Term test review

02 December 2021 20:15

CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Importance of cell membrane
- Control the exchange of materials such as nutrients and waste products between the cell
and its environment
- Regulation of transport across the membranes of organelles
- Enable cells to receive hormone messages and in chloroplasts they contain the light-
absorbing pigments needed for photosynthesis

Why do membranes need to be fluid?

- Diffusion of substances across the membrane
- Fusion of membranes (e.g. exocytosis, endocytosis)
- Cell movement (macrophages during phagocytosis)

Features of the fluid mosaic model

- 'fluid' because both the phospholipids and the proteins can move about by diffusion
- The phospholipid molecules move sideways in their layers
- Some of the protein molecules also move about within the phospholipid bilayer
- Other remain fixed to structures inside or outside the cell.
- 'mosaic' describes the pattern produced by the scattered protein molecules when the
surface of the membrane is viewed from above
- The membrane is a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipid molecules
- The individual phospholipid molecules move by diffusion within their layers
- Phospholipid tails point inwards, facing each other forming non-polar hydrophobic interior
- The phospholipid heads face outwards into the aqueous medium that surrounds the
membrane
- Unsaturated tails contain double bonds > the more unsaturated they are, the more fluid
the membrane (because unsaturated tails are bent therefore it becomes loose.
- The longer the tail the less fluid it becomes and vice versa
- The temperature decrease, the less fluid it becomes
- Bacteria and yeast (cannot regulate temp) increase the proportion of unsaturated fatty
acids in the membrane
- Proteins have hydrophobic (non-polar) and hydrophilic (polar) regions
- The hydrophobic regions, made from hydrophobic amino acids, are next to the
hydrophobic fatty acid tails and are repelled by watery environment either side of
membrane
- The hydrophilic regions made from hydrophilic amino acids, are repelled by the
hydrophobic interior of the membrane which therefore faces into the aqueous

Three types of lipids

- Phospholipids
- Cholesterol
- Glycolipid

Phospholipid
➢ Phospholipid form a bilayer, which the is basic structure of the membranes
➢ Fluidity of the membrane is effected by the length of the fatty acid tails and how saturated
or unsaturated they are
- Tails of phospholipids are non-polar (hydrophobic) so it is difficult for polar molecules or
ions to pass through membranes
- Membranes act as a barrier to most water-soluble substances
- Sugars, amino acids and proteins (all water-soluble molecules) cannot leak out of the cell
and unwanted water soluble molecules cannot enter the cell
Cholesterol

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 1

Cholesterol
➢ Relatively small molecule
➢ Have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
- Fit between the phospholipid molecules with their heads at the membrane surface
- Cell surface membranes in animal cells contain almost as much cholesterol as
phospholipid.
- Much less common in plant cell membranes and is absent from prokaryotes,
- Compounds very similar to cholesterol serve the same function
- Important for the mechanical stability of membranes (strengthen membranes by getting
in between the phospholipid molecules and reducing fluidity
- Without cholesterol, membranes quickly break and cells burst open
- Hydrophobic regions of cholesterol molecules help to preventions or polar molecules from
passing through the membrane
- Important in the myelin sheath (leakage of ions would slow down nerve impulses)

Glycolipid, glycoproteins and proteins

➢ All the protein molecules and may lipid molecules on the outer surfaces of cell surface
membranes have short carbohydrate chains attached to them.
Receptor molecules
- Carbohydrate chains help the glycoproteins and glycolipids to act as receptor molecules
- Receptor molecules bind with particular substances at the cell surface
- Different cells have different receptors, depending on function.
➢ Signalling receptors coordinates the activities of cells
- Recognizes the messenger molecules like hormones and neurotransmitter
- When the messenger molecule binds to the signalling receptor, a series of chemical
reaction is started inside the cell
- An example of a signalling receptors is the glucagon receptor in liver cells
- Cells that have glucagon receptors are affected by glucagon
Cell-to-cell recognition
- Some glycolipids and glycoproteins act as cell markers or antigens, allowing cells to
recognize each other
- Carbohydrate chains bind to complementary sites on other cells.
- Cell-cell recognition is important in growth and development and for immune responses
- Each type of cells has it own type of antigen, rather like countries with different flags
- Ex. The ABO blood group antigens are glycolipids and glycoproteins which have small
differences in their carbohydrate chains.
Transport proteins
- Many proteins act as transport proteins
- Provide hydrophilic channels or passageways for ions and polar molecules to pass through
the membrane
- Each transport protein is specific for a particular kind of ion or molecule
➢ There are two type of protein molecules
- Channel proteins and carrier proteins
Enzymes Peripheral proteins
- Some membrane proteins are enzymes
- Ex. The digestive enzymes found in the cell surface membranes of the cells lining the small
intestine
- These catalyst the hydrolysis of molecules such as disaccharides.
Cytoskeleton
- Some proteins on the inside of the cell surface membranes are attached to a system of
protein filaments inside the cell known as the cytoskeleton
- These proteins help to maintain and decide the shape of the cell
- May also be involved in changes of shape when cells move
Other roles
- Proteins also plays important roles in the membranes of organelles
- In the membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts they are involved in the process of
respiration and photosynthesis

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 2

CELL SIGNALING
- An important area of research in biology
- Important because it helps explain how living organisms control and coordinate their
bodies
Definition
➢ The molecular mechanisms by which the cells detect and respond to external stimuli,
including communication between the cells
What is signalling?
- Getting a message from one place to another
Why do living organism need signalling
- All cells organisms must be able to respond appropriately to their environments
- This is made possible by means of signalling pathaways which coordinate the activities of
cells, even if they are large distances apart in the same body
➢ Signalling pathways can be electrical(nervous system) or chemical (hormone system)

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Movement of substances across membranes
- Passive transport
- Active transport
Passive trasport
- Phospholipid bilayers
- Transport proteins
Can pass
- Small, hydrophobic, non-polar molecules
➢ O2,CO2,N2,Benzene
- Small polar, hydrophobic, non-polar molecules
➢ H2O, Glycerol, Ethanol
Cannot pass
- Large, polar, water soluble, lipid-insoluble molecules
➢ Amino acids, glucose, nucleotides
- Ions, charged molecules
➢ H+, Na+, HCO3-, K+, Ca2+,Cl-

Passive transport
- Process by which molecules pass through a cell via a concentration gradient, or form an
area of high concentration to an area of low concentration without the expenditure of
energy, until an equilibrium is reached.
Concentration gradient
- The difference in concentration of solutes between 2 areas/solutions
Net movement
- Over-all direction of movement from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser
concentration
Equilibrium
- State in which the concentration of the diffusing substance in the two areas/ solutions are
the same or become equal

TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Simple diffusion
- The molecules will diffuse or move down their concentration gradient.
Via the phospholipid bilayer
- Gases, water and lipid soluble molecules

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

Concentration gradient > temperature > nature of particle > surface area of membrane

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 3

 1. Concentration gradient
- The greater the difference in concentration across the membrane, the greater the rate of
diffusion
2. Diffusion is passive and depends upon kinetic energy of molecules
- Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of molecules and increases the
rate of diffusion.
3. Nature of particle: size
- Larger is lower rate
- Smaller is higher rate
4. Nature of particle: chemical property of particle
- In general, non-polar particles, diffuse better than polar ones across the phospholipid
bilayer
5. Surface area of membrane
- Large organism must be built from many small cells to collectively provide larger surface
area for chemical reactions and diffusion
- The greater the surface area of the membrane, the greater the rate of diffusion
- These are examples that demonstrate increased surface area of membranes in
cells/organs
CONCLUSION
1. Larger cells have smaller SA/V ratio, making diffusion less efficient, so larger cells are
- Unable to obtain gases and nutrients
- Unable to remove wastes
2. Cells have to stay small to increase SA/V ratio so diffusion is faster and more efficient
- Smaller cells = shorter diffusion distance = faster diffusion
3. The greater the surface area of the membrane, the greater the rate of diffusion.
4. These are examples that demonstrate increased surface area of membranes in cells /
organs

Facilitated diffusion
- Allow large, hydrophilic, polar-molecules and certain ions can enter the cell by facilitated
diffusion down their concentration gradient with the aid of transport proteins (channel or
carrier)

FACILITATED DIFFUSION VIA CHANNEL PROTEINS

✓ Shape: fixed / does not change as it transports particles
✓ pore at the center is hydrophilic / polar
✓ Types:
1. Non-gated channel proteins - open all the time
2. ‘Gated’ channel proteins - open or close depending on the need of the cell.
(e.g. sodium ion gated channels in nerve cells

FACILITATED DIFFUSION VIA CARRIER PROTEINS

- a carrier protein changes its shape to allow substances to pass through them.
- is not open simultaneously to both the extracellular and intracellular environments
- has specific binding site for the substance it transports
- Particle must fit in to the binding site
CARRIER PROTEINS
- Carrier proteins have specific binding sites that match the molecule to be transported e.g.
a specific amino acid
- When the amino acid binds to the site, the carrier protein changes its shape.
- The amino acid molecule can then pass through the protein to the other side of the
membrane.
- Once the amino acid has left the carrier protein the protein reverts back to its original
shape

ANOTHER FORM OF FACILITATED DIFFUSION

- Carrier protein on membrane surface picks up a molecule of matching shape

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 4

 - Carrier protein on membrane surface picks up a molecule of matching shape
- The carrier protein rotates through the membrane and deposits the molecule on the other
side.

Osmosis is a form of passive transport

Facilitated diffusion visa channel proteins called AQUAPORINS.
➢ Aquaporins increase the permeability of the cell surface membrane to water
➢ Aquaporins are found in animal and plant cells
- e.g. more aquaporins would be inserted in the cells lining the collecting ducti in kidney
that absorb more water as needed
Osmosis
- The net movement of water across a partially permeable membrane from a region of
higher water potential to a region of lower water potential

Water potential
- The tendency of water to move from one solution to another (from a higher to a lower
water potential)
As we add solutes
- The ability of water to move away is reduced
- Water potential has been lowered
- Water potential becomes more negative

Higher solute concentration (hypertonic solution)

- lower/ more negative water potential
Lower solute concentration (hypotonic solution)
- Higher/ less negative water potential

- Water always moves from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water
potential
- Water will move until the water potential is the same throughout the system, or in
equilibrium
Reference to osmosis, water potential depends on
- The concentration of the solution
- How much pressure is applied to it

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 5

 -

- Solution A has a higher water potential than solution B, because solution A is more dilute
than solution B. This is why the net movement of water is from A to B (higher to lower
water potential)
- The solute molecules are not able to pass through the partially permeable membrane
- Solution A and B will have the same concentration
- Volume of solution B will increase

OSMOSIS IN RED BLOOD CELLS

Isotonic solution
- Normal
Hypotonic solution
- Lysed and may burst
Hypertonic Solution
- Shrivelled
Isotonic solutions have the same water potential as the cytoplasm of the cell
- Net osmosis is zero
- Cells do not change shape
- Same water potential as the cytoplasm of the cell
- e.g. NaCl is an isotonic IV fluid used to rehydrate patients.
Hypotonic solutions have a higher water potential than the cytoplasm of the cell
- Net osmosis is into the cell
- Can cause animal cells to burst
- The cells inflate and eventually burst
- Water is transported into the cell (solute concentration inside the cell is higher)
Hypotonic solution have a lower water potential than the cytoplasm of the cell
- Net osmosis is water move OUT of the cell
- Cell shrink/shrivel
- Water is transported out from the cell
- Solute concentration inside the cell is lower

OSMOSIS IN PLANT CELLS

Isotonic solution
- Water potential outside the cell is the same as inside the cell
- Flaccid cell
- H2O in and out
Hypotonic Solution
- Higher water potential outside the cell than inside
- Plant cell does not burst because they have cell wall
- Turgid cell (blaoted)
- Bigger vacuole from all the water
- Net osmosis is into the cell
Hypertonic solution
- Lower water potential outside the cell than inside
- Plant cell is plasmolyzed

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 6

 - Plant cell is plasmolyzed
- Plasmolysis - a process when protoplast shrinks away from the cell wall
- Small vacuole
- Net osmosis is water move out of the cell

CELL WALL exerts an inward pressure (pressure potential) that raises the water potential inside
the cell until the water potential becomes equal inside and outside.

Active transport
- The movement of molecules or ions through transport proteins across a cell membrane,
against their concentration gradient, using energy from ATP
- Achieved by carrier proteins called pumps, each of which is specific for a particular type of
molecule or ions
- Active transport requires energy because movement occurs up a concentration gradient
rather than down
- The energy is used to make carrier protein change its shape, transferring the molecules or
ions across the membrane in process
- Ex of carrier proteins used for active transport is the sodium-potassium pump( Na+-K+
pump)
➢ Na+-K+ pump
- A membrane protein (or proteins) that moves sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions
into it, using ATP
- Found in the cell surface membranes of all animal cells
- In most cells, they run all the time and its estimated they use 30% of a cell's energy (70%
in nerve cells)
- Role is to pump three sodium ions out of the cell at the same times as allowing two
potassium ions into the cell for each ATP molecules they used
- Sodium and potassium ions are both positively charged, so the net result is that the inside

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 7

 - Sodium and potassium ions are both positively charged, so the net result is that the inside
of the cell becomes more negative than the outside.
- A potential difference (p.d.) is created across the membrane

- The pump has a receptor site for ATP on its inner surface
- The receptor site acts as an ATPase enzymes in bringing about the hydrolysis of ATP to
ADP and phosphate to release energy
- Can be defined as the energy consuming transport of molecules or ions across a
membrane against a concentration gradient (from a lower to higher concentration)
- The energy is provided by ATP from cell respiration
- Active transport can occur either into or out of the cell
- Active transport is important in reabsorption in the kidneys, where certain useful
molecules and ions have to be reabsorbed into the blood after filtration into the kidney
tubules
- Involved in the absorption of some products of digestion from the gut
- In plants, active transport is used to load sugars from the photosynthesising cells of leaves
into phloem tissue for transport around the plant and to load inorganic ions from the soil
into root hair

ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS

- Sometimes cells need to transport materials across their cell surface membranes on a
much larger scale than is possible using the mechanism studied so far
- Large molecules include proteins or polysaccharides
Bulk transport into the cell is called ENDOCYTOSIS
Bulk transport out of cells is called EXOCYTOSIS
Endocytosis
- The bulk movement of liquids (pinocytosis) or solids (phagocytosis) into a cell by infolding
of the cell surface membrane to form vesicles containing the substance
- Endocytosis is an active process requiring ATP
In endocytosis the cell surface membrane engulfs material to form a small sac (also known as a
vesicle or a vacuole) endocytosis takes two form
➢ Phagocytosis or 'cell eating' - this is the bulk uptake of solid material
- Cells specializing in this are called phagocytes
- Process is called phagocytosis and the vacuoles are called phagocytic vacuoles
- Ex. Engulfing bacteria by the white blood cells
➢ Pinocytosis or 'cell drinking' - this is the bulk uptake of liquid.
- The vacuoles or vesicles formed are often extremely small, in which case the process is
called micropinocytosis
Exocytosis
- The bulk movement of liquids or solids out of a cell, by the fusion of vesicles containing
the substance with the cell surface membrane
- Exocytosis is an active process requiring ATP
➢ Secretion of digestive enzymes from cells of the pancreas
- Secretory vesicles from the Golgi release their contents

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 8

 - Secretory vesicles from the Golgi release their contents
- Plant cell uses exocytosis to get their cell wall building materials to the outside of the cell
surface membrane

ENZYMES
- Enzyme is a biological catalyst
- All enzymes are proteins
- Catalyst because it speeds up a chemical reaction but remains unchanged at the end of
the reaction
- Enzymes are globular proteins. They fold up into precise shapes
- Almost all metabolic reactions which takes place in living organisms are catalytsed by
enzymes; enzymes are therfroe essentifal in life
- Many enzymes ends with -ase (ex. ATPase)
Definition:
- A protein produced by a living organism that acts as a biological catalyst in a chemical
reaction by reducing activation energy
Intracellular enzymes
- Produced by the cell to remain to react within the cell
- Hydrolytic enzymes, ATPase, DNA polymerase, etc.
Extracellular enzymes
- Produced by cells and released for reactions outside the cell
- Salivary amylase, enzymes in the digestive system, lysozymes
- Digestive enzymes are extracellular enzymes
➢ Glucose molecules (from digestion of starch
➢ Amino acid molecules (from digestion of proteins)
Characteristics of enzymes
- Remain unchanged at the end of reaction
- Highly specific in their actions
- Some require coenzymes / cofactors for activity
- Enzymes have allosteric site
- Speed up chemical reactions
Enzymes catalyse biochemical reactions
1. Anabolic (building up)
ex. Peptidyl transferase : synthesis of polypeptides and protein
amino acids ➔ polypeptides ➔ protein
2. Catabolic (breaking down)
Ex. salivary amylase : digestion of starches
Starch ➔ maltose ➔ glucose
HOW DOES ENZYMES WORK?
- Enzyme-Substrate Complex (ESC) formation occurs as the restricted region of an enzyme
called active site binds to the substrate.
Enzyme specificity :
- Enzyme recognises and catalyses only a specific substrate
- Active site is complementary to the shape of its specific substrate

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 9

 -

- Enzyme molecules have a special feature called active site

Active site
- An area on an enzyme molecule where the substrate can bind
Lock and key hypothesis
- A hypothesis for enzyme action
- The substrate is a complementary shape to the active site of the enzyme
- Fits exactly into the site
- The enzyme shows specificity for the substrate
Induced fit hypothesis
- A hypothesis for enzyme action
- The substrate is a complementary shape to the active site of the enzyme, but not an exact
fit
- The enzyme/substrate can change their shape slightly to ensure a perfect fit
-

BIO NOTES GR 10 Page 10