CHAPTER SEVEN

METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The data collection methods used by researchers need to be objective and systematic.
1. Objective: The data must not be influenced by anyone who collects the information.
2. Systematic: The data must be collected in the same way by everyone who is involved in the collection
procedure.
 Operationlization: Is the process of translating the concepts of interest into a researcher to observable and
measurable phenomena.
 Selection of the data collection method begin during the literature review.
Consistency means that the data are collected from each subject in the study in exactly the same way or as close
to the same way as possible. It can minimize the bias introduced when more than one person collects the data.
Data Collection Methods
1. Physiological.
2. Observational.
3. Interviews.
4. Questionnaires.
5. Records or available data.
Physiological and biological measurements involve the use of specialized equipment to determine physical
and biological status of subjects.
These measurements require special equipment to make the observation. Example: Measuring temperature by a
thermometer.
Advantages of using physiological data collection methods include
1. Objectivity.
2. Precision. (accuracy)
3. Sensitivity.
Disadvantages of using physiological data collection methods include:
1. Some instruments may be quite expensive to obtained.
2. Often require specialized knowledge and training to be used accurately.
3. Just by using them, the variable of interest may be changed.
4. The presence of some types of devices might change the measurement. Example: the presence of a heart
rate monitoring device might make some patients anxious and increase their heart rate.
5. Nearly all types of measuring devices are affected in some way by the environment.
Observational Methods
Sometime researchers are interested in determining how subjects behave under certain conditions. Observation
is not merely looking at what is happening, but rather is watching with a trained eye for certain specific events.
Observational must fulfill the following:
1. Consistent with the studies specific objectives.
 2. There is a standardized and systematic plan for the observation and the recording of data.
3. All of the observation are checked and controlled.
4. The observations are related to scientific concepts and theories.
Observation is suitable when dealing with:
1. process.
2. Parent-child interaction.
3. Verbal & nonverbal communication behaviors.
4. Activities and skill attainment.
5. Environmental characteristics
6. Description of sleep….etc.
Types of observational roles in research:
1. Concealment without intervention.
2. Concealment with intervention.
3. No concealment without intervention.
4. No concealment with intervention.

1- Concealment without intervention:

It is used when a researcher is concerned that the subjects behavior will change as a result of being observed.
The researcher watches the subjects without their knowledge of the observation but he does not provoke them
into action. (Example: hidden television cameras). It usually used in observational studies of children
( developmental research).
2- Concealment with intervention:
It is used when the researcher believed that by being open to the subjects, the subjects behavior would change.
3- No Concealment without intervention:
It this case the researcher obtains informed consent from the subjects to be observed and then simply observes
their behavior. The observer makes no attempt to change the subjects.
The problem with this type of observation is reactivity, Hawthorne effect occur when the subject know that he
observed and change his behavior.
4- No Concealment with intervention:
The researchers were not concealed in their observations but they did intervene with the subjects. It is employed
when the researcher is observing the effects of some intervention introduced for scientific purposes.

Debriefing: when observing subjects without their knowledge you may violate assumption of informed
consent. The problem is often handled by informing subjects after the observations and allowing them
opportunity to refuse to have their data included in the study and to discuss any question they might have.
Observation may be:
1. Structured
2. Unstructured
Structured Observations: Involve specifying in advance what behaviors or events are to be observed.
Preparing forms for record keeping such as categorization system, checklists, and rating scale.
Unstructured Observations: Are not characterized by a total absence of structure but usually involve
collecting descriptive information about the topic of interest. such as participant observation and use of
anecdotes).
Advantages of scientific observation:
1. it may be the only way to study the variable of interest (such as studying human behavior).
2. It may be the only way to ensure the validity of the findings.
3. No other data collection method can match the depth and variety of information that can be collected
when using these techniques.
4. It is quit flexible in that it may be used in both experimental and nonexperimental designs and in
laboratory and field studies.
Disadvantages of scientific observation:
1. The problem of reactivity and ethical concerns.
2. Data obtained by observational techniques are vulnerable to the bias of the observer.
3. Emotions, prejudices, and values all can influence the way that behaviors and events are observed.
Interviews: Are a method of data collection where a data collector questions a subject verbally. It may be face
to face or performed over the telephone. It may consist of open ended or closed ended questions.
Questionnaires: Are paper & pencil instruments designed to gather data from individuals about knowledge,
attitudes, beliefs and feelings.
When evaluating an interview or questionnaire the reader should consider:
1. The content of the schedule.
2. The individual items which should be:
a. Clearly written so that the intent of the question and nature of the information sought are clear to
the respondent (through pilot test).
b. Items must ask only one questions.
c. Be free of suggestions.
d. Use correct grammar.
e. Items may be open – ended or closed ended.
 3. Order of items.
When items of indirect interest are combined to obtain an overall score, the measurement tool is called a scale.
Likert scales are lists of statements on which respondents indicate, for example whether they “strongly agree,
“agree”, disagree” or “strongly disagree” there may be a neutral category which sometimes creates problems
because it often is the most frequent response and this response is difficult to interpret.
Fixed response items can be used for questions requiring yes or No responses.
Fixed response items have the advantage of simplifying the respondents task and the researchers analysis, but
they may miss some important information about the subject
Advantages of interviews and questionnaires:
1. Questionnaires paper and pencil tests are most useful when there is a definite set of question
2. They are desirable tools when the purpose is to collect information
3. Less expensive than interviews
4. Allow for complete anonymity.
5. No interviewer’s bias such as nod of the head of the researcher may affect the respondents’
Disadvantages of interviews and questionnaires: If questionnaires are too long , they are not likely to be
completed.

Face to face techniques or interviews Advantages

1. Are best used when the researcher may need to clarify the task for the respondent or is interested in
obtaining more personal information from the respondent.
2. Always higher response rate and this helps to eliminate bias.
3. Telephone interviews allow the researcher to reach more respondents than face to face interviews, and they
allow for more clarity than questionnaires.
4. It is suitable for children, blind and the illiterate.
5. It can clarify misunderstood questions.
6. It has strict control over the order of questions.
7. It allow for richer and more complex data to be collected.
Choices between interview and questionnaires usually depends on what instruments are available and their
relative costs and benefits.

Records and available data

Records and available data are used when researchers are interested in examining information in a new way to
study a problem.
Records or available data
Records or available data are forms of information that are collected from existing materials, such as hospital
records, historical documents, or videotapes and are used to answer research questions in a new manner.
Advantages of Records or available data:
1. Saving time.
2. Allows examination of trends over time.
3. Decreases problems of reactivity and response set bias.
4. The researcher does not have to ask individuals to participate in the study (consent ).
Disadvantages of Records or available data:
1. Institution are sometimes refuse to allow researchers to have access to their records.
2. Individuals may be identified by records.
3. The researcher has access only to those records that have survived.
4. If the records available are not representative of the possible records, the researcher may have a
problem with bias.
5. Records could be biased such as when studying socioeconomic factors associated with the suicide rate.
These data are frequently underreported because of the stigma attached to suicide.