The Effect of Pornography Use on the Academic Performance of College Students

Promise Tewogbola

Western Illinois University

An Abstract of

a Thesis

Presented to the Faculty of

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Health Sciences and Social Work
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Western Illinois University
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In Partial Fulfilment
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of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science

By

Promise Tewogbola

December 2018




ProQuest Number: 13421287




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 ABSTRACT
Pornography is a public health issue that is prevalent among youths of college

age, with empirical research revealing many negative effects on the human brain.

Currently, there are few studies examining the association between pornography

consumption and academic performance. This study aimed to investigate the relationship

between the pornography consumption habits of college students and their academic

performances. The relationship between the pornography consumption habits of college

students (210 male, 156 female) and their academic performances was analyzed by using

Spearman’s correlation. Respondents’ pornography consumption habits were measured

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with the Problematic Pornography Use Scale (Kor, A., Zilcha-Mano, Fogel, Mikulincer,
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Reid, & Potenza, 2014), while their academic performances were measured with the

Academic Success Inventory (Prevatt, Li, Welles, Festa-Dreher, Yelland, & Lee, 2011)
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and grade point averages. The results showed that the more frequently college students

consumed pornography, the less likely they were to expend their efforts on their school

work (r = -0.30762, p < 0.001). The results also suggested that the more frequently
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college students consumed pornography, the lower their grade point averages are likely to

be (r = -0.19050, p < 0.001). Additionally, the results showed that the more frequently

college students consumed pornography, the more likely they were to experience

functional and behavioral problems, such as control difficulties, arising from

pornography consumption (r = 0.34945, p < 0.001). From a mental health perspective, the

findings of this study reveal the need for public health stakeholders and policy makers to

consider the effect that pornography consumption has on the academic performance of

college students.
PR
EV
IE
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The Effect of Pornography Use on the Academic Performance of College Students

Promise Tewogbola

Western Illinois University

A Thesis

Presented to the Faculty of

Health Sciences and Social Work

W
Western Illinois University
IE
EV
In Partial Fulfilment

of the Requirements for the Degree

PR

Master of Science

By

Promise Tewogbola

December 2018
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Dr. Jamie Johnson for

the continuous support of my research, for his patience, motivation, and immense

practical knowledge. His guidance helped me in literally every step of this thesis. I could

not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for this stage of my academic

career.

Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the rest of my thesis committee: Dr. Lorette

Oden and Dr. Maureen Bezold, for their insightful comments, corrections and

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encouragement.
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I also want to thank my fellow classmates, Mr. Ibrahim Ijale and Mrs. Uyiosa Chukwuka,

who went through this rigorous research process with me. I appreciate you guys for the
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stimulating discussions, for the sleepless nights we were working together before

deadlines, and for all the fun we have had these past two years.
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I would like to appreciate my grandmother, Dr. J. A. Akanni-Craig, for her unconditional

love, inspiration, guidance and encouragement. I would like to thank my parents, Pastor

& Mrs. M. O. Tewogbola for their constant spiritual support, love and prayers. I also

want to thank Miss Myya Robinson for her undiluted love, constant care, and relentless

emotional support.

Last, but not the least, I want to appreciate God, the source of all wisdom, knowledge,

understanding, power, might and love. He has brought me this far, and I am excited about

the future He is leading me to.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ iii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... vi

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................1

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 2

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Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 3

Justification of the Study .............................................................................................. 3

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Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 7
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Delimitations .................................................................................................................. 8

Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 9
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Assumptions ................................................................................................................... 9

Definitions .................................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER 2. CRITICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...........................................11

General Introduction .................................................................................................. 11

Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................... 12

Structure and Function of the Brain ......................................................................... 12

Effects of Pornography Consumption on Brain Structure and Function .............. 16

Effects of Pornography Consumption on Males and Females ................................ 18

iii
 Academic Performance and Contributing Factors .................................................. 20

Available Studies Associating Pornography Consumption and Academic

Performance ................................................................................................................. 23

Summary ...................................................................................................................... 24

CHAPTER 3. METHODS...............................................................................................25

Purpose ......................................................................................................................... 25

Research Design........................................................................................................... 25

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Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 26

Setting of the Study ..................................................................................................... 27

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Sample .......................................................................................................................... 27
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Instrumentation ........................................................................................................... 28

Data Collection ............................................................................................................ 30

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Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS .................................................................................................32

Purpose ......................................................................................................................... 32

Descriptive Statistics for Demographic Variables.................................................... 32

Correlations to Answer the First Research Question .............................................. 39

Correlations to Answer the Second Research Question .......................................... 45

Correlations to Answer the Third Research Question ............................................ 48

Correlations to Answer the Fourth Research Question .......................................... 51

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CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .....................................60

Statement of Problem.................................................................................................. 60

Purpose ......................................................................................................................... 60

Key Findings and Implications .................................................................................. 61

Pornography Consumption and Study Skills........................................................ 61

Pornography Consumption and Grades................................................................ 63

Pornography Consumption and Career Decidedness .......................................... 65

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Pornography Consumption, Functional and Behavioral Problems .................... 67

Conclusions and Recommendations .......................................................................... 69

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Limitations and Recommendations for Further Research ...................................... 70
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References .........................................................................................................................71

APPENDIX A ...................................................................................................................90
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APPENDIX B ...................................................................................................................96

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: DEMOGRAPHICS OF SURVEY RESPONDENTS ...................................... 34

TABLE 2:MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF RESPONSES TO

PROBLEMATIC PORNOGRAPHY USE SCALE .................................................. 36

TABLE 3:MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF RESPONSES TO THE

ACADEMIC SUCCESS INVENTORY .................................................................... 37

TABLE 4: SPEARMAN CORRELATIONS BETWEEN VARIABLES FROM THE

PROBLEMATIC PORNOGRAPHY USE SCALE AND THE ACADEMIC

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SUCCESS INVENTORY .......................................................................................... 42

TABLE 5: SPEARMAN CORRELATIONS BETWEEN VARIABLES FROM THE

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PROBLEMATIC PORNOGRAPHY USE SCALE (CONTROL DIFFICULTIES)

AND THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS INVENTORY.................................................. 54

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TABLE 6:SPEARMAN CORRELATIONS BETWEEN VARIABLES FROM THE

PROBLEMATIC PORNOGRAPHY USE SCALE (DISTRESS AND

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FUNCTIONAL PROBLEMS SUBSCALE) AND THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS

INVENTORY ............................................................................................................ 56

TABLE 7:SPEARMAN CORRELATIONS BETWEEN VARIABLES FROM THE

PROBLEMATIC PORNOGRAPHY USE SCALE (EXCESSIVE USE) AND THE

ACADEMIC SUCCESS INVENTORY .................................................................... 57

vi
 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

In 2016, the Utah House of Representatives passed a resolution stating that

pornography is a public health hazard because of the different studies that have revealed

pornography’s negative impacts on the social, emotional and physical health of

individuals, families and even communities (Dines, 2016). To put this into perspective,

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more than 1 in every 5 searches on Google’s mobile search engine is associated with

pornography (Kamvar & Baluja, 2006). The figures about use of pornography, especially
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among college students, are astonishing. In a study of 813 college students from schools

in the United States, 21.3% of the young men studied said that they viewed pornographic
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material every day (Carroll et al., 2008). In another survey of 29,000 students at North

American universities, a whopping 64% of the college men said they spent time watching
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online pornography every week (Leahy, 2009). Even more alarming, a study conducted

among 800 students from the University of Sidney revealed that 47% of the students

spent between 30 minutes and 3 hours every day on pornography (Szittner, 2012).

Studies have shown that college students spend a lot of time watching

pornography (Carroll et al., 2008; Leahy, 2009; Szittner, 2012). They have also revealed

that there are associations between pornography consumption and stress, anxiety,

depression, and social malfunctioning (Levin, Lillis & Hayes, 2012); impaired sexual

tastes and reduced satisfaction from relationships (Morgan, 2011); poor health and

1
reduced quality of life (Weaver et al., 2011), as well as, intimacy issues (Philaretou,

Mahfouz & Allen, 2005).

According to Kühn and Gallinat (2014), pornography consumption can cause

changes in the brain’s grey matter and reward areas. This is the primary reason this study

was undertaken to contribute to the body of scientific knowledge by identifying the

presence and degrees of correlations between pornography use and the variables that

determine the academic performance of college students.

Statement of the Problem

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Pornography is a public health issue that is prevalent among youths of college

age. This is a trend that will continue because pornography is a form of supernormal
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stimulation (Barrett, 2010) that thrives on factors such as accessibility and novelty, which
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have been proven to cause changes in the brain (Krebs, Heipertz & Duzel, 2011; Spicer et

al., 2007).
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The negative effects of pornography on the brain have been documented by

empirical research. For instance, Kühn and Gallinat (2014) observed that there was an

association between the amount of time spent watching pornography and reductions in

the amount of grey matter in the rewards centers responsible for motivation and decision-

making. They also discovered that an increase in the amount of time spent watching

pornography would lead to weakening of the nerve connections between the prefrontal

cortex and reward areas. Kühn and Gallinat (2014) reported that the weakening of the

nerve connections led to a reduction in self-control, discipline and willpower.

2
 However, since there have been few studies showing direct associations between

pornography consumption and academic performance, this study was designed to provide

a better understanding of how the use of pornography among college age students is

associated with the variables that determine academic performance.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to discover the impact of pornography use on the

academic performance of college students at Western Illinois University on the Macomb

and the Quad Cities campuses. The findings from this study provided a clearer picture of

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the associations between the use of pornography among college students and their

academic performance while also providing a basis for key stakeholders in the public
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health sector to take proactive measures towards containing the looming pornography

epidemic. Having said that, the findings of this study could potentially provide college
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students the opportunity to make educated choices with respect to their physical,

psychological, emotional and mental wellbeing, such that they are able to lead fruitful
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and fulfilling lives.

Justification of the Study

The findings of this study filled a crucial gap in the literature pertaining to the

associations between the use of pornography and poor academic performance among the

youths of college age. This is because the world is in the internet age where access to

pornography has considerably increased with more people rendered incapable of reducing

or stopping its consumption (Stark & Klucken, 2017). For instance, a study that tried to

compare pornography users with those who did not watch pornography was thwarted

3
because the experimenters did not find a single college student who had not viewed

pornography (Liew, 2009).

The role of the youth in any society cannot be overemphasized. They are a

fundamental part of any society’s posterity and their academic performance is a factor

that can make them eligible to fill key positions of economic significance in the nearest

future (Kell, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2013). A longitudinal study conducted by Kell,

Lubinski, and Benbow (2013) tracked 320 academically excellent students from the ages

of 13 to 38. The results from the study revealed that many of them went on to hold

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important positions of leadership and were assigned responsibilities crucial for individual

and organizational growth and development (Kell, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2013). Studies
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have also revealed that college graduates with academic success are more likely to be

gainfully employed, have stable jobs, and earn more money, while being less likely to
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engage in illegal activities (Rentner & Kober, 2001; National Alliance of Business Inc.,

1998). Unfortunately, many youths do not stand a chance since studies have shown that
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poor academic performances can destabilize the life course of an individual, ultimately

having devastating effects on society (Needham, Crosnoe, & Muller, 2004).

Pornography is a problem that is peculiar to the current generation of youth

because of its ease of accessibility (McAllister, 2017) and this should raise genuine

concerns in the public health sector. Kühn and Gallinat (2014) discovered that there is a

relationship between pornography consumption and low motivation levels, poor decision-

making skills, as well as, an inability to delay gratification. These are factors that may

ultimately affect the academic performance of college students. On the other hand,

abstinence from pornography has been associated with an increase in the ability to delay
4
gratification (Sproten, 2016). There are very few studies that seek to explore the

relationship between pornography use and academic performance. This could be because

pornography is a stigmatized topic which very few researchers are willing or capable of

studying empirically (Burke, 2014).

Additionally, studies have revealed the use of pornography to be associated with

high levels of depressive moods among pornography consumers (Skinner, 2011; Walton,

Cantor, & Lykins, 2017). These depressive moods may lead college students to remain in

isolation while not being in the right frame of mind to show up in class. Hysenbegasi,

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Hass, and Rowland (2005) observed that depression was associated with decreases in

college student’s grade point average, which is an objective measurement of academic

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performance.
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The use of pornography has also been found to be related with a weakening in the

performance of one’s working memory (Laier, Schulte, & Brand, 2013). To show the

importance of working memory, a study employing 124 undergraduates revealed that

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students with a low working memory capacity were more likely to lose focus when they

faced challenging tasks. On the other hand, individuals with higher working memory

capacity chose to keep their minds on the task at hand, rather than daydreaming (Kane et

al., 2007). Another study comparing students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD) and normal control students revealed that working memory is associated with

academic performance and can severely impact the ability of college students to perform

efficiently in their academics (Gropper & Tannock, 2009).

5
 Pornography consumption has been also associated with an unwillingness to

interact and integrate with others socially (Boies, Cooper, & Osborne, 2004). Researchers

have observed that individuals who manifested social anxiety and selective mutism were

less likely to do well on mathematics tests (Edison et al., 2011). Further studies have

revealed that college students experience frequent anxiety in learning situations,

especially when it involved lecturers and other students (Russell, 2008; Topham, 2009).

Studies carried out by Laier and Brand (2017) reported that the use of

pornography could negatively affect one’s general feeling of wellbeing, while making the

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pornography users more likely to be stressed out. In addition, pornography use has also

been found to be related with poor quality of life, as well as low self-esteem (Leppink,
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Chamberlain, Redden, & Grant, 2016). In a Pakistani study, the researchers observed that

there were positive correlations between self-esteem and the academic achievement of 80
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college students (Arshad, Zaidi, & Mahmood, 2015). The results obtained from a study

by Rosli et al. (2012) also revealed that college students with high self-esteem perform
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better in their academics than those with low self-esteem. This present study shed more

light on the associations between pornography consumption and the academic

performance skills that are dependent on self-esteem.

Despite the apparent negative effects of pornography, such as feelings of

inadequacy, poor social interactions, poor quality of life, and low self-esteem, the number

of studies attempting to find associations between pornography and academic

performance is astonishingly low. Thus, the findings from this study uncovered a clearer

relationship between pornography use among college students and academic

performance. This knowledge could potentially help health policy makers, health
6
educators and, health and educational administrators develop more proactive measures,

interventions and programs that will safeguard the loss of the future’s workforce to the

menace of pornography.

Moreover, the results of this study will equip college students with the knowledge

needed to make educated decisions that will contribute to their all-round health and

wellbeing. This is in line with the explanations given by Glanz, Rimer, and Viswanath

(2008) concerning the assumptions of the Health Belief Model:

If individuals regard themselves as susceptible to a condition, believe that

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condition would have potentially serious consequences, believe that a course of

action available to them would be beneficial in reducing either their susceptibility

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to or severity of the condition, and believe the anticipated benefits of taking action
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outweigh the barriers to (or costs of) action, they are likely to take action that they

believe will reduce their risks. (p. 47)

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Research Questions

For this study, the following questions were addressed to shed more light on the

associations between pornography consumption and academic performance:

1. Is there a relationship between pornography consumption and the ability of

college students to develop study skills that facilitate academic success?

2. Is there a relationship between pornography consumption and the grades of

college students?

3. Is there a relationship between pornography consumption and the ability of

college students to decide and prepare for future careers?

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 4. Is pornography consumption associated with functional and behavioral problems

in college students?

Delimitations

The delimitations of the study include:

1. Male and female college students attending Western Illinois University in

Macomb and the Quad Cities, Illinois. First of all, the researcher is currently

studying at Western Illinois University, and as a result, it is convenient to draw a

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representative sample population from the college students enrolled in the same

school. Diverse studies have consistently reported that there are physical,
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behavioral, and, neurological differences between males and females (DuBois,
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2017). Therefore, this present study explores the degree of impact gender has on

the association between pornography consumption and academic performance.

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2. College students with mobile phones or laptops, and access to the Internet.

Pornography is accessed through the Internet (Maas, 2010) and members of the

population group of interest typically stay connected to the Internet through their

mobile phones and laptops. In addition, primary data for this study was obtained

through an online survey which can only be accessed through Internet connection

3. College students who have completed at least one semester of the 2017-2018

academic year and are currently enrolled for the current semester. This is because

academic performance is typically measured by the grade point average (York,

8
 Gibson, & Rankin, 2015), which college students start to accumulate only after

they have completed at least one semester.

4. Though this study is not intended to be a full-blown intervention, there was a brief

health education session at the end of the questionnaire which is based upon the

Health Belief Model (Hochbaum, Rosenstock, & Kegels, 1952).

Limitations

The limitations to this study include the following:

1. The study sample did not include college students from other universities and

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colleges in Illinois.
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2. The study did not consider other sources of pornography besides the Internet.
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3. Members of the target population might have been uncomfortable with answering

questions pertaining to a controversial topic such as pornography consumption

habits.
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4. The study relied on self-reported data from the sample which may introduce bias.

Assumptions

The study was conducted based on the following assumptions:

1. The inclusion criteria are appropriate, and the participants of the study are aware

of the kinds of media that can be categorized as pornography.

2. The participants of the study will cooperate to answer the interview questions

frankly and scrupulously.

9
Definitions

Academic Performance. Performance outcomes that indicate the extent to which

a person has accomplished specific goals that were the focus of activities in instructional

environments, specifically in school, college, and university (Steinmayr, Meißner,

Weidinger, & Wirthwein, 2014)

Grey Matter. Tissue of the central nervous system composed of neuronal cell

bodies and unmyelinated axons (Robertson, 2014).

Pornography. Pictures, videos, writing, or other material that is sexually explicit.

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It often involves the depiction of erotic behavior (as in pictures or writing) intended to

cause sexual excitement (Fouch, 2012). IE

Reward Areas. Group of neural structures in the brain in control of motivation,
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desire and reward craving (Schultz, 2015).

Working Memory. Cognitive system with a limited capacity that is responsible

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for the temporarily holding information to process it (Miyake & Shah, 1999).

10
 CHAPTER TWO

CRITICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE

General Introduction

Less than a year after the Utah House of Representatives passed their resolution

affirming the public harm that pornography constitutes, the legislative arm of three other

US states (South Dakota, Virginia and Tennessee) had also passed resolutions to curb the

pornography epidemic (Bado, 2017; Dines, 2016; Richmond, 2017; Waltman, 2017). The

threats posed by pornography cannot be overemphasized, especially as it thrives in an

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atmosphere of anonymity, accessibility and affordability in which its users enjoy
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(Cooper, 2000). One of the biggest pornographic sites, reported that in 2016 alone, over

92 billion pornography videos were downloaded from its site, with 99 GB of data
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streamed every second (Pornhub, 2017). This is enough data to fill 194 million 16 GB

USB sticks (Pornhub, 2017). To put this into sharper focus, it has been reported that

$3,075.64 is spent viewing pornography every single second, with no less than 28,258
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people viewing pornography in the same period, a single second (Ropelato, 2007; Tarver,

2010). Popular pornography site, Pornhub, bragged that among the vast amounts of

people who viewed pornography from its site, over 60% of them were within the ages of

18 and 24, which interestingly coincides with the typical age of most college students

(Pornhub, 2017).

Aside from the fact that college students waste valuable time watching

pornography (Carroll et al., 2008; Leahy, 2009; Szittner, 2012) rather than engaging in

academic activities, pornography may also be associated with neurological changes that

11
may impair mental health outcomes, including memory and cognition capabilities (Boies,

Cooper, & Osborne, 2004; Mesch, 2009; Philaretou, Mahfouz, & Allen, 2005; Svedin,

Åkerman, & Priebe, 2011; Tsitsika et al., 2009; Weaver et al., 2011; Yoder, Virden III, &

Amin, 2005).

This chapter is divided into five sections. The first section will place more focus

on the structure and function of the brain from cellular levels, all the way up to the brain

as an organ. The second section will deal with the changes that occur in the brain because

of pornography consumption. The third section will describe academic performance and

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the various factors that affect academic performance. The fourth section will focus on the

effects of pornography consumption on males and females. Finally, the fifth section will
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present available research tying pornography consumption with academic performance.

Statement of the Problem

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Pornography is a public health problem that is on a rampage among youths of

college age. More youths are falling victim to pornography’s onslaught, given that its use
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thrives on anonymity, accessibility and affordability (Cooper, 2000). There have been

documented reports of the negative effects of pornography on the brain (Kühn &

Gallinat, 2014). However, there have not been many studies showing direct associations,

if any, between pornography use and academic performance. Therefore, the study was

concerned with understanding how pornography use among college age students is

associated with the variables that determine academic performance.

Structure and Function of the Brain

Before understanding the effects that pornography has on the brain, it is

imperative to first understand the way the brain functions at a cellular level (Gordon,
12
2002). This would clarify how brain cells form connections with each other, while also

adjusting to changes in their environment (Gordon, 2002). It is also important to note that

the brain is not a fixed structure but an actively changing system that reacts in diverse

manners to adjust to changes in its environment (Gordon, 2002). This fact makes it easier

to understand why the brain can rewire itself through the process of neuronal plasticity

(Gordon, 2002).

Neurons are cells in the brain which are responsible for all its activities (Gordon,

2002). There are more than 100 billion neurons which communicate and interact with

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each other in the brain (Gordon, 2002). These neurons can be grouped into sensory

neurons that send input into the brain, interneurons that form connections with numerous
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other kinds of cells, motor neurons that facilitate movement, as well as neuroendocrine

cells that facilitate the release of hormonal substances (Gordon, 2002).

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Typically, the interaction between neurons starts when input in the form of

neurotransmitters from one neuron attaches itself to specific receptors located on the
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dendrites of the next neuron (Gordon, 2002). When the neurotransmitters reach the

dendrites, they facilitate the movement of information from the dendrites to the cell body

of the receiving neuron (Gordon, 2002). This results in the generation of electric signals

within the receiving neuron which travel through its axon to the terminals from where it

is released into the synapse that is present in between its axon terminal and the next

neuron’s dendrites (Gordon, 2002).

Every neuron strives to maintain a state of homeostasis by switching certain genes

on or off to facilitate the creation of new proteins to improve its efficiency and cover for

13
imbalances to the original homeostatic state (Gordon, 2002). Therefore, neurons will

continue to fire at abnormal levels for a while even after the homeostatic disrupting

factors have been removed (Gordon, 2002). Examples of this phenomenon typically

occurs when drugs are used (Gordon, 2002).

Neuronal plasticity occurs to a large extent during the developmental stage of life.

This is because there are many connections present between the neurons in the brain

(Gordon, 2002). The implication of this is that there are stronger and more accurate

synaptic connections between neurons that lead to a more effective flow of information

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and more efficiency in the workings of the various sensory and motor processes (Gordon,

2002). This, however, does not mean that neuronal plasticity is limited to the
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developmental stages of life, as the capacity of the brain to rewire itself is maintained

throughout life (Gordon, 2002).

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Every form of interaction between the neurons involves chemical synaptic

transmission (Gordon, 2002). There are at least 100 specific molecules that are
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designated to easing signaling between cells in the brain (Gordon, 2002). It is not easy to

identify these molecules due to the complex structure of the brain, the stupendous

amounts of synapses, as well as the sheer number of these signaling molecules (Gordon,

2002). While there is no neat classification of these chemical signaling molecules, they

can be classified into small molecule transmitters and large molecule transmitters

(Gordon, 2002). The small molecule transmitters are also called classical transmitters and

they include biogenic amines such as acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine and

dopamine; and the amino acids such as gamma-aminobutyric acid and glycine (Gordon,

2002). The large group transmitters are generally polypeptides with chains that are 3 – 50
14