjah
governorate down to Al-Mahwit and Al-Hodeida as well as the capital city of Al-
Mahara governorate. Most of the coastal areas, from Al-Hodeida down to Taiz, Lahej,
Abyan, Shabwa, and Hadramout and to Al-Mahara have average insolation levels
ranging from (5.4-5.8 kWh/ m2/day). Insolation levels from Al-Jowf, down to Marib,
to the central part of Shabwa, and to the central part of Hadramout range from (6.0-
6.3 kWh/m2/day). Socotra Island has very high annual average insolation at around
(6.6 kWh/ m2/day).
December is the coldest month of the year in Yemen with insolation levels range from
(4.4-6.0 kWh/m2/day). From January, solar insolation increases gradually until it
reaches the highest stage in May and June at around (7.0-7.7 kWh/m2/day).
Solar radiation levels quickly drop in July and August due to the arrival of the
intertropical convergence zone but slightly increase in September. Solar radiation
then gradually decreases until it reaches the minimum intensity in December.
The same pattern exists in Socotra island, though the months with highest
insolation levels start from March until May.
In addition to high insolation levels, the availability of solar energy is also
high in Yemen. The average sunshine hours in the country, based on CAMAs
ground measurements, ranges from (7.3 hours) per day in Sadarah to (9.1 hours
per day) in Socotra Island and Dhamar governorate . Sana’a has daily average
sunshine hours of (7.7h per day). The longer average sunshine hours signifies high
energy production from solar energy technologies over the year. Also during the
coldest period of the year, the average sunshine hours is over 8 hours per day.
The high availability of solar energy during this period represents an important
opportunity for solar heating applications in the country. [3]
73
Wind energy
Results of the resource assessment study show that the Republic of Yemen is
endowed with significant wind resources. These resources were found to sustain
large-scale commercial power development and small-scale isolated system to meet
the energy needs of rural and remote communities.
The spatial distribution of the annual mean wind speed at the height of 50 meters
within the whole area of Yemen is shown in the map, figure (4.3)
Figure (4.3) average wind speed in Yemen (50m above ground level) [3]
Power densities of the wind energy resource (50 meters above ground level) are
shown in the map, figure (4.3). Regions with very good to excellent wind conditions
have power densities higher than 200 W/m2. Power densities above this level are
considered to be suitable for power development. Figure (4.3) clearly indicates the
regions where wind resources could be potentially exploited for power development.
Figure (4.4) Wind power density (50 meters above ground level) [3]
74
Fossil fuel energy

The Republic of Yemen has large storage of oil and gas. It is considered from the
exporting countries for oil such as a diesel. The diesel price in Yemen is cheap.
Diesel fuel sold in Yemen is far below from its international price. The Marib Power
2nd Stage Study reported that in 2007 PEC paid average fuel price (average of
light fuel and heavy fuel oils) at around US cents 17.5 per litre while the average
international price was around US cents 52 per litre. The ESMAP study also showed
that between 1997 and 2007, retail prices of diesel fuel in Yemen fluctuated
between 0.3 to 0.8 percent of the economic price. so that as compared with some
alternatives such as geothermal, landfill gas and wind power generation, despite being
economic in Yemen, are not financially competitive with alternative diesel power
generation since diesel fuel are highly subsidized as mentioned above. [2]
National grid
In Yemen there are three main generation power plants in Alhodaidah, Almukha,
Aden, in addition there are diesel generations in Sana’a. [2]
According to the national grid yearly Load Curve of Yemen,
Maximum demand of electrical power = (903MW).
Maximum total generated of electrical power = (793MW) which covers (87.82%) of
Maximum demand (903MW).
Shared by electrical stations as:
(304MW) Steam generation which covers 33.67% of total Maximum demand
(283MW) Diesel generation which covers 31.34% of total Maximum demand
(206MW) Diesel rent generation which covers 22.81% of total Maximum demand.
Maximum inability (disconnected Loads) of electrical power = (110MW)
When the power plant in Marib (whole capacity 1200 MW “first stage 340 MW will
be in the service at the end of 2009) is sharing with other power plants, the shortage
power will be covered.
The generation voltage in Yemen is 13.8 kV
The transmission voltage (132,400) kV
The distribution voltage (11, 33) kV
The frequency is 50Hz
4.4.2 Site information

Solar energy
According to the information they have taken from the CAMA that the insolation
level in Dhamar governorate is (6.8 kWh/m2/day), and it is considered the highest
average in Yemen and the average sunshine hours is 9.1 hours per day. [1]
Wind energy
According to the information from the resources which mentioned above, it has
shown that the mean speed of wind in the site is 10.242KT (5.275m/s) in the direction
of east and south east, and the power density considered excellent as mentioned in the
map of figure (4.4) [1]
75
Fossil fuel energy (Diesel)

The diesel price in all Yemeni governorates is 35 YR/litre equal US cent (17.5 per
litre) and the cost of lubricating oil (2500 YR/tank) which equal (12.5 $/tank),the
capacity of the tank equal (5 litre) then the cost of lubricating oil (2.5 $/litre), all
costs include fuel transportation. [2]
National grid
From the site the voltage of the nearest point of the national grid is 11kV over head
lines. The capacity of the line is enough to cover all surrounding villages, the
frequency is 50Hz and the line has a recloser in the nearest substation. [2]
Note:
According to our available information we have seen that it can’t be developed
electrical power by using wind sources due to the following reasons:
 The direction of wind speed is not stable during the seasons of the year.
 Transportation process of wind farms components is very difficult such as wind
turbines due to unavailability of the roads required for this purpose.
 Lack of technical or commercial skills and information: in Yemen markets,
skilled personnel who can install, operate, and maintain wind energy.
4.5 Importance of electricity for the project

Electricity is the infrastructure to measure the development of the countries. The
policy of Yemen government toward the electricity is to electrify the rural area in
Yemen to meet the development of the world around them. From the information of
the villages there more than 1000 people are living in isolated area without electricity.
The electricity is important for these villages because these villages are located in
cold area that’s mean they need electricity for air heating and water heating, the other
reason for this electrification when we went to these villages we were finding many
electrical equipments operate with small special diesel generators which are owned by
some peoples who are rich.
4.6 Maximum Power demand estimation

In rural areas the load is different, lesser and simple than the load in urban (city)
areas. In the villages which we choose, we was making survey for samples of houses
in these villages to know the kind of loads, we find the follow:
4.6.1 Present loads

Houses
The house contains four rooms and kitchen and path room as average. The room
needs two lamps, kitchen one lamp and one lamp for path room, each lamp 60 W for
lighting. The total power required for lighting equal 600W
Assume the average circuits in the house as follow:
76
Power Power Power Total power

Kind of load S×Kd(VA)
(watt) factor (VA) (VA)
Lighting 600 1 600 600×1 600
Television & receiver 120 0.9 133 133×1 133
cassette player 20 0.9 22 22×1 22
Water heater 1200 1 1200 1200×1 1200
From 526×0.6 317
Pump 450 0.85 526
table (2.1) 250×1 250
Refrigerator 200 0.8 250
we found 563×0.8 450
Washer 450 0.8 563
Blender 250 0.8 312 312×1 312
Clothes iron 1200 1 1200 1200×1 1200
Vacuum cleaner 1000 0.8 1250 1250×1 1250
Computer 400 0.9 444 444×0.7 311
Mobile charger (4) 20 0.9 22 22×1 22
Heater 1100 1 1100 1100×0.8 880
Other appliances 500 1 500 500×1 500
Total 7447
Table (4.2)
Table (4.3)
To find the total power of each house we use:
Table (2.3), Number of circuit equal =14, so KS = 0.6 and:
S×Ks(VA) Total power (VA)

7447×0.6 4467
Table (4.4)
For the villages, the total power can be found by using table (2.2) as follow:
Villages No.houses Shouse×KS Svillage×Nhouse Stotal(kVA)

kauman 74 4467×0.40 1786.2×74 132.2
Al_sabalah al_hamra 22 4467×0.49 2188.4×22 48.1
Bani juma’ah 10 4467×0.63 2813.1×10 28.1
Bait al_esal 20 4467×0.49 2186.4×20 43.7
Al_mianeed 19 4467×0.49 2188.4×19 41.6
Table (4.5)
Schools
The existing school consists of 11 classes, four room for teachers and four bathrooms.
Assume each class and room need average power =180 W (three lamp 60W),
Four bathrooms, they need 60W in each for lighting,
The total power of the school for lighting = (15×180+4×60) = 2940W.
Pump = 450W
Water heater = 1200W
77
Using table (2.1) to find the table below:
Kind of load Power factor S×Kd(VA) Total power(VA)

Lighting 1 2940×1 2940
Water heater 1 1200×1 1200
Pump 0.85 526×0.6 317
Other appliances 1 500×1 500
Total 4957
Table (4.6)
There are three circuits, from table (2.3), KS = 0.9
Stotal = 4957×0.9 = 4.462 kVA
The school is in kauman village, so the contribution of school loads with houses is
multiple by KS = 0.4 according to table (2.2)
S =4.462×0.4 = 1.78 kVA
Healthy centre
There are four rooms for patients and two for doctors and each room needs average
power = 180 W for lighting.
Nroom = 6 rooms » Plighting= 6×180= 1080 W,
water heater =1200 W, and pump = 450W
Kind of load Power factor S×Kd(VA) Total power (VA)

Lighting 1 1080×1 1080
Water heater 1 1200×1 1200
Pump 0.85 526×0.6 317
Total 3097
Table (4.7)
There are three circuits, from table (2.3)

KS = 0.9
Stotal =3097×0.9 = 2.787 kVA,
The healthy centre is in kauman village, then the contribution of healthy centre loads
with house is multiple by KS = 0.4
S =2.787×0.4 = 1.1kVA
Mosque
In each village there is one mosque or more, if each mosque is 150 m2 and needs
4W/m2 for lighting the total power for each mosque = 4×150 = 600 W, four
bathrooms = 240 W, speaker = 500W and pump = 450W
78
Kind of load Power factor S×Kd(kVA) Total power(VA)

Lighting 1 840×1 840
speaker 0.9 556×0.8 445
Pump 0.85 527×0.6 317
Total 2102
Table (4.8)
From table (2.2), KS = 0.9 >> Stotal = 2102×0.9 = 1.89 kVA

Note: the mosques load contribution in each village is:
Villages Nmosque Smosque(kVA) Smosque×Ks Stotal(kVA)

kauman 3 5.67 5.67×0.4 2.27
Al_sabalah al_hamra 1 1.88 1.89×0.49 0.92
Bani juma’ah 1 1.88 1.89×0.63 1.18
Bait al_esal 2 3.77 3.77×0.49 1.84
Al_mianeed 1 1.88 1.89×0.49 0.92
Table (4.9)
For the total power consumed by the villages:
Villages Shouse+Smosque+ Shealth+Sschool Stotal(kVA)

kauman 132.2+2.27+1.1+1.78 137
Al_sabalah al_hamra 48.1+0.92 49
Bani juma’ah 28.1+1.18 29.3
Bait al_esal 43.7+1.84 45.5
Al_mianeed 43.7+0.92 44.6
Table (4.10)
4.6.2 Future expansion

For future expansion the increase in people percentage and development in
Yemen is equal =3% [4]. This project will design for long period equal=20 years
Villages Stotal +Stotal×20×3%(kVA) Sactual(kVA)

kauman 137+137×20×0.03 219.2
Al_sabalah al_hamra 49+49×20×0.03 78.4
Bani juma’ah 29.3+29.3×20×0.03 46.9
Bait al_esal 45.5+45.5×20×0.03 72.8
Al_mianeed 44.6+44.6×20×0.03 71.4
Table (4.11)
4.6.3 Maximum Delivered power

From table (2.6) the loss factor of secondary voltage consumers is equal 1.069, so the
delivered power from the source is shown below:
79
Villages Sactual(kVA) × Kloss Sdelivered(kVA)

kauman 219.2×1.069 234.3
Al_sabalah al_hamra 78.4×1.069 83.8
Bani juma’ah 46.9×1.069 50.4
Bait al_esal 72.8×1.069 77.8
Al_mianeed 71.4×1.069 76.3
Table (4.12)
From above tables the maximum delivered power for all villages equal (522.6 kVA)
4.7 Maximum Energy demand estimation

This estimation is used to determine the energy consumption in the villages for the
presence loads by using equation (2-5) as follows:
Healthy
Villages Population houses mosques schools Ks
center
Kauman 588 74 3 1 1 0.4
Al_sabalah 154 22 1 ----- ----- 0.49
Bani juma’ah 63 10 1 ----- ----- 0.63
Bait al_esal 140 20 2 ----- ----- 0.49
Al_mianeed 138 19 1 ----- ----- 0.53
Table (4.13)
Houses
Electrical Instruments Demand
No Qty AC(V) hours/day
Appliances PRating (W) Factor(Kd)
1 lighting 10 220 600 1 6
2 TV+ receiver 1 220 120 1 6
3 Radio 1 220 20 1 3
4 Water heater 1 220 1200 1 0.5
5 Pump 1 220 450 0.6 0.5
6 Refrigerator 1 220 200 1 12
7 Washer 1 220 450 0.8 0.6
8 Blender 1 220 250 1 0.04
9 Clothes iron 1 220 1200 1 0.15
10 Vacuum cleaner 1 220 1000 1 0.5
11 Computer 1 220 400 0.7 6
12 Mobile charger 4 220 20 1 2
13 Electric Heater 1 220 1100 0.8 8
14 Others appliances ---- 220 500 1 0.15
Table (4.14)
80
Schools
Kind of load P (watt) Demand Factor( Kd) hours/day
Lighting 4020 1 6
Water heater 1200 1 0.5
Pump 450 0.6 1
Other appliances 500 1 0.15
Table (4.15)
Healthy center
Lighting 1200 1 12
Water heater 1200 1 0.5
Pump 450 0.6 0.5
Table (4.16)
Mosques
Lighting 660 1 4
speaker 500 1 3
Pump 450 0.6 2
Table (4.17)
The total energy demand required for the whole village:
ETotal  Ehouses  Eschools  EHcenters  Emosques
The loads that have supplied directly from the PV cells are all the predetermined loads
Eload1  ET otal
The loads that have supplied from lead acid batteries are equal to the last
predetermined:
Eload2  ET otal
The total energy demand for the whole system per day:
E PV  Eload2  Eload2
By using the above equations we found the following table:
Villages Kauman Al_sabalah Bani Bait al_esal Al_mianeed
al_hamra juma’ah
Ehouses(Wh/day) 510777.6 186019.68 108712.8 169108.8 173767.92
Emosques(Wh/day) 5706 2329.95 2995.65 2329.95 2520.15
Eschools (Wh/day) 10026 0 0 0 0
EH.centers(Wh/day) 6084 0 0 0 0
ETotal (Wh/day) 532593.6 188349.63 111708.45 171438.75 176288.07
Table (4.18)
81
Load growth (future expansion)

The life time of the project is 20 years as mentioned previously, where the percentage
of load growth is 3%, so the increased in load is calculated according to the last
mentioned equations and the results as shown in the following table:
Al_sabalah Bani Bait

Villages Kauman Al_mianeed
al_hamra juma’ah al_esal
EPVF (kWh/day) 639.112 226.03 134.05 205.727 211.546
PPVF=0.03*20*PPV 124.8 44.731 26.172 40.2 41.31
Total energy 1416.465 KWh/day
Table (4.19)
4.8 References
1. Civil Aviation and Metrology Authority, Yemen, 2004

2. Public electricity corporation, National Control enter, Operation department
,2008
3. National Rural Electrification strategy for Yemen; NRECA International
4. May, 2007
5. The central statistical organization; Yemen; 2003
6. Field survey
82
Chapter 5
Supply
Systems Design
5.1 Solar PV supply system

5.1.1 Introduction
The system design depending upon the international standards IEC where this design
determines the main components of any electrical photovoltaic system which are PV
modules(solar cells) or arrays and their accessories(mounting structures), batteries and
their accessories (charge controllers), and inverters. This design situation is called stand
alone system (SAPV) or off-grid system that means it is isolated from the national grid or
any other supply system as mentioned in details in section (3.1).
Where the design for these areas has developed such that each village system in it where
the system is near to load center to reduce the system losses and eliminate the
transmission conductors cost.
This system designed so that during daytime operation, the electrical energy generated
and fed into the battery bank through SCC (Solar charge controller) and the excess
energy is directly supplied to the inverter to supply AC power to the electrical load
through MCB(miniature circuit breaker). While during night time or low sunshine
periods, electrical load is driven solely by battery bank power supply.
5.1.2 Sizing
5.1.2.1 Estimation the required PV arrays
For accuracy in calculation we have to determine the factors that affect on panels as a
mentioned at solar generation part (temperature, manufacture, dirt, losses) and they are
the following:
The climate in general is quite in summer and cold in winter the average temperature in
summer is between (20, 31) C0 and in winter is between (18,-2) C0 in night and morning.
And according to the manufactures data sheets
  0.05%/c ,  Man  91%
And the temperature factor determined by the following formulas:
F Temp  1    T and T  T A.day  T Stc
F Temp  1    T  1  0.0005 (31  25)  0.997

And according to the Dhamar terrain the dirt is not effect on PV modules so the common
value for this factor is 0.95
K 1   Man  F Temp  Dirt (5-1)
K1   Man  F Temp  Dirt  0.91 0.997  0.95  0.862
According to the international standard the allowable losses from the PV modules to the
inverter is 3% and the distribution losses is about 6.9%, so;
 loss  90.4%
K 2   inv  loss  cc (5-2)
83
K 2   inv  loss  cc  0.85  0.904  0.85  0.653

And the average Daily sunshine hours is (9.1 h per day)
E PV (5-2)
P PV 
H  K1 x K 2
The number of modules is determined by using the following formula:

PPV (5-3)
NM 
PMax
The number of strings in series is determined by using the following formula:
VBb
NMS  (5-4)
VMP
The number of strings in parallel is determined by using the following formula:
NM
NMP  (5-5)
NMS
The number of purchased modules is determined by using the following formula:
NMN  NBS  NBP (5-6)
The number of required arrays is determined by using the following formula:

NMP
NA  (5-7)
16
5.1.2.2 Estimation the required Inverter

The selected inverters rating are 75kW, 50kW, 36kW, 30kW [2]. So the number of
required inverters is determined by using the following formula:
PPV
N Inverters  (5-8)
PInverters
5.1.2.3 Estimation the required batteries

The required battery capacity (Ampere-hours) is determined by using the following
formulas:
EB  number of cloudy days  Eload2  2 Eload2 (5-9)
EB (Wh/days)
CAh  (5-10)
V Bb   cc   B  DOD
The number of required batteries in parallel is determined by using the following
formula:
CAh (5-11)
NBP 
BAh
The number of required batteries in series is determined by using the following formula:
84
VBb
NBS  (5-12)
VB
The total number of batteries is determined by using the following formula:
N B  NBS  NBP (5-13)

By using the above equations and the information in chapter (4) section (4.6) we find the
following table:
Al_sabalah Bani Bait

Villages Kauman Al_mianeed
al_hamra juma’ah al_esal
ETotal (Wh/day) 532593.6 188349.63 111708.45 171438.75 176288.07
EPV (kWh/day) 1065.187 376.699 223.417 342.878 352.576
PPV (KW) 208 74.55 43.62 67 68.84
NM 1040 374 218 336 344
NMS 12 12 12 12 12
NMP 88 32 20 28 28
NMN 1056 384 240 336 336
NA/16 66 24 15 21 21
Ninv 3/75 3/30 2/30 2/36 2/36
CAh 7494.985 2650.57 1562.031 2412.595 2480.833
NBP 6/1270 4/680 3/680 4/680 4/680
NBS 19 19 19 19 19
NB 114 76 57 76 76
Total energy 2360.757 KWh/day
Table (5.6) [2]
85
5.2 Diesel power plant

5.2.1 Introduction
In this section we will design a supply system which we studied in chapter (3) section
(3.3) this design includes the sizing of all equipments used in this supply system and its
specifications. We will choose the diesel generators for each village, so we need five
generators with its accessories with different rating according to the maximum kVA for
each village and according to the availability of these generators in the markets. Also we
will determine the fuel and oil consumptions of the diesel generators as (L/kWh) for each
village. After that we will discus the maintenance of the diesel generators. All
equipments rating, fuel and oil consumptions are choosing for maximum power
consumption in the villages and for (20 years).
5.2.2 Sizing
The suitable available diesel generators ratings for all villages are shown below:
Villages S (kVA) Available ratings (kVA) No. diesel generator
kauman 234.3 261 DG1
Al_sabalah al_hamra 83.8 85 DG2
Bani juma’ah 50.4 55 DG3
Bait al_esal 77.8 85 DG2
Al_mianeed 76.3 85 DG2
Table (5.7) [1]
The generators above have the following special features:
 Compact size and light weight.
 Sound proof type.
 Performance elevation at heavy loading injection.
 Convenient use from outside.
 Automatic generation with load variation.
 Voltage regulator.
 Over current protection (air circuit breaker).
 Frequency and unbalance load protection.
All diesel generators have all specifications shown in appendix (A)
86
5.2.3 Fuel consumption

From specifications of diesel generators shown in appendix (A) the fuel consumption is
putting in the table (5.8)
Villages No. diesel generator Fuel consumption (L/kWh)

kauman DG1 0.278
Al_sabalah al_hamra DG2 0.316
Bani juma’ah DG3 0.322
Bait al_esal DG2 0.316
Al_mianeed DG2 0.316
Table (5.8) [1]
5.2.4 Lubricating oil

The lubricating oil must be change after the generator consume (3000 litre) of fuel. From
specifications of diesel generators shown in appendix (A) the lubricating oil capacity is
shown below:
Villages No. diesel generator lubricating oil capacity (litre)

kauman DG1 20
Al_sabalah al_hamra DG2 15
Bani juma’ah DG3 10
Bait al_esal DG2 15
Al_mianeed DG2 15
Table (5.9) [1]
5.2.5 Accessories
 Water tank
 Diesel tank (for one week)
 Steel pipes
 Valves
Accessories Water tank Diesel tank** Pipes (6m) Valves (3 pieces)
villages (barell*) (barell) (inch) (inch)
kauman 10 60 ¾ ¾
Al_sabalah al_hamra 10 20 ¾ ¾
Bani juma’ah 10 15 ¾ ¾
Bait al_esal 10 20 ¾ ¾
Al_mianeed 10 20 ¾ ¾
Table (5.10)
*One barell = 200 litre
** using equation (3.34)
87
5.3 Extension with national grid

5.3.1 Introduction
In this section we will design a supply system which we studied in chapter (3) section
(3.4), this design includes choosing the transmission system voltage, transformer for each
village, conductors, poles, surge arrester, fuses, insulators and the line accessories. The
overhead transmission line shall be designed for single circuit to supply electricity to the
villages. The design should ensure reliability and easy of maintenance. All materials
specified shall ensure satisfactory operation under similar conditions to the project area
shown in chapter (4) and under sudden variations of loads, voltages and short circuit as
may occur under operating conditions. The design shall be developed according to IEC
standard because the Standards in Europe and many other 50 Hz countries are governed
by the IEC. Also we choose all equipments under the maximum load in the villages, that's
mean after 20 years from now.
88
5.3.2 Dimensions map
Al_sabalah al_hamra Bait al_esal

22 house 20 house
154 person 140 person
E
C 0.8 k
m
km
1.37 0.48
km
D
1.32 km
1.74 km
0.52
km
G
75
km
0.
Bani juma’ah
10 house kauman0.42
63 person 74 house km B Al_mianeed
588 person
19 house
1.6
138 person
7k
m
2.97
km
5.43
km
1.
35
km
A
PEC exist line
Figure (5.1) [3]
89
5.3.3 Sizing
5.3.3.1 Voltage selection
The grid voltage of the nearest point to the location is 11kV, so we will choose the
standard values of calculations according to this voltage.
5.3.3.2 Choosing transformers

The KVA (available) ratings and types of distribution transformer shall be as follows:
Max. load available

Villages Phases No Load Voltage
(KVA) Ratings(KVA)
kauman 234.3 200 3 11/0.4 KV (Ph-Ph)
Al_sabalah al_hamra 83.8 75 3 11/0.4 KV (Ph-Ph)
Bani juma’ah 50.4 50 3 11/0.4 KV (Ph-Ph)
Bait al_asal 77.8 75 3 11/0.4 KV (Ph-Ph)
Al_mianeed 76.3 75 3 11/0.4 KV (Ph-Ph)
Table (5.11) [3]
The transformer specifications are shown in appendix (B)
5.3.3.3 Choosing of fuses

We need three fuses in each village; In addition we need three fuses in the start point of
the main feeder. From characteristic table of transformers ratings shown in appendix (E),
the losses must be added to the load as shown below:
Villages load (KVA) Losses (%) Losses (kVA) Total (kVA)

kauman 234.3 0.95 2.22 236.52
Al_sabalah al_hamra 83.8 1.6 1.34 85.14
Bani juma’ah 50.4 1.9 0.95 51.35
Bait al_esal 77.8 1.6 1.24 79.04
Al_mianeed 76.3 1.6 1.22 77.52
main feeder (point A)* 530.92 ---- ---- 530.92
Table (5.12)
*See section (5.3.3.4) table (5.15)
To calculate the nominal currents for the villages we use equations (3-40):
S
I
3 *V
The rating of the fuses must be double of the full load or maximum currents.
The amperes ratings and types of fuses shall be as in table (5.13)
90
Total Voltage Actual Available

Villages
(kVA) (KV) Current (A) rating (A)
kauman 236.52 11 12.4 25
Al_sabalah al_hamra 85.14 11 4.5 10
Bani juma’ah 51.35 11 2.7 5
Bait al_esal 79.04 11 4.2 10
Al_mianeed 77.52 11 4.1 10
main feeder (point A) 530.92 11 27.9 63
Table (5.13) [3]
Fuses shall be suitable for outdoor operation under the climatic conditions specified in
chapter (4). Fuses also shall meet the specification shown in appendix (E)
5.3.3.4 Choosing Conductors

We use ACSR conductor for the reason shown in chapter (3), section (3.4)
From the dimensions map shown in figure (5.1) the approximate distances is tabled
below:
portions length (km)

A-B 11.42
B-C 1.32
B-G 0.42
C-D 2.49
C-E 2.17
E-F 1.00
Table (5.14)
By using second method „Permissible voltage drop‟ of conductor selection in chapter (3)
section (3.4):
From voltage drop standard the allowable voltage drop percentage is 5%, this value is for
all transmission portions, so we will find the voltage drop for each portion by using this
formula:
Xf
Vd f  Vd  (5-14)
X max
X max : Maximum path of conductors in one direction
X f : Portion distance of feeder
Vd : Maximum allowable voltage drop
V d f : Voltage drop for feeder
From dimensions map X max is the distance between point „A‟ and „F‟ » X max =15.91 km
91
From equation (5-14) we find the following table:
portions length (km) Voltage drop (%)

A-B 11.42 3.589
B-C 1.32 0.415
C-E 2.17 0.682
E-F 1.00 0.314
B-G 0.42 0.132
C-D 2.49 0.782
Table (5.15) Approximated voltage drop
We will find the loads at the points in the dimensions map by using transmission losses
factor in table (2.6) which is equal (1.001). For example to find the load in point „E‟ the
load in point „F‟ will multiple by transmission losses factor ‟77.52×1.001+79.04=156.64‟
and so on, from table (5.18) the loads at the points shown in dimension map are tabled
below:
points load (kVA)

F 77.52
E 156.64
D 51.35
C 293..34
G 236.52
B 530.39
A 530.92
Table (5.16)
By using these equations (3-40, 3-42):
S
To find the current » I 
3 V
V
To find the resistance » R 
I
L
To find the cross section area » A   where  aluminum = 2.83x10 -8
.m
R
We find the table (5.17) in the next page
92
length Currents Voltage drop Resistance Area

portions
(km) (A) (%) (Ω) (mm2)
A-B 11.42 27.9 3.589 14.18 22.8
B-C 1.32 15.4 0.415 2.96 12.6
B-G 0.42 12.4 0.132 1.17 9.7
C-D 2.49 2.7 0.782 31.8 2.3
C-E 2.17 8.3 0.682 9.03 6.8
E-F 1.00 4.1 0.314 8.4 3.4
Table (5.17) sizing of the conductors
The minimum available conductor cross section area in Yemen is (35 mm2) because there
are many considerations in conductors manufacturing such as short circuit limitation,
tension and thermal considerations. [3]
The standard length of the conductor is 2000 m, so the conductor length which we need
for all extension is calculated from the sum of all feeders‟ lengths. The total length is
(18820×3) = 56460 m (multiple by 3 for three phase three wires) [4]
56460
The number of drums which we need equal   28.23  29drums
2000
The conductor specifications are shown in appendix (C)
5.3.3.5 Choosing poles

Poles shall be selected such that the static (permanent) and dynamic (wind) load
combination is within safe limits. Poles shall be of wooden poles type with an overall
length of 11 m suitable for use in 11KV overhead power lines and double pole or four
pole structures associated with the lines and for 11/0.4 KV substations and the end of
conductors length (after 2000 m). [3]
To find the number of poles we use this equation:
L feeder
N poles  (5.23)
span
The span is 80 m
Feeder Feeder Substations
Conductors end corners No.poles
portions length (m) (transformers)
A-B 11420 ----- 5 3 148
B-C 1320 1 ----- 1 17
B-G 420 1 ----- ----- 6
C-D 2490 1 1 1 33
C-E 2170 1 1 1 29
E-F 1000 1 ----- 1 13
Total 18820 5 7 7 246
Table (5.18) Quantities of poles
All poles shall have all specifications shown in appendix (C)
93
5.3.3.6 Choosing insulators

To find the number of insulators we will do these steps:
Post insulators: it is used in the end of the conductor‟s length.
Pin insulators: it is used only in single poles „not in corners‟.
Disc insulators: it is used in the end of the conductors length “six insulators”, corners
“three insulators”, branches and transformer pole‟s “three insulators”.
The table below shows the number of insulators in each feeder.
Feeder Feeder
Post insulators Pin insulators Disc insulators
portions length (m)
A-B 11420 15 405 45
B-C 1320 3 42 6
B-G 420 --- 12 6
C-D 2490 3 84 15
C-E 2170 3 72 15
E-F 1000 3 30 9
Total insulators 27 645 96
Table (5.19) Quantities of the insulators
All insulators shall meet the specifications shown in appendix (D)
5.3.3.7 Choosing of surge arresters

Surge arresters shall install in every end of the feeders and in the start point of the main
feeder. From the dimensions map we need (18 pieces).
The Arrestor shall be heavy duty, metal oxide, and gapless type generally; the
performance requirements are as in appendix (D)
5.3.3.8 Choosing accessories

 Operating rod (11kV)
 Galvanized Cross arm (2200×100×75×10) mm, 14holes, 22diameter
 Tie strap (590×40×10) mm.
 Section strap (550×100×10) mm.
 Eye bolt (20mm×300mm2).
 Machine Bolt (20×45) mm with nut and washer.
 Machine Bolt (20×300) mm with nut and washer.
 Tension suspension clamp for ACSR (35-50) mm2.
 Tie wire (2.5) mm2, soft aluminum.
 Tension set(1 pcs stay insulator 11kV, 1 pcs stay plate (450×450x8)mm, 1 pcs
stay rod (20×1600)mm, three pcs curve washer and nail, 8 pcs stay clamp for
(50)mm2 and 20m stay wire high strength (50)mm2).
 Earthing set (5pcs earthing rod (16×1200) mm, 5 pcs rod clamp copper and 30m
HDC (35 mm2).
94
The accessories quantities are shown below in all portions:
Accessories A-B B-C B-G C-D C-E E-F total

Operating rod 1 --- --- --- --- --- 1
Galv. Cross arm 146 19 9 35 30 15 254
Tie strap 270 30 10 56 48 20 434
Section strap 15 --- --- 3 3 --- 21
Eye bolt 9 --- --- 3 3 3 18
M.B (20×45)mm 270 30 10 56 48 20 434
M.B (20×300)mm 280 32 10 60 52 20 454
Tension clamp 45 6 6 10 10 9 86
Tie wire 405 42 12 84 72 30 645
Tension set 24 2 3 7 7 5 48
Earthing set 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
Table (5.20) Quantities of the accessories [3]
All outdoor Equipment/material to be supplied against this specification shall be suitable
for satisfactory continuous operation under tropical conditions shown in chapter (4).
5.3.4 Spacing
5.3.4.1 Sag and span
From table (3.6) the minimum span between poles for 11kV, (35 mm2) ACSR conductors
equal (80 m) and from table (3.7) the minimum sag equal (0.32m).
5.3.4.2 Clearance
From table (3.4 and 3.5) we find the following table which gives the minimum clearance
of the 11 kV O.H.T.L between the conductors and supports and various objects.
Objects Clearance in (m)

Phase / phase 0.23
Phase / neutral 0.178
To roads (vertical clearance) 6
Telephone lines (horizontal clearance) 5 m from the outer conductor
Trees or their objects (vertical clearance) 2.64
Buildings and structures (horizontal clearance
4
from the max. deviated conductor
Table (5.21) Minimum clearance
95
5.3.5 Calculations
5.3.5.1 Voltage drop
According to equation (3-37) we find this formula:
I  ( R  jX L )
V %   100%
11  103
The resistance and inductance of the conductors from appendix (C) is equal 0.784 Ω/km
0.4 Ω/km respectively, so we found the following table:
length Resistance Inductance Currents Voltage drop

portions
(km) (Ω) (Ω) (A) (%)
A-B 11.42 8.953 4.568 27.9 2.548
B-C 1.32 1.035 0.528 15.4 0.163
B-H 0.42 0.329 0.168 12.4 0.042
C-D 2.49 1.952 0.996 2.7 0.054
C-E 2.17 1.701 0.868 8.3 0.144
E-F 1 0.784 0.4 4.1 0.033
Table (5.22) Actual voltage drop
The maximum actual voltage drop will equal „2.88%‟.
5.3.5.2 Power losses

Power losses are calculated by using equations (3-48, 3-49)
The resistance and reactance of the conductors from appendix (C) equal 0.784, 0.4 Ω/km
From the above equations and table (5.13) we find the line losses in the following table:
Resistance Reactance Currents Ploss Qloss

portions
(Ω) ( Ω) (A) (W) (VAR)
A-B 8.953 4.568 27.9 20910 10668
B-C 1.035 0.528 15.4 735 375
B-H 0.329 0.168 12.4 150 78
C-D 1.952 0.996 2.7 42 21
C-E 1.701 0.868 8.3 351 180
E-F 0.784 0.4 4.1 39 21
Total losses 22227 11343
Table (5.23) Line losses
96
The total losses for the system include the losses of the feeders and transformers, so from
table (5.12) for 0.86 power factor we find the following table:
Villages Losses (VA) Ploss (W) Qloss (VAR)

kauman 2220 1909 1133
Al_sabalah al_hamra 1340 1152 684
Bani juma’ah 950 817 485
Bait al_esal 1240 1066 633
Al_mianeed 1220 1049 622
Total losses 5993 3557
Table (5.24) Transformers losses
From table (5.23, 5.24) we found the total losses of the system equal (28220+j14900).
5.4 References
1. Juma'an company
2. Al sharq company for PV system
4. Al ashwal company for electricity
The other references of this chapter is the same of the references of chapter (3)
97
Chapter 6
Economic Evaluation
and Comparison
6.1 Introduction
The main objective of the supply system design is to provide an adequate supply of
acceptable quality whilst keeping the cost as low as possible.
Cost is the common factor which affects the selection of supply system, For example
there are some loads which have special requirements, such as loads that must be kept in
operation under all conditions (loads like computers for traffic control or supply to
hospital operation theatres). These special requirements are addressed in a number of
ways depending on the economies of the situation.
Supply system equipment incurs two types of cost:
Capital cost (fixed cost), which includes the equipment, land, labor for site preparation
construction and installation … etc.
Operating costs, this includes labor and equipment for operation, maintenance and
services as well as power losses, although, equipment losses may be small compared to
the power it delivers, its life time losses may be much higher than its capital cost.
6.2 Solar PV supply system

6.2.1 Capital Cost (CF)
Present cost of system components calculations:
System components Unit cost ($) Quantity NO Total cost ($)

PV module-200W 850 2352 1999200
Battery-1270Ah with
3000 114 342000
charge controller
Battery-680Ah with
2650 285 755250
charge controller
Inverter-30KW 25650 5 128250
Inverter-75KW 43850 3 131550
Inverter-36KW 29550 4 118200
BOS 10% of module cost 199920
Total initial outlay 3674370
Table (6.1) [3]
*Balance-of-system (BOS) in table (6.1) includes the cost of wiring, fuses, circuit breaker,
array mount, ground rod and other miscellaneous expenses such as switches and outlets.
98
Future expansion of system components cost calculations:
System components Unit cost ($) Quantity NO Total cost ($)
PV module-200W 850 1387 1178950

Battery-1270Ah with
3000 76 228000
charge controller
Battery-680Ah with
2650 209 553850
charge controller
Inverter-30KW 25650 1 25650
Inverter-75KW 43850 2 87700
Inverter-50KW 30500 3 91500
BOS 10% of module cost 117895
Total initial outlay 2283545
Table (6.2) [3]
Arrays and their accessories (mounting structures) cost:

C Array  N MN  CU M [$] (6-1)
C Array  2352 850  1999200$
C steel  10 %C Array (6-2)
Csteel  10%C Array  199920$
C pv  C Array  C steel (6-3)
C pv  C Array  C steel  $2199120
Batteries cost:
3
C B   C B1 (1  i ) 5 n , n  0,1,2,3 (6-4)
n 0
Where:
i = interest rate (i % for renewable energy systems in Yemen) = 1%.
The cost of the required batteries CB1 is given by the following equation:
CB1  N B1  Cb1  N B 2  Cb2 (6-5)
C B1  114  3000  285 2650  1097250$
Because that warranty of batteries is 5 year and the life time of the project is 20 year and
according to the interest rate (i) so that the total capital cost of the batteries can be
calculated by using the following equation:
C B  C B1  C B1 (1  i ) 5  C B1 (1  i ) 10  C B1 (1  i ) 15 (6-6)
CB =1878151.548 $
99
Control cost:
According to the references and the last developed projects for some areas the cost of the
requirements of control equal to one percent (1%) of the whole panels and batteries cost
and it is calculated as the following:
C cont.  1%  (CB1  C Array ) (6-7)
C cont.  0.01 (1999200 2093800) 40930$

Inverters cost:
C inv  N inv1.  C inv1.  N inv2.  C inv2.  N inv3.  C inv3. (6-8)
C inv. = 498000 $
Because that warranty of inverter is 10 years so the total capital cost of the inverters are
calculated as the following:
1
Cinv   Cinv (1  i ) 10 n , n  0,1 (6-9)
n 0
Cinv  Cinv  Cinv (1  i) 10 (6-10)

Cinv = 593150.105 $
The capital cost of the required equipments with the erection is:
C F  C PV  C INV  C B  C CONT.  C FG  6994896.6531$
6.2.2 Running cost (CR)

C R  C F  C Per . [$ / Year] = 1%C F (6-11)
Where Percentage of running cost from the fixed cost
C Per .  1%
(6-12)
C R  69949$ / year
6.2.3 Annual cost (An)

The resulted annual cost from generation system working equal to summation of running
cost and the capital cost after change it to annual cost by using annual factor (Cea) that is
equal to:
Cea = i + D (6-13)
Where the interest rate i = 1 %
And the Depreciation factor D = 5 % so that
C ea  6%
Where the total annual cost is given by the following formula:
An  C R  C F  C ea (6-14)
An = 67622.1+ 6994896.653×0.06 = 487315.9 [$/Year]
100
6.2.4 Cost of electricity (CE)

To determine the cost of KWh we must find the Etotal in KWh/year as the following:
E PV ( F , P ) [ KWh / Year]  E PV(F,P) (KWh/day)  365 day/year (6-15)
From table (4.19) and table (5.6), EPV(F,P) = 1416.465 + 2360.757 = 3777.222 kWh/day
So EPV(F,P)  3777.222[ KWh / day]  365[day / Year]  1378686.03[ KWh / Year]
And the cost of KWh is calculated by the following formula:
A
CE  n (6-16)
E PV ( F , P )
487315.89
CE   0.3535 $ / KWh
1378686.03
101
6.3 Diesel generator supply system

6.3.1 Capital cost (CF)
Capital cost involves the cost of the equipments and the cost of erection for diesel
generators with its accessories as follows:
Diesel generator Water tank Diesel tank Pipes Valves
Villages\ costs
($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
kauman 37800 250 800 13 8
Al_sabalah 17880 250 400 13 8
Bani juma’ah 15500 250 350 13 8
Bait al_esal 17880 250 400 13 8
Al_mianeed 17880 250 350 13 8
Total cost 106940 1250 2300 65 40
Table (6.3) [1]
From above table, the total capital cost equal ‘110595 $’.

Operating cost
Operating cost is the cost of fuel consumption, lubricating oil and labors salary. Assume
there are one labor for each generator and one engineer for all generators. The cost of
diesel equal (0.175 $/litre), lubricating oil (2.5 $/litre), assume the salary of labor (300
$/month) and the salary of the engineer (500 $/month) that’s mean the total salary is
(400$/month) in each village. To find the cost of fuel consumption ($/kWh) we use the
following equation:
Cost ($/kWh) = fuel consumption (L/kWh) × cost of diesel ($/L) (6-17)
To find the lubricating oil cost ($/kWh) we use this equation:

lubricating oil capacity (L)
Cost ($/kWh) = [ ] × cost of oil ($/L) × fuel consumption (L//kWh)
fuel capacity of changing oil (L)
(6-18)
lubricating Fuel consumption Eng. and labor
Villages
oil($/kWh) ($/kWh) ($/kWh)
kauman 0.00463 0.04865 0.002371
Al_sabalah al_hamra 0.00395 0.05530 0.006629
Bani juma’ah 0.00268 0.05635 0.011023
Bait al_esal 0.00395 0.05530 0.007141
Al_mianeed 0.00395 0.05530 0.007281
Total cost 0.01916 0.2709 0.034445
Table (6.4) [1]
The total operating cost equal (0.3245 $/kWh)
102
Maintenance cost
The maintenance of diesel generator includes changing diesel filter ‘every month’,
changing oil filter ‘every month’ and changing pistons and its accessories ‘five years'.
The cost of diesel filter (7$), oil filter (9$) and the pistons and its accessories (1500$), so
the maintenance cost will be represented as ‘$/kWh’ as follows:
Diesel filter Oil filter pistons

Villages
($/kWh) ($/kWh) ($/kWh)
kauman 0.00004 0.00005 0.00015
Al_sabalah al_hamra 0.00012 0.00015 0.00041
Bani juma’ah 0.00019 0.00025 0.00067
Bait al_esal 0.00013 0.00016 0.00044
Al_mianeed 0.00013 0.00016 0.00045
Total cost 0.00061 0.00077 0.00212
Table (6.5) [1]
The maintenance cost of all villages equal (0.0035 $/kWh).

The total running cost equal (0.328 $/kWh)
From table (4.12) the total power consumption in all villages equal (522.6 kVA), the
power factor assumed to be the same of the national grid 0.86 lag, then the total power of
the load equal (522.6 × 0.86 = 449.44 kW)
The total annual energy consumption equal (449.44 × 8760) = 3937059.36 kWh / year
The total running cost per annual equal (0.328 × 3937059.36) = 1291355.47 $/year
The resulted annual cost from supply system working equal to summation of running cost
and the capital cost after change it to annual cost by using annual factor (Cea) from
equation (6-13).
And the Depreciation factor D = 5 %, so that Cea = 6% per annual
An  C R  C F  C ea
An = 1291355.47 +110595×0.06 = 1297991.17 $/year

So the cost of KWh is calculated by the following formula:
A
CE  n
E
1297991.17
CE   0.3296 $ / kWh
3937059.36
103
6.4 Extend with national grid supply system

6.4.1 Capital cost (CF)
The following table is showing the cost of all equipments:
Description Quantity (pcs) Cost / unit ($) Total cost ($)

Poles (11m) 246 355 87330
Three phase transformer (200kVA) 1 4940 4940
Post insulator (11kV) 27 19.48 525.96
pin insulator (11kV) 645 13.54 8733.3
disc insulator (11kV) 96 25.68 2465.28
Conductor ACSR (35 mm2) (drums) 29 985 28565
Surge arrester (11kV) 18 71.25 1282.5
Drop out fuse (11kV,100A) 18 104.5 1881
Fuse link (11kV, 63A) 3 5.3 15.9
Fuse link (11kV,25A) 3 4.28 12.84
Fuse link (11kV,10A) 9 3.8 34.2
Fuse link (11kV, 5A) 3 3.31 9.93
Operating rod (11kV) 1 85.5 85.5
Galv. Cross arm 254 74.1 18821.4
Tie strap 434 0.07 30.38
Section strap 21 9.85 206.85
Eye bolt 18 4.86 87.48
M.B (20*45)mm 434 0.83 360.22
M.B (20*300)mm 454 2.28 1035.12
Tension clamp 86 11.4 980.4
Tie wire 645 1.43 922.35
Tension set 48 68 3264
Earthing set 6 213.75 1282.5
Table (6.6) [5]
From table above the total cost of all equipments and its accessories equal ‘178812.1$’.
The cost of erection for the transmission line equal (3200 $/km, the length of the transmission
line 18.82 km), for transformers, (50 kVA = 900 $), (100 kVA = 1000 $), (200 kVA = 1100 $), so
the total cost of erection equal (63224 $). [4]
So the capital cost equal (242036.1 $)
104

The running cost includes the cost of the (kWh) consumption in PEC grid generation
power plant and the maintenance cost of all equipments in the feeders. The cost of the
(kWh) consumption equal (0.03595$/kWh), the cost of maintenance may be neglected
because the maintenance of the transmission line is very rare during the year. [2]
The total running cost per annual
CR = 0.03595 × 3937059.36 =141537.284 $/year
6.4.3 Cost of losses (CL)

The public electricity corporation sales the power for domestic load as (kWh), so we will
choose only the real power losses to find it’s cost. From section (5.35.2) the total power
loss equal (28.22 kW), so to find the total power loss per annual we will multiple the loss
by 8760 hour
Total loss = 247207.2 kWh/year
CL = 0.03595 ×247207.2 = 8887.1 $/year

The resulted annual cost from supply system working equal to summation of running cost
and the capital cost after change it to annual cost by using annual factor (Cea) from
equation (6-13).
And the Depreciation factor D = 5 %, so that
Cea = 6% per annual
An  C R  C L  C F  Cea
An = 141537.284 + 8887.1 + 242036.1 ×0.06 = 164946.55 $/year

So the cost of KWh is calculated by the following formula:
An
CE 
E
The total energy consumption per year equal (3937059.36 kWh/year)
164946.55
CE   0.0419 $ / kWh
3937059.36
105
6.5 Comparison
For comparison between various studied supply systems we use the following factors:
 Reliability
 Environmental impacts
 Cost
6.5.1 Reliability
The reliability for any system depend on various factors faults, equipment failures’,
outage of loads due to the partial or the whole maintenance for the main components of
the intended system.
For diesel power plant: Faults: the resulted problems from the faults will not effect on
the equipment or any other component of the system due to existing of protection system
but for the last design the protection system will disconnect the supply of the customers
then this is considered disadvantage for this design because there is no stand by supply.
Equipment failure (diesel generator or transformer): if any of mentioned parts of system
generation has failed the supply will be disconnected of the loads for repair the faulted
part so this problem is considered problem for the reliability.
Maintenance: it is most important for any design where includes diesel generator and any
part of the system but at different levels in our design the maintenance of the main
components of the system will force us for disconnecting the supply of loads so this is
considered disadvantage for the reliability of the system.
For PV power plant: Faults: the faults in PV system don’t effect on the system
component as compared AC systems and the protection system isolate any faulted part
and save the remain system to operate as before the fault so this considered the most
important advantage for this system as compared with the other system designs.
Equipment failure (diesel generator or transformer): for PV system due to varying of
system parts any faulted component such as module or battery failure may be change
without effects on continuity of supply or may be disconnect small part of the connected
load as mentioned in the reliability of PV system in chapter(3).
Maintenance: from the most important advantages is maintenance of any part of the
system without affecting on system continuity of supply or sometimes part of loads may
be outage at the inverter maintenance state.
For extension with the national grid: The more effect factor on the extension with the
grid is faults that may cause disconnecting of the loads due to the protection system such
as faults in distribution transformers or distribution lines. The maintenance and
environmental impacts are related with the power generation stations that supply the
national grid.
106
6.5.2 Environmental impacts

The environmental impacts include the effects of these supply systems in the
environment such as the emissions.
For PV power plant: There is no impact on the environment due to generation by using
PV systems so this considered from the most important advantages for this design as
compared with other alternatives.
For diesel power plant: Diesel engines produce little carbon monoxide at the first part of
lifetime and after that the quantity of carbon monoxide will be increased. However, they
can produce black soot (or more specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust,
which consists of unburned carbon compounds. According to environment laws these
products are considered pollution and very dangerous for human, animals and agricultural
areas so this problem make the generation by using fossil fuel (diesel) is not desired from
the environmental view.
For extension with the national grid: According to the supply system that includes
diesel, steam, gas power plants there are very dangerous effects on the environment so
these generation sources are not desired.
6.5.3 Cost
The cost includes the cost of the electricity as follows:
Supply systems Cost of energy ($/kWh)
Solar PV system 0.3535
Diesel generator system 0.3296
Extend with national grid 0.0419
Table (6.7)
Due to that the loads are not important (the continuity of supply is not necessary) so the
reliability will be excluded from comparison between alternatives.
And also the environmental impacts will be excluded from comparison due to the
quantity of impacts at environment are small.
The most important factor that will be used for comparison between different supply
systems is the cost which includes some last mentioned factors.
The results are shown at the below table:
From the above table we found the extension with national grid is the best supply systems
because it is the lowest cost of energy, so the cost of energy in the bill will be '0.0419
$/kWh'.
107
6.6 More economical supply system layout

Al_sabalah al_hamra 3-Ph
75 kVA
3-Ph E Bait al_asal
75 kVA C
D
3-Ph
3-Ph G 3-Ph
F
200 kVA
50 kVA kauman 75 kVA
Bani juma’ah Al_mianeed
B
Step down transformer
Exist pole (11 m)

New pole (11 m)
Tension set
Earthing set
New lines
Exist line
A PEC exist line
Figure (6.1)
108
6.7 Conclusion
Most of Yemeni governorates have many alternatives to supply their by electricity. More
reliability system is higher cost of electricity. The economical way to supply villages
located near to the national grid is the extension of the national grid because of the cost
of the electricity in extension of the national grid is lesser than the cost of electricity in
other supply systems and other reason is Yemen Government supporting for the
electricity generation than real costs of generation.
6.8 Difficulties Faced Us

 We can't get new information for the project from the Central Statistical
Organization because they asked us to get money.
 Difficulties for get actual information about the loads in these villages because of the
intertribal bigotries.
 There are no specific Yemeni codes.
 There is no financial support for studying this project.
 We can't estimate the cost of land for this project.
 There is no enough time for making field surveying.
6.9 Recommendations
 We recommend dealing with special sectors which support the projects by more
information.
 We use individual design for each village, so we recommend studying central supply
system for all villages and comparing it with our designs.
 In solar PV system we recommend individual designing for each house and compare
it with our design.
 Taken into account the cost of the land to calculate the capital cost for all designs.
 Taken into account the reliability and environmental impact as essential parts in
comparison between different alternatives.
 We recommend asking support form economical experts.
6.10 Reference
1. Juma'an company
2. Hiziaz Power Station
3. Al sharq company for PV system
5. Al ashwal company for electricity
109
Appendix A _
Description of diesel generators
Specification\ villages DG1 DG2 DG3

Manufacture BOKUK
Standard ISO 3046
Model BDS-275 BDS-90 BDS-60
G
Stand by
E 287 89.5 60
output (KVA)
N Prime (KVA) 261 85 55
Efficiency (%) 92.5 90.4 89.7
E Frequency (Hz) 50
R excitation Brushless or self Excitation
A Rated speed ( min-1) 1500 1500 1500
Number of pole 4 4 4
T
Phase / wire Three phase / 4 wires
O Rated Voltage AC 200 → 480 required
R Power factor 0.8 lagging
Voltage regulation(IEC-std) ±0.5% ±0.5% ±0.5%
model P126TI D1146 DB58
No.Of Cylinders 6 6 6
E Displacement (cc) 11051 8071 5785
N Max. Stand by (PS) 370 116 80
output Prime (PS) 328 105 73
G
Fuel consumption (L/kwh) 0.278 0.316 0.322
I Fuel tank capacity (L) 300 140 100
N Lube oil capacity (L) 20 15 10
E Electric Starting system (Ah) 2×200 2×120 2×120
Cooling system Water cooled
S Noise Sound proof
E Weight (kg) 3500 2200 1800
T Dimension (mm) 3830×1300×1800 2800x1100x1560 2800x1000x1500
$ Cost ($) 37800 17880 15500
Appendix B _
Transformer specifications
Specification \ transformers T1 T2 T3
Applicable Standards IEC 60076
Manufacture EAGLERISE ELECTRIC &ELECTRONIC CO
Country of manufacture CHINA INDIA INDIA
vector group Dyn11 Dyn11 Dyn11
No - phases 3-phase 3-phase 3-phase
Rating (kVA) 200 kVA 75kVA 50 kVA
Over load at 10C0 (6hours) 20% 20% 20%
Primary Voltage 11 kV 11 kV 11 kV
Secondary Voltage 0.415kV 0.415kV 0.415kV
Frequency 50 Hz 50 Hz 50 Hz
Connection Delta / Star Delta / Star Delta / Star
Primary winding 38 kV 38 kV 38 kV
Secondary
3 kV 3kV 3 kV
Applied winding
test, No load current 1.6 % 1.1 % 0.9 %
1min.50Hz No load losses 0.29 kW 0.115kW 0.08 kW
Load losses (%) 0.95 1.6 1.9
Impedance 4% 4% 4%
tapping of primary winding (±3×2.5%) (±3×2.5%) (±3×2.5%)
Noise level 46 dB 44 dB 43 dB
0 0
Temperature rise 65C for winding, and 55C for oil
Cooling Type ONAN
Oil Capacity 172 Litre 105 Litre 95 Litre
Oil weight 155 kg 100 kg 100 kg
Dimensions 1110×730×1400 1000×650×1270 900×650×1270
Total weight 645 kg 350 kg 260 kg
Appendix C _
Conductor specifications (35 mm2)
Manufacture HENAN TAIFA CABLE CO.

Place of Origin CHINA
Material ACSR
Standards for design IEC 60228
Overall Dia. mm 7.8
Calculated breaking load kN 11.25
TOTAL Weight Per Km Kg/Km 195
Current long term Thermal carrying capacity
for45 ْ C Ambient temp. And 0.6 m/Sec wind
A 180
velocity under effect of 1200 w/m2 solar radiation
for 80 ْ C conductor temperature.
Resistance / km at 20 ْ C by DC. Ώ/km 0.784
Inductance (ignoring spacing effects) Ώ/km 0.4
Coefficient of linear expansion I/ ْ C 14.3X10-6
Modulus of elasticity N/mm2 85300
Standard Cable Length per Drum m 2000
Poles specifications
Applicable Standards BS144

Manufacture IMPRACGNIERWORK WUELKNITZ
GMBH. Germany
Country of growth Finland & Sweden
Length 11 m
Minimum diameter at 1.5 m from butt end 240 mm
Minimum diameter of top 155 mm
Modulus of elasticity 10500 N/mm2
Average Ultimate Extreme Fiber Stress N/mm²53.8
Appendix D _
Post type insulator specifications
Type Post insulators

Manufacture Hindustan chemical
Color Standard glaze color – Brown
Creepage Distance Minimum 300 mm
Highest System Voltage 12 kV
Working Voltage 11 kV
Tensional Strength 30 N.m
Compressive Strength 32 kN
Tensile Strength 1.8 kN
Power Frequency Wet 38 kV
Withstand Voltage Dry 60 kV
Flashover Voltage Dry 70 kV
Impulse Withstand Voltage 75
Net Weight 4.9 kg
Pin type insulator specifications
Type pin insulators

Visible Discharge Voltage 9 kV
Mechanical Failing Load 10 kN
Impulse Withstand Voltage 75
Net Weight 1.65 kg
Appendix D _
Disc type insulator specifications
Type Disc insulators

Visible Discharge Voltage 9 kV
Spacing 145 mm
Porcelain Diameter 225 mm
Electro-mechanical strength 45 kN
Impulse Withstand Voltage 105 kV
Net Weight 4 kg
Surge arrester specifications
Applicable Standards IEC 60099-4

Rated Voltage 12 kV
Nominal Discharge Current 10 kA
Current used for long 75 A at 1000 µS
duration Impulse test
High current impulse 65 kA at 4/10 µS
Maximum continuous 2.55 kV rms
operating voltage
Reference voltage > 3 kV rms
Leakage current through Less than1mA
arrestor at operating voltage
Weight Approximate 110 g
Applicable Standard SC 37B
Maximum residual voltage 9 kV
at nominal discharge current
Reference current 1.0 mA
Appendix E _
Fuses specifications
Specification \ Type F1 F2 F3 F4
Applicable Standards IEC 62271-107
Manufacture TACHUAN CO, China
Rated voltage 11kV
Rated current 25A 10A 5A 63A
Breaking current 20kA
Impulse voltage 70kV
Power frequency withstand voltage 55kV
Performance Characteristics of panels
Typical Performance Characteristics The unit GEPV-072

Peak Power (Wp) Watts 200
Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp) Volts 26.3
Maximum Power Current (Imp) Amps 7.6
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) Volts 32.9
Short Circuit Current (Isc) Amps 8.1
Short Circuit Temperature Coefficient mA/°C +5.6
Open Circuit Voltage Coefficient V/°C -0.12
Maximum Power Temperature Coefficient %/°C -0.5
Maximum Series Fuse Amps 15
Operational Specifications of panels
Nominal Operating Cell 45 &degC (Irradiance = 800 w/m² ambient temperature =

Temperature 20 &degC; wind speed = 1 m/s)
Weight (Wind) Bearing Potential 50 lbs/ft² (125 mph equivalent)
Hailstone Impact Resistance 1 inch at 50 mph (24 mm at 80 kph)
Weight 39 pounds (17.7 kg)
Dimensions 58.5" x 38.6 " x 2.2"
Appendix F _
Specification of selected modules

Appendix F _
Appendix G _
Appendix H _
Symbol Description Symbol Description

PV Photovoltaic HVAC Heating, Ventilation ,Air ,Condition
p-side Positive side IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
n-side Negative side BS British Standard
STC Standard Test Condition Pn Nominal power
PW Peak Watt Ks Simultaneity factor
Ish Shunt current Ku Maximum utilization factor
ID Diod current Kd Demand factor
IL Light generated current ASHRAE/I American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
Q Electron charger=1.6*10-19 ESNA and Air-conditioning Engineering/ Illuminating
α,β Temperature coefficients Engineering Society of North American
NiCd Nickel Cadmium Pt Power turbine
Vmp Maximum power voltage λ Tip speed ratio
Nmp Number of parallel of modules mph Mile per hour
NM Number of modules O&M Operating and Maintenance
Nms Number of series of modules CT Current Transformer
AGM Absorbed Glass Material VT Voltage Transformer
VRLA Value Regulated Laid Acid AC Alternating Current
SLA Sealed Lead Acid DC Direct Current
KWh Kilo-Watt-hour VS Sending voltage
DOD Depth Of Discharger VR Receiving voltage
DOA Days Of Autonomy Vd Voltage drop
MCB Miniature Circuit Breaker R Line resistance
AIR Ampere-Interrupt Rating X Line reactance
GTS Grid-Tie Solar System IR Line current due to real power flow
GTB Grid-Tie Systems with Battery Backup IX Line current due to reactive power flow
NB Number of batteries ΔV Voltage drop along the feeder
NBP Number of batteries in parallel SF6 Hexa Sulfur Fluoride
NBS Number of batteries in series ACSR Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
BAh Battery capacity in Ampere Hour LV Low Voltage
P max Selected module power rating MV Medium Voltage
EPV Total daily loads UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
PPV Array size LTCs Load Tap-Changing transformers
VBb Battery bus voltage g/l Gallon per liter
Voc Open circuit voltage of the Module I.P Indicated Power
VB Selected battery voltage B.P Brake Power
CAh Amp-hour capacity of all batteries F.P Frictional Power
BAh Total battery capacity ηm Mechanical efficiency
CF Capital (Fixed)Cost ηi Indicated thermal efficiency
CB Batteries cost B.H.P Brake Horse Power
CArray Arrays cost I.H.P Indicated Horse Power
CSteel Mounting structure cost IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
CPV Module cost NMN Number of modules to be purchased
CCont. Control cost H Average sunshine hours
CInv. Inverter cost VMP Voltage at PMax(rating)(module design operating
CR Running cost voltage)
CPre. Percentage cost CFG Future growth cost
CTotal Total cost CAMA Civil Aviation and Metrology Authority
Cea Annual factor SAPV Stand Alone Photovoltaic
D Depreciation factor SCC Solar Charge Controller
An Annual cost FTemp. Temperature de-rating factor
Appendix H _
Symbol Description Symbol Description

Tcell.eff Average daily cell temperature CU-M Unit module cost
TStc Cell temperature at standard test conditions Xf Portion distance of feeder
ηDirt Derating Due to Temperature Xmax Maximum path of conductors
ηMan Manufacturers Output Tolerance Vd.f Voltage drop for feeder
ηcc Charger controller efficiency DPF Diesel Particulate Filter
ηB Battery efficiency AAC All Aluminum Conductors
ηloss Losses factor AAAC All Aluminum Alloy Conductors
ηInv Inverter efficiency ABC Aerial Bunched Cables
Vmp Peak module voltage IFL Full load current
MPPT Maximum Power Point Trackers Zb Base impedance
PWM Pulse Width Modulated Ifault Fault current
ACable Cross section area of cable l-l Line to line
IS.C.PV Short circuit current of each PV module l-g Line to ground
LCable Cable length ωt Angular velocity
Ipm Maximum power Current of the PV module rpm Revolution per minute
IS.C Short circuit current δ Power temperature coefficient
V Wind speed Cv Calorific value
r Radius of wind turbine ηb Brake thermal efficiency
CP Power coefficient TA.day Daytime average ambient temperature
CE Cost of electricity LED Light Emitting Diode
HID High Intensity Discharge Id Classical diode current
ESAMP Energy Sector Assistance Management Program Eload1 The energy of the village
BOS Balance Of System Eload2 The energy of the batteries
Pcs Pieces HDC Hard Drawn Copper
OHTL Overhead Transmission Line ΔT The changing in temperature

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‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫‪REPUBLIC OF YEMEN‬‬ ‫الجمهورية اليمنيــــــــــة‬

Chapter 2 Electrical Load estimation Page

Chapter 3 Supply systems

3.1 Photo voltaic supply system 13

3.2 Wind energy 33

3.4 Extend with the network 51

Chapter 4 Project information

5.1 Solar PV supply system 83

5.2 Diesel power plant 86

5.3 Extension with national grid 88

Chapter 6 Economic evaluation and comparison

2.2 Importance of load estimation

2.3 The consideration of electrical load estimation

 Experience and skills from similar old project

2.4 Load Estimate versus Load Calculation

2.5 Type of loads

2.6 Load curves and load duration curves

2.7 Installed power (kW)

2.8 Installed apparent power (kVA)

2.9 Methods of estimation

2.9.1 Service factors

Kind of load Demand factor (kd)

Table (2.1) demand factor for some domestic loads [2]

Simultaneity factor (ks)

Number of consumers Factor of simultaneity (Ks)

Number of circuits Factor of simultaneity(ks)

Table (2.3) Factor of simultaneity for distribution boards [2]

Simultaneity factors which may be used for circuits supplying commonly-occurring

Circuit function Factor of simultaneity (ks)

Table (2.4) Factor of simultaneity according to circuit function [2]

2.9.2 Using energy consumption

can be greatly reduced by using DC lighting. In an existing home, wiring a DC

2.11.2 Distribution Loss Factors

2.11.3 Transmission Loss Factors

1.069 1.027 1.038 Distribution

Table (2.6) loss factor for different type of customer [6]

3.1 Photovoltaic supply system

3.1.2 Solar cells

Figure (3.1) p-n junction of diode

3.1.2.2 Types of solar cells materials

3.1.2.3 Equivalent Electrical Circuit of PV cell

Voc = V+IRs (3-1)

Figure (3.2) Equivalent electrical circuit of PV module

3.1.2.4 (I-V) Curve

1) Frame 2) Weatherproof junction box

 Derating Due to Dirt (  Dirt ): the output of a PV module can be reduced as a

Module power = 76 × 0.95 = 72.2W.

 Derating Due to Temperature: With increasing temperature, the short-circuit

And Voc  V( 1  β  ΔT) (3-6)

T  T Cell.eff  T Stc  Ta.day (3-11)

Tcell.eff =Ta.day+25 (3-12)

3.1.4.1 Array design

3.1.4.2 Final array configuration

Where K1   Man  F Temp   Dirt (3-14)

K 2   inv  loss  cc (3-15)

Where ηMan, FTemp, and ηDirt are mentioned above and

Nominal rated array output = N MN  PMax (3-18)

3.1.5 Photovoltaic (PV) orientation designs

3.1.6 Solar PV Systems

3.1.6.1 Modules and arrays

3.1.6.2 DC combiner box

3.1.6.3 Charge Controller

3.1.6.4 Power Inverter