EPFO - GENERAL

SCIENCE PHYSICS
❑Measurement of any physical quantity involves
comparison with a certain basic arbitrarily chosen
and widely accepted reference standard called unit.
❑SI SYSTEM
❑Length METRE
❑Mass KILOGRAM
❑Time SECOND
❑Electric current AMPERE
❑Thermodynamic temperature KELVIN
❑Luminous intensity CANDELA
❑Amount of substance MOLE
❑Plane angle RADIAN
❑Solid angle STERADIAN
 KINEMATICS
❑It is the branch of mechanics
which deals with the motion of
object.
DISTANCE
❑The length of the actual path
covered by a body in a
particular time interval is called
distance. it is always positive.
❑It is a scalar quantity.
❑Its unit is meter.
 DISPLACEMENT
❑The distance between the final
and the initial position of an
object is called displacement. It
may be positive negative or
zero.’
❑It is a vector quantity. Its unit is
meter.
❑The magnitude of displacement
may or may not be equal to the
path length traversed by an
object.
 SPEED
❑it is the distance covered by a moving body in per unit of time interval.
❑It is a scalar quantity. It is always equal to or greater than magnitude of the
velocity.
VELOCITY
❑The rate of change of displacement of a body is called velocity.
UNIFORM VELOCITY
❑An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it undergoes equal
displacement in equal intervals of time.
NON UNIFORM VELOCITY
❑An object is said to be moving with non uniform or variable velocity if it
undergoes unequal displacement in equal intervals of time.
RELATIVE VELOCITY
❑When two bodies are moving in the straight line the speed of one with respect to
another is known as its relative speed.
❑ACCELERATION of
change of velocity.
Its SI unit is m/s2.
it’s a vector
quantity.
❑When the velocity
of a body increases
with time then its
acceleration is
positive
❑And if velocity
decreases with time
then its acceleration
is negative and is
called retardation or
deceleration.
 FRICTION
❑If we slide or try to slide a body over a
surface, the motion is resisted by a bonding
between the body and the surface. this
resistance is called frictional force.
❑The opposite force that comes into play
when a body just begins to slide over the
surface of another body is called limiting
frictional force.
❑When two bodies actually roll on each
other the rolling friction comes into play.
❑When two bodies actually slide over each
other sliding friction comes into play.
 METHODS OF REDUCING
FRICTION
❑There are a number of ways to
reduce friction.
❑Make the surfaces smoother.
❑Lubrication is another way to make a
surface smoother.
❑Make the object more streamlined.
❑Reduce the forces acting on the
surfaces.
❑Reduce the contact between the
surfaces.
❑Roll the bodies instead of sliding
them.
 WORK
❑In physics, work is defined as a force causing the movement—or
displacement—of an object. In the case of a constant force, work is the
scalar product of the force acting on an object and the displacement
caused by that force
POSITIVE WORK DONE
❑Positive work done means if force is applied in the direction of
displacement. E.g. when a horse pulls a cart on a level road, when a body
falls freely under gravitational pull.
NEGATIVE WORK DONE
❑Negative work means that force is opposite to displacement. E.g. when a
positive charge is moved towards another positive charge, when a body is
made to slide over a rough surface.
 ZERO WORK DONE
❑If the force is perpendicular to the displacement and if either
the force or the displacement is zero ,work done is zero. E.g.
when a body is moved along a circular path with the help of a
string, when a coolie travels on a platform with a load on his
head and when a person doesn’t move from his position but he
may be holding any amount of heavy load.
ENERGY
❑It is defined as capacity to do work. Its unit is joule in SI and erg
in two forms ,kinetic energy and potential energy.
 KINETIC ENERGY
❑ the kinetic energy (KE) of an
object is the energy that it
possesses due to its motion. It is
defined as the work needed to
accelerate a body of a given mass
from rest to its stated velocity.
Having gained this energy during
its acceleration, the body
maintains this kinetic energy
unless its speed changes.
POTENTIAL ENERGY
❑potential energy is the energy
held by an object because of its
position relative to other objects,
stresses within itself, its electric
charge, or other factors.
 GRAVITATION
❑Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all
things with mass or energy—including planets, stars, galaxies,
and even light—are brought toward one another.
❑On Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects, and the
Moon's gravity causes the ocean tides.
 VARIATION IN THE VALUE OF g
❑When we go above the surface of the earth, the acceleration due to
gravity goes on decreasing.
❑When we go below the surface of earth, the acceleration due to gravity
goes on decreasing and becomes zero at the center of earth.
❑Decreasing the rotational motion of earth, the value of g increases.
❑When we go from the equator towards the poles the value of g goes on
increasing.
❑If earth stops its rotation about its own axis, then at the equator the value
of g increases and consequently the weight of body lying there increases.
❑The value of g is maximum on the surface of earth.
 MASS
❑The mass of a body is the quantity of the matter contained in it.
❑It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is Kg.
❑Mass is measured by an ordinary equal arm balance.
❑Mass of body doesn’t change from place to place and remains
constant.
 WEIGHT.
❑The weight of a body is the force with, which it is attracted
towards the center of the earth.
❑It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is newton
❑It is measured by a spring balance.
❑It is not constant and it changes place to place.
 WEIGHT OF A BODY IN A LIFT
❑If lift is stationary or moving with uniform speed( either upward or
downward), the apparent weight of a body is equal to its true weight
❑If lift is going up with an acceleration, the apparent weight of a body is
more than the true weight.
❑If lift is going down with an acceleration, the apparent weight of the body
is less than its true weight.
❑If the cord of lift is broken then it falls freely. In this situation, the weight of
the body in the lift becomes zero. This is the situation of weightlessness.
❑While going down, if the acceleration of lift is more than acceleration due
to gravity,
❑A body in the lift goes in contact of the ceiling of the lift.
 ESCAPE VELOCITY
❑The minimum velocity that should be given to the body to
enable it to escape away from earth’s gravitational field is called
escape velocity.
❑Its value on the earth’s surface is 11.2 km/s.
❑The value of the escape velocity of a body doesn’t depend on
its mass. Its value on the moon surface is 2.38 km/s. so there is
no atmosphere around the moon.
❑Satellites are launched with the escape velocity as needed.
❑Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation within
the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can
be perceived by the human eye.
❑Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in
the range of 400–700 nanometers (nm), or 4.00 × 10−7
to 7.00 × 10−7 m, between the infrared (with longer
wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter
wavelengths).
❑In physics, the term light sometimes refers to
electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether
visible or not.
❑In this sense, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves and
radio waves are also light.
❑Like all types of EM radiation, visible light propagates
as waves.
 ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM
❑It is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of
electromagnetic radiation and their respective
wavelengths and photon energies.
❑The electromagnetic spectrum includes
electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from
less than one hertz to above 1025 hertz, and
wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a
fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus.
 OPTICS
❑The study of light and the
interaction of light and
matter is called as optics.
❑The observation and study
of optical phenomena such
as rainbows and the aurora
borealis offer many clues as
to the nature of light.
❑.
❑REFRACTION is the change in
direction of a wave passing
from one medium to another
or from a gradual change in
the medium.
❑Atmospheric refraction
affects the sunrise as it give
us 2 minutes variation as well
as 2 minutes late in sunset.
❑During sunrise, the light rays
bend due to our atmosphere
and we see the sun early
even though the sun is just
below the horizon.
❑Refractive index measure of the bending of a ray of light
when passing from one medium into another.
❑It means it is a measure of how much light slows down
when it goes into a new medium.
❑Refractive index is also equal to the velocity of light c of
a given wavelength in empty space divided by its velocity
v in a substance, or n = c/v.
❑Some typical refractive indices for yellow light
(wavelength equal to 589 nanometres [10−9 metre]) are
the following: air, 1.0003; water, 1.333; dense flint glass,
1.655; and diamond, 2.417.
❑A rainbow is a
meteorological
phenomenon that is
caused by reflection,
refraction and dispersion
of light in water droplets
resulting in a spectrum of
light appearing in the sky.
It takes the form of a
multi- coloured circular
arc.
❑ Rainbows caused by
sunlight always appear in
the section of sky directly
opposite the sun.
 REFLECTION
❑Reflection is the change in direction of a wave front at
an interface between two different media so that the
wave front returns into the medium from which it
originated.
❑Common examples include the reflection of light,
sound and water waves.
❑Reflection of light may occur whenever light travels
from a medium of a given refractive index into a
medium with a different refractive index.
 MIRROR AND LENS
❑The mirror is defined as a shiny glass object, with a silvery
coating at its back, which reflects light and results in the
formation of an image of the object, which is in front of it. It is
used in our homes, to see the reflection of our face or other
objects. It is of two types:
❑Plane mirror: A mirror with a flat surface is called a plane
mirror. It produces virtual and erect images.
❑Spherical mirror: A mirror that has a curved surface, which is
used to form a diminished or magnified image, is called a
spherical mirror.
❑It is of two types convex and concave mirror, as described
below:
❑Convex Mirror: A mirror in which the reflection takes place
from the curved surface is a convex mirror. In such mirrors, the
inner side is painted, and the outer one is polished, which
reflects the images. It is a diverging mirror that forms virtual and
erect images of the object placed in the front.
❑Concave Mirror: The concave mirror is one in which reflecting
surface is curved inwards, and its face is towards the center of
the sphere. It is a converging mirror.
 DEFINITION OF LENS
❑A lens is a part of the transparent refracting medium, (i.e.
glass), bounded by two surfaces, of which at least one is
spherical.
❑It helps in the formation of images, as the light passes through
the medium.
❑The working of the lens is based on the principle of refraction,
i.e. the light rays bend after they pass through the lens and thus
their direction changes and that is why the objects visible from
the lens seems larger or smaller than the actual object. There
are two types of convex and concave lens.
❑Convex Lens: The surface of a convex lens is curved outwards
from the centre, which converges the rays of light. Binoculars
and telescope, magnifier, etc. use this type of lens.
❑Concave Lens: Concave lens has a surface that bulges inward
towards the centre, and thus it diverges the light beam. It is
mainly used TV projectors.
 Key Differences Between Mirror and Lens
❑The points presented below are substantial so far as the
difference between mirror and lens is concerned:
❑A ‘mirror’ is polished from the back, which reflects a clear
image of the object, placed in front of it.
❑On the other hand, Lens is a transparent piece of glass, with a
spherical surface, that concentrates or disperses the rays of
light falling on it.
❑A mirror is either plane or spherical. In contrast, a lens has two
surfaces, at least one of which is curved inwards or outwards.
❑When the light ray strikes the mirror, it reflects off the light in a
different direction, resulting in the formation of an image.
❑Conversely, in case of lenses, the light ray enters the medium
(lens), which refracts (bends) the rays in a different direction,
creating a focus, from where the rays seem to originate.
• Uses of mirrors
▪ Decorating
▪ Safety
▪ Vision
▪ Magnification
▪ Photography
▪ Fashion Design
• Uses of concave lenses
▪ Binoculars and Telescopes
▪ Glasses
▪ Cameras
▪ Flashlights
▪ Peep holes
A wave is a disturbance which propagate energy from
one place to other without the transport of matter.
❑There are two types of waves:
❑Mechanical waves
❑Electromagnetic waves
MECHANICAL WAVES
❑The waves which require material medium (solid liquid or gas)
for their propagation are called mechanical waves or plastic
waves.
❑They are of two types
❑Longitudinal waves
❑Transverse waves
 LONGITUDINAL WAVES
❑Longitudinal waves are waves in which the displacement of the
medium is in the same direction as, or the opposite direction to,
the direction of propagation of the wave.
❑Waves on springs or sound waves in air are examples of
longitudinal waves.
TRANSVERSE WAVES
❑A transverse wave is a moving wave whose oscillations are
perpendicular to the direction of the wave or path of
propagation.
❑ A simple example is given by the waves that can be created on
a horizontal length of string by anchoring one end and moving
the other end up and down.
❑Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are
created as a result of vibrations between an electric field and a
magnetic field.
❑In other words, EM waves are composed of oscillating magnetic
and electric fields.
❑They do not require medium for their propagation i.e. they can
propagate even through vacuum. They propagate as transverse
wave.
❑Cathode rays, canal rays, alpha rays and beta rays are not
electromagnetic waves.
❑ Light and heat waves are examples of electromagnetic waves.
 SOUND
❑Sound is a mechanical wave that results from the back and
forth vibration of the particles of the medium through which the
sound wave is moving.
❑If a sound wave is moving from left to right through air, then
particles of air will be displaced both rightward and leftward as
the energy of the sound wave passes through it.
❑ The motion of the particles is parallel (and anti-parallel) to the
direction of the energy transport.
❑This is what characterizes sound waves in air as longitudinal
waves.
❑The longitudinal mechanical waves which lie in the range 20 Hz
to 20,000 Hz are called audible or sound waves.
❑Human ear are sensitive to them.
❑The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies less than
20 hz, called infrasonic.
❑These are produced by earthquakes volcanic eruption ocean
waves and elephants and whales.
❑The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies greater
than 20,000hz are called ultrasonic waves.
❑Certain creatures like dog, cat, bat, mosquito can detect these
waves.
❑Bats produce ultrasonic waves.
❑Ultrasonic waves are used for sending signals measuring the
depth of sea, cleaning clothes and machinery parts of clocks
removing lamp shoot from chimney of factories and in
ultrasonography.
 Speed of sound
❑It is maximum in solids and minimum in gases.
❑Speed of sound in air is 332m/s in water is 1483m/s and in iron
is 5130m/s. speed of sound depends upon elasticity and density
of medium
 SHOCK WAVE
❑A body moving with supersonic speed in air leaves behind it a
conical region of disturbance which spreads continuously. Such
a disturbance is called shock wave
❑These waves carry huge energy and may even cause cracks in
window and may cause damage to buildings.
❑Speed of supersonic wave is measured in mach number. One
mach number is ratio of speed of source to the speed of sound.
❑If mach number > 1body is called supersonic
❑If mach number > 5 body is called hypersonic
❑If mach number < 1 body is called subsonic
Reflection of sound wave
❑When sound wave incidence on any rigid surface it returns to
its original medium this is called reflection of sound wave.
Echo
❑The repetition of sound due to reflection of sound waves is
called an echo. To hear echo the minimum distance between
the observer and reflector should be 17.2 m persistence of ear
is 1/10 second. At the moon the Echo is not heard due to
absence of atmosphere.
❑A group of soldiers on a bridge are advised not to walk in
steps. Because if they walk in steps the frequency of vibration
may match the natural frequency of the bridge structure and
thus causing resonance.
❑ when a gun is fired at visible distance that sound heard in little
after the smoke is seen because the velocity of light is much
higher than that of sound.
 SONAR
❑It stands for sound,
navigation and ranging. It
is used to measure the
depth of a sea, to locate
the enemy submarines
and shipwrecks.
❑The transmitter of a sonar
produces pulses of
ultrasonic sound waves of
frequency of about 50,000
hz.
❑The reflected sound
waves are received by the
receiver.
 DOPPLER EFFECT
❑Doppler Effect if there is a relative motion between source of
sound and observer the Apparent frequency of sound heard by
the observer is different from the actual frequency of sound
emitted by the source. This phenomenon is called as Doppler
Effect.
USES
❑It is used by police to check over speeding of vehicles.
❑At airport to guide the aircraft.
❑To study heart beats and blood flow in different parts of the
body.
HEAT
❑Heat is a form of energy which flows from hotter to colder
body by virtue of temperature difference.
❑It is due to the kinetic energy of the molecules constituting the
body.
❑Its units are calorie ,kilocalorie or joule.
❑1 cal = 4.18 j, 1kcal= 1000 cal
 TEMPERATURE
❑It is the measurement of hotness or coldness of a body.
❑An instrument used to measure the temperature of a body is
called a thermometer.
❑The normal temp of human body is 37degree celcius or 98.4
degree f.
❑-40 degree is the temperature at which celcius and fahrenheit
thermometers read same.
❑The clinical thermometer reads from 96 degree to 110 degree f.
❑Tripple point is the state at which all the three states of matter
co exist. The triple point of water is 273.16k
❑Temperature at which Celsius and Reaumur
scale read the same is zero.
❑Freezing point of mercury is -39degreec.
❑So to measure the temperature below this
temperature alcohol thermometer is used.
Freezing point of alcohol is 115 degree c.
PYROMETER
❑It measures the temperature of a body by
measuring the radiation emitted by the body.
❑It cannot measure temperature below 8oo
degree c because at low temp emission of
radiation is very small cannot be detected.
SPECIFIC HEAT
❑It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of the substance by 1 degree c. Its unit is j/kg/degree
c.
❑Specific heat of water is 4200 jkg-1C-1which is high in
comparison to most other substances therefore water is used as
coolant in radiator of vehicle.
❑For most of the substance the specific heat increases with rise
in temperature and assume a constant value at high
temperature.
❑The specific heat of water however decreases with rise in
temperature from 0 degree c to about 4 degree c after which it
increases with temperature.
❑Mercury has low specific heat.
❑LATENT HEAT OF
VAPORIZATION
❑ It is the amount of heat
required to change the phase of
the substance of constant
temperature.
❑Hot water burns are less severe
than that of steam burns
because steam has high latent
heat.
❑Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80
cal/g.
❑Latent heat of vaporization of
steam is 536cal/g.
 THERMAL EXPANSION
❑It the increase in size of the body on heating.
❑Almost every liquid expands with the increase in temperature.
But when temperature of water is increased from 0 degree c to
4 degree c. its volume decreases after this its volume increases.
Applications of thermal expansion
❑Telephone wires are given enough gap to allow the wires for
contraction in winter.
❑An ordinary pendulum clock runs faster in winter but slower in
summer, because in summer the length of pendulum increases
while in winter it decreases.
❑In the construction of bridges
ends of steel girders are not
fixed but placed on rolls to
allow free expansion and
contraction in summer and
winter respectively to avoid
any damage to the bridge.
❑A gap is provided between
the iron rails of the railway
tracks so that rails can easily
expand during summer and do
not bend.
HUMIDITY
❑The amount of water vapour in air is called as humidity.
❑The amount of water vapour present in 1m3 air is called its
absolute humidity.
❑The ratio of amount of water vapour actually present in a
certain volume of air at a
❑Given temperature to the amount of water vapour required to
saturate it is called relative humidity.
❑Relative humidity is measured by hygrometer.
❑Relative humidity increases with the increase of temperature.
• TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
• Transfer of heat from one place to other place is called
transmissions of heat.
• There are three processes by which transmission of heat takes
place.
▪ Conduction
▪ Convection
▪ Radiation
 CONDUCTION
❑It is the process by which heat is transferred without actual
movement of the particles of the medium.
❑In this process path of heat transfer is irregular. In solid
transmission of heat takes place by conduction process.
❑Mercury through a liquid is heated by conduction and not by
convection.
CONVECTION
❑ This process includes the transfer of heat by the actual
movement of particles of the medium due to difference in
densities of different parts of the medium.
❑In liquid and gases transmission of heat takes place by
convection process. This process is also slow.
❑The chimney used in kitchen or in a factory is based on the
convection.
❑In rooms ventilators are provided to escape the hot air by
process of convection.
• RADIATION
▪ It is the quickest way of transmission of heat in which there is
no need of the medium to transfer heat.
▪ Heat from the sun reaches the earth by radiation.
▪ During this process heat is transferred at the speed of light.
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