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IEEE GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING LETTERS
Progressive Band Selection Processing of
Hyperspectral Image Classification
Meiping Song, Chunyan Yu, Member, IEEE, Hongye Xie, and Chein-I Chang , Life Fellow, IEEE
Abstract— This letter introduces a new approach to hyperspec-
tral image classification (HSIC), called progressive band selection
processing of hyperspectral image classification (PBSP-HSIC),
which performs classification in multiple stages in the sense
that each stage performs HSIC progressively according to a
specifically selected band subset. Interestingly, such PBSP-HSIC
offers a rare view of how different classes are classified in
progressive stages, which has never been explored in the past.
The experimental results also show that PBSP-HSIC performs
better than HSIC using full bands.
Index Terms— Band selection (BS), class classification priority
(CCP), hyperspectral image classification (HSIC), p-ary Huffman
coding tree (HCT), progressive band selection processing of
hyperspectral image classification (PBSP-HSIC).
I. I NTRODUCTION
M ANY new approaches to hyperspectral image classifi-
cation (HSIC) have been developed in recent years such
as spectral–spatial HSIC [1], integration of locality sensitive
discriminant analysis with the group sparse representation for
HSIC [2], multiscale superpixel-level subspace-based support
vector machines for HSIC [3], noise-robust HSIC via multi-
scale total variation [4], fusion of multiple edge-preserving
operations for HSIC [5], subpixel detection approach to
HSIC [6], mixed pixel classification approach to HSIC [7], and
statistical detection theory approach to HSIC [8]. Since various
classes generally have their own unique spectral characteristics
responding to different wavelengths for their classification,
it is important to take the advantage of the bands that are
crucial to individual classes for their classification. To address
this issue, this letter develops a new approach, called pro-
gressive band selection processing of hyperspectral image
classification (PBSP-HSIC). Despite that many BS methods
have been developed for HSIC, the proposed PBPS-HSIC
is quite different from existing BS methods. For example,
Liu et al. [9] used spectral partitioning to perform BS, which
is not used in PBSP-HSIC. Most importantly, there are two
key ideas of PBSP-HSIC which distinguish PBSP-HSIC from
Manuscript received August 11, 2019; revised October 26, 2019; accepted
November 11, 2019. The work of M. Song was supported by the National
Nature Science Foundation of China under Grant 61601077. The work of
C. Yu was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of Liaoning
Province under Grant 20170540095. (Corresponding author: Chunyan Yu.)
M. Song, C. Yu, and H. Xie are with the Center for Hyperspectral
Imaging in Remote Sensing (CHIRS), Information and Technology College,
Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China (e-mail: smping@163.com;
yucy@dlmu.edu.cn; 109942371@qq.com).
C.-I Chang is with the Remote Sensing Signal and Image Processing
Laboratory, Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering,
University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250 USA
(e-mail: cchang@umbc.edu).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this letter are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/LGRS.2019.2953525
1545-598X © 2019 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
1
all existing BS-based HSIC techniques. One is that all the
BS techniques developed for HSIC are carried out in one-shot
operation in the sense that all multiple classes are classified by
a classifier simultaneously at the same time, not progressively.
The other is that the progressive classification profile resulting
from PBSP-HSIC allows users to see how a class is classified
incorrectly to begin with but is eventually corrected in sub-
sequently in a progressive manner or the other way around.
Such a scenario cannot be observed by one-shot classification
which only shows the final classification results with no regard
to what happens during classification. As a result, when a
misclassification error occurs, there is no clue to see how it
happens and which class causes such misclassification error.
This is particularly important for environmental monitoring
when contaminated areas may be slowly migrated. The HSIC
currently being considered in the literature did not take this
into account.
To realize PBSP-HSIC, the main idea is to design a criterion
that can measure the class classification priority (CCP) for
each class of interest so that all the classes can be prioritized
according to their priority scores calculated by CCP. Then,
CCP can be further used to calculate CCP probabilities that
can be used for two purposes. One is to find a desired band
subset for each class for its own classification. The other is to
navigate classification to be performed progressively based on
CCP-ranked classes along with their particularly CCP-selected
band subsets.
First of all, we define a criterion derived from signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) to calculate CCP scores for all classes in
terms of probabilities, referred to as CCP probabilities. The
higher is the CCP probability assigned to a class, the higher
is the priority the class to be classified. To classify various
classes progressively, a p-ary Huffman code is specifically
designed to encode all the classes as codewords according
to their CCP-calculated probabilities, where p is the number
of codeword alphabets used for encoding. Thus, the longer
is the codeword assigned to a class, the lower is the pri-
ority the class is to be classified. These p-ary encoded
Huffman codewords are then used to construct a CCP-based
p-ary Huffman coding tree (HCT) to be used as a guide to
navigate progressive classification, where each layer of the
p-ary HCT is considered as a stage that performs classification
of classes specified by the codewords at that particular layer.
Accordingly, classification can be carried out in a top-to-down
fashion stage-by-stage using a p-ary HCT from the highest
CCP level to the lowest CCP level. The depth of the tree is
the number of stages required for progressive classification
to perform. Since different classes are classified in different
stages, each stage requires a different set of selected bands
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
2 IEEE GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING LETTERS
to respond to different classes to be classified at the same
stage. To address this issue, a recently developed BS for
HSIC in [10], called class signature-constrained background
suppressed (CSCBS) approach, is used to further develop
class signature constrained band prioritization-based band
selection (CSCBP-BS) to select appropriate bands for each
stage. Finally, a new iterative classification technique, called
iterative linearly constrained minimum variance (ILCMV)
also developed in [7], was used as a classifier since it was
shown to perform better than many other existing classifiers.
Therefore, ILCMV is used to derive progressive band selection
processing of ILCMV (PBSP-ILCMV), which implements a
CCP-constructed p-ary HCT using bands selected by CSCBP-
BS to perform PBSP-HSIC. The reason that CSCBP-BS is
chosen for BS is because both ILCMV and CSCBS are derived
from the same concept of LCMV [11].
Finally, it should be noted that PBSP is very different from
progressive BS [12] because the latter does not possess capa-
bility of progressively selecting bands to perform classification
of different classes via an HCT.
II. CCP AND p-A RY HCT C ONSTRUCTION
Assume that there are M classes of interest, {Ci }i=1
M and
μi is the sample mean of the i th class, Ci . We can use the
global sample correlation matrix R to define a CCP criterion
as follows:
1  T
N
ρRCCP (Ci ) = µTi R−1 µi with R = rri (1)
N
i=1
which is indeed the spectral angle between μ j and R−1 μ j .
Now, if we further consider R−1 μ j as the i th class suppressed
mean and assume that R is zero-mean and independent with
R = σ 2 I where σ 2 is the variance and I is the identity matrix,
then (1) becomes µTi R−1 µi = ||R−1/2 µi ||2 = |||µi ||2 /σ 2
which turns out to be SNR. For this reason, CCP can be
considered as an extended SNR. Thus, the higher is the SNR,
the higher is the priority.
Using (1), we can calculate the CCP probability of the i th
class, Ci , as follows:
ρ CCP (Ci )
piCCP = pCCP (Ci ) =  M R CCP (2)
i=1 ρR (Ci )
which can be used to prioritize Ci according to the magnitude
of the mean, μi matched with its suppressed class mean,
||R−1/2 µi ||. This implies that the higher is the value of
pCCP (Ci ), the less chance is the Ci to be misclassified. By tak-
ing advantage of (2), the well-known optimal variable length
coding method in information theory, Huffman coding [13],
is then used to construct a coding tree for progressive HSIC.
Suppose that a source S with the source alphabet space
specified by the classes of interest, {Ci }i=1 M , i.e., each class
specified by a source alphabet, where { pi CCP = pCCP (Ci )}i=1
M
given in (2), is the source alphabet probabilities. Now, we
assume that the codeword alphabet space used for encoding
S is given by  p = {0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1}. Then, each of the
codewords assigned to {Ci }i=1 M is actually a p-ary represen-
tation. It should be noted that the “ p” determines p-class
classification at each layer of a p-ary coding tree. In other
words, for a layer of a constructed p-ary coding tree except
the last layer, there are p internal nodes in that particular layer,
each of which corresponds to one subset of classes ranked
by CCP scores, for p-class classification. The depth of the
coding tree is given by d = log p M. Since PBSP-HSIC is
progressive, the best value of p to be selected should be the
one that is the largest value to make the depth d as small as
possible but also be greater than or equal to 2.
Constructing a p-ary HCT with p > 2 is not trivial because
the p-ary HCT may not be complete in the sense that there
may not have sufficient codewords to fill in all nodes and
leaves of the tree. In this case, unencoded nodes must be leaves
and should not be internal nodes.
Let q be the number of the first set of source
alphabets to be combined to reduce original probabili-
(1) (1) (1)
ties { p1, p2 , . . . , pn } to { p1 , p2 , . . . , pn(1) }. According to
[13, eqs. (11.2) and (11.3), p. 338], q must satisfy the
following constraints:
q ∈ {2, 3, . . . , p} and n ≡ q mod ( p − 1) (3)
which means that n = m( p − 1) + q for some nonneg-
ative integer m. Then, the number of dummy variables is
{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x p−q }. In this case, n (1)
1 = m( p − 1) + 1. As an
example, for n = 6 and p = 3, n can be expressed by (3) as
n = 2 · 2 + 2 with m = 2 and q = 2. This implies that the
number of dummy variables is p − q = 3 − 2 = 1.
III. PBSP-HSIC V IA A p-A RY HCT
In Section II, a CCP-constructed p-ary HCT can navigate
HSIC to be performed at each internal node in a progressive
manner, where CSCBP-BS developed in [10] is used to find
an appropriate band subset for each of layers in a p-ary HCT
for stage-by-stage classification. The resulting HSIC is called
PBSP-HSIC which implements four key steps: 1) calculation
of CCP; 2) construction of a p-ary HCT; 3) CSCBP-BS to
select appropriate band subsets; and 4) ILCMV developed
in [7] to perform multiclass classification at each stage.
Detailed step-by-step implementations of each of four steps
are described in Algorithm 1.
It should be noted that the key idea is (4), which takes the
advantage of ILCMV-classification maps produced by PBSP
to correct misclassification errors (as will be illustrated by the
following experiment in Fig. 3). Fig. 1 depicts a graphical
diagram of PBSP-HSIC by implementing ILCMV using a
constructed p-ary HCT in conjunction with bands selected
by CSCBP-BS. For example, at the 1st layer corresponding
to the 1st stage, three leaves highlighted by red circles are
classified, while a large circle highlighted by blue is a subtree
representing undesired classes which will not be classified
at this particular stage. At the last stage, all the leaves are
single classes and will be classified all together to complete
the classification.
IV. E XPERIMENTS
The image used for experiments is the Purdue Indiana
Indian Pines shown in Fig. 2(a) with its ground truth
in Fig. 2(b) available on the website [14]. It is a well-known
Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
SONG et al.: PBSP-HSIC
Fig. 1. Graphical diagram of implementing PBSP-HSIC.
TABLE I
P RIORITY P ROBABILITIES OF CCP OF 16 C LASSES IN P URDUE ’ S I NDIAN P INES C ALCULATED BY (1–2) W ITH R I NCLUDING BKG
Algorithm 1 PBSP-HSIC
1. Use virtual dimensionality (VD) [11] to determine n BS .
2. Using (2) to construction of a p-ary HCT
3. At each layer, there are terminal nodes which are leaves
and internal nodes which are roots of subtrees. So, in this
layer only leaves which correspond to single classes will
be classified while internal nodes will be passed on to next
layer.
4. Find the mean of each class at each leave. In the mean time,
also find means of all classes in subtrees at the intermediate
nodes which are obtained by averaging all class means in
the subtrees.
5. At the k layer use CSCBP-BS to find an appropriate band
subset.
6. Apply ILCMV to perform multi-class classification
at this layer as a stage process. Let the resulting
LCMV-classification map be denoted by LCMV(k) .
7. Find
ILCMV-map(k)
= LCMV-map (k) ∪ ((LCMV-map(k) )c LCMV-map(k−1) )
(4)
where (LCMV-map(k) )c is the complement set of
LCMV-map(k) and ILCMV-map(1) = LCMV-map(1).
8. Then the same process is continued on until it reaches the
last layer of the p-ary HCT.
image scene and has a size of 145 × 145 pixel vectors. It was
recorded in June 1992 with 220 bands with including water
absorption bands (bands 104–108, 150–163, and 220). The
number of bands, n BS , required to be selected for this scene
was estimated by VD [15] to be 18.
First of all, the sample means {µi }16
i=1 of all the 16 classes
were used to calculate CCP probabilities via (1). It should
be noted that there is no need of training samples for
ILCMV since ILCMV uses the class means obtained by the
ground truth to constrain the classes of interest not training
3
Fig. 2. Purdue’s Indiana Indian Pines scene. (a) Band 186 (2162.56 nm).
(b) Ground truth map.
samples. Table I tabulates the 16-class CCP probabilities
{ piCCP = pCCP (Ci )}16
i=1 along with their assigned priorities.
Now, these calculated CCP probabilities in Table I were then
used to produce a four-ary Huffman code found in open paren-
theses in Table I and construct a four-ary HCT in Fig. 1 with
p = 4, m = q = 4, and p − q = 0, where p = 4 was
chosen to be the largest value to make the depth d as small as
possible but greater than or equal to 2. Interestingly, the CCP
tabulated in Table I is proportional inversely to class size. That
is, the four classes with highest priorities are those classes
with sample size less than 100 as opposed to the two classes
with least priorities, which correspond to two largest classes,
class 11 and class 2 with more than 1000 data samples. Now,
these calculated CCP probabilities in Table I were then used
to produce a four-ary Huffman code to construct a four-ary
HCT in Fig. 1.
At each layer of the four-ary HCT in Fig. 1, only
leaves marked by red are codewords assigned to classes
which will be classified at that particular layer, while the
yellow internal nodes are codewords representing subtrees,
which will be further processed at the next layer. In this
case, each of the leaves corresponds to one particular class.
On the other hand, the number of yellow internal nodes
actually determines the number of times that the classification
must be performed by ILCMV for p classes. For example,
in Fig. 1, there are five yellow nodes which determine that
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
4 IEEE GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING LETTERS
Fig. 3. Three layers/stages processed by PBSP-ILCMV using four-ary HCT and ILCMV without PBSP for Purdue Indian Pines.
TABLE II
BANDS S ELECTED BY CSCBP-BS FOR E ACH S UBSET OF C LASS
OF THE P URDUE I NDIANA I NDIAN P INES
ILCMV must be performed progressively five times, and
each time classes at leaves highlighted by red are classified.
At the 1st layer, two leaves specified by class 1 and class
16 assigned by codewords 0 and 1 will be first classi-
fied, and two yellow internal nodes assigned by codewords
2 and 3 represent two subtrees to specify two joint sets
of classes, {7, 9, 13, 8, 5, 15} and {6, 4, 12, 14, 10, 3, 2, 11},
respectively, both of which will be further processed at
the 2nd layer. At the 2nd layer, six leaves specified
by six classes, 7, 9, 13, 8, 5, 15 assigned by codewords
20, 21, 22, 30, 31, 32 will be classified, whereas the two yel-
low internal nodes assigned by codewords 23 and 33 represent
two subtrees that specify two joint sets of classes, {6, 4, 12, 14}
and {10, 3, 2, 11}, respectively, needed to be processed at the
next layer. Finally, at the 3rd layer, a total of eight leaves
specified by eight classes, 12, 6, 4, 14, 10, 3, 2, 11, assigned by
codewords, 230, 231, 232, 233, 330, 331, 332, 333, with four
leaves from each subtree yet to be classified to complete
PBSP-HSIC. Then, CSCBP-BS was implemented to find
desired bands listed in Table II with n BS = 18. Now, using the
four-ary HCT constructed in Fig. 1 as well as bands selected
by CSCBP-BS in Table II, both ILCMV and PBSP-ILCMV
were implemented where the parameters used by ILCMV are
the same as in [7].
Fig. 3 describes a three-stage PBSP-ILCMV using the
four-ary HCT stage-by-stage along with ILCMV with-
out PBSP in one-shot operation. As shown in Fig. 3,
PBSP-ILCMV performed classification in three stages, where
classes 1 and 16 were classified in the 1st stage shown by
ILCMV-map(1) = LCMV-map(1), and classes 7,9,13,8,5,15 at
the 2nd stage shown by LCMV-map(2) along with
ILCMV-map(2)
= ILCMV-map(1) ∪ ((LCMV-map(2) )c ∩ LCMV-map(1) )
which combined classification results of eight classes,
{1, 16, 7, 9, 13, 8, 5, 15} and classes 6, 4, 12, 14, 10, 3, 2, 11 at
the 3rd and last stage, LCMV-map(3) along with the final
classification ILCMV-map(3) given by
ILCMV-map(3)
= ILCMV-map(2) ∪ ((LCMV-map(3) )c ∩ LCMV-map(2) ).
Fig. 3 offers at least two immediate benefits offered by
PBSP-HSIC. One is to dictate changes in classified data
samples. For example, in the 2nd stage, there were 11 pixels
in the 3rd class C3 misclassified in class 9 as shown in a
zoom-in window of ILCMV(2), but these misclassified were
later corrected as shown in the 3rd stage classification by
ILCMV(3). This scenario cannot be observed during one-shot
classification. Another is to allow users to calculate classifica-
tion accuracy and precision rates progressively. In order to see
how it works, Table III further calculates PA (accuracy) of each
of 16 classes produced by ILCMV without PBSP and PBSP-
ILCMV using four-ary HCT in Fig. 3, where PBSP-ILCMV
produced higher PA values for every class except class 13 than
their corresponding PA values produced by ILCMV without
PBSP.
Table IV also calculates PSR CCP SR CCP
OA , POA , PPR , PPR , and PAA ,
where PBSP-ILCMV performed better than ILCMV without
PBSP by producing higher values of PSR SR SR
OA , PAA , and PPR ,
where average accuracy (AA), overall accuracy (OA), and
precision (PR) are defined in [8] with weights given by sample
ratio (SR) and CCP probabilities.
Also, shown in Table IV, PBSP-ILCMV actually produced
POA better than PSR
CCP CCP
OA by 2% with PPR nearly the same as
−4
PPR by a difference of 8 × 10 . The most important results
SR
in Table IV are the last two columns, which calculate PCCP OA
and PCCP
PR progressively according to CCP for each of stages.
For example, in the 1st stage, PCCP CCP
OA and PPR for classifying
classes 1 and 16 were 99.28% and 100%, respectively, and
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SONG et al.: PBSP-HSIC
TABLE III
PA C ALCULATED F ROM THE C LASSIFICATION R ESULTS OF P URDUE ’ S D ATA
TABLE IV
PSR SR SR CCP CCP
OA , PAA , PPR , POA , AND PPR C ALCULATED BY ILCMV W ITHOUT PBSP AND P ROGRESSIVE
L AYER /S TAGE - BY-L AYER /S TAGE PBSP-ILCMV FOR P URDUE ’ S D ATA
95.25% and 100% for classes 7, 9, 13, 5, 8, 15, respectively,
for the 2nd stage. At the final stage (i.e., 3rd stage), PCCP
OA and
PCCP
PR for classifying last eight classes, 12, 6, 4, 14, 10, 3, 2, 11,
were 96.25% and 99.99%, respectively. For overall
performance, PCCPOA = 98.19 and PCCP PR = 99.91, which
were higher than ILCMV by 3% in POA and nearly the
same in PPR . These experiments demonstrated the benefits
of using PBSP-ILCMV for HSIC. Same experiments were
also performed for other image scenes [14] such as Salinas
and University of Pavia, and their conclusions are also
similar. Due to limited space, their results are not included
here.
V. C ONCLUSION
This letter develops PBSP-HSIC which allows users to
progressively process classes in multiple stages, where each
stage performs classification of selective classes according to
their priorities calculated by CCP. The calculated CCP proba-
bilities are then used to construct a p-ary HCT which further
navigates PBSP-HSIC to perform stage-by-stage classification
progressively where each stage performs the classification
of p-class subsets located at its corresponding layer of the
p-ary HCT. With the CCP-calculated probabilities factored in
POA and PPR , PBSP-HSIC provides progressive classification
profiles of class subsets in multiple stages, a task which cannot
be offered by the traditional HSIC. Although PBSP-HSIC
proposed in this letter only focuses on the specific classifier
and BS, its idea can also be applied to other classifiers and
BS techniques as well.
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