Discussion New Chapter 7 To 12

THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
CHAPTER VII
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LESSON 15: MEDIA AND GLOBALIZATION

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

1. Discuss about media and globalization;
2. Identify the function of media; and
3. Apply function of media.
GLOBALIZATION ENTAILS THE SPREAD OF VARIOUS CULTURES

 When a film is made in Hollywood, it is shown not only in the United States, but also
in other cities across the globe.
 Globalization also involves the spread of ideas.
For example, the notion of the rights of Lesbians, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT)
communities is spreading across the world and becoming more widely accepted.
 Similarly, the conservative Christian Church that opposes these rights moves from
places like South America and Korea and to Burundi in Africa.
 People who travel the globe teaching and preaching their beliefs in Universities,
Churches, public forums, classrooms, or even as guests of a family play a major role
in the spread of culture and ideas.
 But today, television programs, social media groups, books, movies, magazines,
and the like have made it easier for advocates to reach larger audiences.
 Globalization relies on media as its main conduit for the spread of global culture and
ideas.
Jack Lule was then right to ask, “Could Global trades have involved without a flow of
information on markets, prices, commodities and more?
According to Jack Lule could empires have stretched across the world without
communication throughout their borders?
Could religion, music, poetry, film, fiction, cuisine, and fashion develop as they have
without the intermingling of media and culture?
There is an intimate relationship between globalization and media which must be unraveled
to further understand the contemporary world.
MEDIA AND ITS FUNCTION

Lule describes media as “a means of conveying something, such as a channel of
communication."
 Print Media include books, magazines, and newspapers.
 Broadcast Media involve radio, film, and televisions.
Finally, digital media cover the internet and mobile main communication.
While it is relatively easy to define the term "media"
It is more difficult to determine what media do and how they affect societies.
Media theorist Marshall McLuhan once declared that “the medium is the message."
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Name: _____________________________________Course/Section: ___________
EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity 1: ESSAY
From your illustration under activity one, describe the poster through essay into 3-5
sentences.10 points
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Activity 2: POSTER MAKING
Design a poster out of the question inside the table. 20 points(1 short bond paper is acceptable)
“How media HELPS FOR GLOBALIZATION?”
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LESSON 16: THE GLOBAL VILLAGE AND CULTURAL

IMPERIALISM’S CRITIQUES
Learning Objectives

1. Discuss about global village and cultural imperialism;
2. Identify the form of cultural imperialism; and
3. Explain the prevalence of regional cultural trends.
THE GLOBAL VILLAGE AND CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

McLuhan used his analysis of technology to examine the impact of electronic media.
Since he was writing around the 1960's, he mainly analyzed the social changes brought
about by television-electronic media. Broadcast or storage media take advantage of
electronic technology. They may include television, radio, Internet, fax, CD-ROMs, DVD, and
any other medium that requires electricity or digital encoding of information. The term
'electronic media' is often used in contrast with print media.
McLuhan declared that television was turning the world into a "global village". By
this, he meant that, as more and more people sat down in front of their television sets and
listened to the same stories, their perception of the world would contract.
In the years after McLuhan, media scholars further grappled with the challenges of a
Global media culture. A lot of these early thinkers assumed that global media had a
tendency to homogenize culture. They argued that as global media spread, people from all
over the world would begin to watch, listen to, and read the same things.
 Commentators, therefore, believed that media globalization coupled with American
hegemony would create a form of cultural imperialism whereby American values
and culture would overwhelm all others.
 In 1976, media critic Herbert Schiller argued that not only was the world being
Americanized, but that this process also led to spread of "American" capitalist values
like consumerism.
 Similarly, for John Tomlinson, cultural globalization is simply a euphemism for
"Western cultural imperialism" since it promotes” Homogenized, westernized,
consumer culture".
These scholars who decry cultural imperialism, however, have a top-down view of
the media, since they are more concerned with the broad structures that determine media
content.
Moreover, their focus on America has led them to neglect other global flows of
information that the media can enable. This media/cultural imperialism theory has, therefore,
been subject to significant critique.
 If cultural globalization merely entails the spread of a Western monoculture, what
explains the prevalence of regional cultural trends?
For example: The regionalization of culture was a boon to Filipino telenovelas.
– From 2000 to 2002, ABS -CBN aired ” PangakoSayo”starring Jericho Rosales
and Kristine Hermosa.
– The show soon became a hit in Singapore and Malaysia, and its two stars
became household names.
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Until now, Filipino telenovelas like “Be careful with my Heart”find audiences across
Southeast Asia.
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Name: _____________________________________Course/Section: __________
EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity: ESSAY
Answer the following questions substantially and write your answer on the spaces provided
below.
1. If cultural globalization merely entails the spread of a Western monoculture, what explains
the prevalence of regional cultural trends? 5 points each
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2. In the years after McLuhan, media scholars further grappled with the challenges of a
Global media culture. What do early thinkers assumed?
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LESSON 17: CRITIQUES OF CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

Learning Objectives

1. Identify the critiques of cultural imperialism; and
2. Interpret media messages.
CRITIQUES OF CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

Proponents of the idea of cultural imperialism ignored the fact that media messages
are not just made by producers; they are also consumed by audiences.
 In the 1980’s, media scholars began to pay attention to the ways in which audiences
understood and interpreted media messages.
 In 1985, Indonesian cultural critic Len Ang studied the ways in which different
viewers in the Netherlands experienced watching the American soap opera Dallas.
In 1990, Elihu Katz and Tamar Liebes decided to push Ang's analysis further by
examining how viewers from distinct cultural communities interpreted Dallas.
 They argued that texts are received differently by varied interpretive communities
because they derived different meanings and pleasures from these texts.
 Thus, people from diverse cultural backgrounds had their own ways of understanding
the show.
Apart from the challenge of audience studies, the cultural imperialism thesis has
been belied by the renewed strength of regional trends in the globalization process.
Asian culture, for example, has proliferated worldwide through the globalization of
media.
Japanese brands–from Hello Kitty to the Mario Brothers to Pokemon– are now an indelible
part of global popular culture.
The same can be said for Korean pop (K-pop) and Korean telenovelas, which are
widely successful regionally and globally.
 The observation even applies to culinary tastes
 The most obvious case of globalized Asian cuisine is sushi.
Given these patterns, it is no longer tenable to insist that globalization is a

unidirectional process of foreign cultures overwhelming local ones.
Globalization, as noted in Lesson 1, will an uneven process, and it will produce
inequalities.
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity: ESSAY
Answer the questions substantially and write your answer on the spaces provided below.
 How was media consumed by audiences during the following years ?5 points
each
A.1980
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B.1985
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C.1990
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D.2000-present
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LESSON 18: CREATION OF CYBER GHETTOS

Learning Objectives

1. Define splinternet and cyber balkanization;
2. Identify one contemporary political party; and
3. Describe social media feeds.
CREATION OF CYBER GHETTOS

However, social media also have their dark side. In the early 2000, commentators
began referring to the emergence of a splinternet and the phenomenon of cyber
balkanization to refer to the various bubble people place themselves in when they are online.
•Splinternet- is a characterization of the Internet as splintering and dividing due to various
factors, such as technology, commerce, politics, nationalism, religion, and interests.
•Cyber balkanization-is the segregation of the Internet into smaller groups with similar
interests, to a degree that they show a narrow-minded approach to outsiders or those with
contradictory views.
In the United States, voters of the Democratic Party largely read liberal website, and
voters of the Republican Party largely read conservative website.
Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United
States, along with its main rival, the Republican Party. This segmentation, Notes an article in
the journal science, has been exacerbated by the nature of social media feeds, which leads
users to read articles, memes, and videos shared by like-minded friends
SOCIAL MEDIA FEEDS
Social media feeds is described as Twitter Walls, or as an Event Beat Screen Cast,
which enables you to gather and publish social content onto public screens at events. Social
media feeds have been proven to increase participation and customer engagement at
events, through social interaction and social signage.
As such, being on Face book can resemble living within an Echo chamber which
reinforces ones existing beliefs and opinions.
 Echo Chamber–is a metaphorical description of a situation in which beliefs are
amplified or reinforced by communication and repetition inside a closed system.
This echo chamber precludes users from listening to or reading opinions and
information that challenge their viewpoint, this making them more partisan and close-
minded.
 The Social media Bubbles–is a hypothesis stating that there was a speculative boom
and bust phenomenon in the field of social media in the 2010s, particularly in the
United States. It can be exploited by politicians with less than Democratic intentions
and demagogues wanting to whip up popular anger.
The same inexpensiveness that allows social media to be a democratic force likewise
makes it a cheap tool of government propaganda.
Propaganda is the spreading of information in support of a cause.
A Russian dictator Vladimir Putin has hired armies of social media troll to manipulate
public opinion through intimidation and the spreading of Fake news.
Most recently, American intelligence agencies established that Putin used trolls and online
misinformation to help Donald Trump win the presidency.
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity: IDENTIFICATION
Identify the following statements and write your answer on space provided before the
number.
_______________________1.It is a characterization of the Internet as splintering and
dividing due to various factors.
_______________________2 .It is the segregation of the Internet into smaller groups with
similar interests
_______________________3.It is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the
United States, along with its main rival, the Republican Party.
_______________________4.It is described as Twitter Walls, or as an Event Beat Screen
Cast, which enables you to gather and publish social content
onto public screens at events.
_______________________5.It is a metaphorical description of a situation in which beliefs
are amplified or reinforced by communication and repetition
inside a closed system.
_______________________6.It is a hypothesis stating that there was a speculative boom
and bust phenomenon in the field of social media in the 2010s,
particularly in the United States.
_______________________7.It is the spreading of information in support of a cause.
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CHAPTER VIII
The Global City-also called a power city or world city.
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LESSON 19: WHY STUDY GLOBAL CITIES

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected

to:
1. Define global cities;
2. Identify global cities and its indicator; and
3. Examine cultural movements.
WHY STUDY GLOBAL CITIES?
So far, much of the analysis of globalization in the previous lessons has looked at
how ideas of internationalism shape modern world politics.
We also examined cultural movements like k-pop and how they spread through
media like the internet.
What this lesson will emphasize? However that globalization is spatial. This
statement means two things.
First statement-globalization is spatial because it occurs in physical spaces.

-people who are working in these business or Filipinos working abroad start to
purchase or rent high-rise condominium units and better homes.
-as all these events happen, more people are driven out of city centers to make way
for the new developments.
Second Statement-globalization is spatial because what makes it move is the fact

that it is based in places.
In other words "Cities acts on globalization and, globalization acts on cities"
GLOBAL CITIES
 Centers of authority.
 It also centers of higher learning and culture.
 May also be considered centers of political influence.
 A decision made in that city can therefore, affect the political economy of an entire
continent and beyond.
Example:Los Angeles
-the centers of the American film Industry, may be considered a global city.
-It is the cultural power of global cities that ties them to the imagination.
-today global cities become culturally diverse, in a global city; one can try cuisines
from different parts of the world.
DEFINING THE GLOBAL CITY

Saskia Sassen-popularized the term "global city" in the 1990's.Her criteria for what
constitute a global city were primarily economic. She identified three global cities.
3GLOBAL CITIES
1)New York
2)London
3)Tokyo
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They are the homes, for instance of the world’s top stock exchanges where investors
buy and sell shares in major corporations.
Limiting the discussions of global cities to these three metropolises however is
proving more and more restrictive.
San Francisco-must now factor in as another global city because it is the home of
the most powerful internet companies-Face book, twitter, and Google.
Other considers some cities are "global"-because they are great places to live in.
Melbourne-referred to it as the worlds "most livable city"-means a place with a
good transportation.
INDICATORS FOR GLOBALITY
The multiple attributes of global city:
Economic power-is largely determines which cities are global.
Example: Shanghai may have smaller stock market compare to New York and
Tokyo, but plays a critical role in the global economic supply chain ever since china has
become manufacturing center of the world.
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity: ESSAY
below.
1. Expound the statement into 5 sentences-“Globalization is spatial “.5 points each
A.
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2.How is the cultural movements like k-pop and how they spread through media like the
internet? 5 points
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LESSON 20: THE GLOBAL CITY AND THE POOR

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss about the global city and the poor; and
2. Describe economic globalization.
THE GLOBAL CITY AND THE POOR

Economic Globalization has paved the way for massive inequality. This phenomenon
is thus pronounced in cities some large cities, particularly those Scandavia, have found ways
to mitigate inequality through state-led social redistribution programs. Particularly, those in
developing countries are sites of contradiction.
In places like Mumbai, Jakarta, and Manila, it is a common to find gleaming buildings
alongside massive shanty towns.
In the outskirts of New York and San Francisco are poor urban enslaves occupied by
Africa- America and immigrant families who are often denied opportunities at a better life.
Slowly, they are being forced to move farther away from the economic centers of
their cities. As a city attracts more capital and richer residents are forced to relocate to far
away but cheaper areas. This phenomenon of driving out the poor in favor of newer,
wealthier residents is called gentrification.
In France, poor Muslim migrants are forced out to parts and have clustered around
ethnic enclaves known as “Banlieve”.
In most of the world’s global cities, the middle class is also thinning out. Globalization
creates high-income jobs that are concentrated in global cities.
These high earners, in turn, generate demand for an unskilled labor force (hotel,
cleaners, nannies, maid, waitress) they will attend to their increasing needs. Meanwhile,
many middle income jobs in manufacturing and business process out sourcing (call center)
are moving to other countries. This following out of the middle class in the global cities has
heightened the inequality within them. A large global city may thus be a paradise for some,
but a purgatory for others.
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity: ESSAY
below.
1. What is economic globalization? 5 points
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2. What is economic gentrification? 5 points
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CHAPTER IX
When couples are asked why they have children, their answers are almost always about their feelings.
For most, having a child is the symbol of a successful union. It also ensures that the family will have a successor
generation that will continue its name. The kinship is preserved, and the family’s story continues. A few,
however, worry how much strain a child can bring to the household as he/she “competes” for the parents’
attention, and, in reverse how much the energy the family needs to shower its love to an additional member.
❖Viewed from above, however, having or not having children is mainly driven by economics. Behind the laughter
or the tears lies the question: Will the child be an economic asset or a burden to the family?
❖Rural communities often welcome an extra hand to help in crop cultivation, particularly during the planting and
harvesting seasons. The poorer districts of urban centers also tend to have families with more children because
the success of their “small family business” depends on how many of their members can be hawking their wares
on the streets. Hence, the more children, the better it will be for the farm or the small by-the-street corner
enterprises.
❖Urbanized, educated, and professional families with two incomes, however, desire just one or two progenies.
With each partner tied down, or committed to his/her respective professions, neither has the time to devote to
having a kid, much more to saving plans.
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LESSON 21: THE PERILS OF OVERPOPULATION

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the perils of overpopulation;
2. Determine the effect of overpopulation; and
3. Describe the two types of family.
International migration also plays a part. Today, 191 million people live in countries other
than their own, and the United Nations projects that over 2.2 million will move from the
developing world to the First World countries. Countries welcome immigrants as they
offset the debilitating effects of an aging population, but they are also perceived as
threats to the job market because they complete against citizens for jobs and often have
the edge because they are open to receiving lower ages. Voters' pressure has often
constrains their governments to institute striker immigration policies
THE "PERILS" OF OVERPOPULATION

Development planners are urbanization and industrialization as indicators of a
developing society, but disagree on the role of population growth or decline in
modernization. This lengthy discussion brings back ideas of British scholar Thomas Malthus
who warned in his 1798" An essay on the Principle of Population “that population growth will
inevitably exhaust world food supply by the middle of the 19th century. Malthus' prediction
was off base, but it was received in the late 1960s when American biologist Paul R. Ehrlich
and his wife, Anne, wrote the "Population Bomb, which argued that overpopulation in the
1970s and the 1980s will bring about global environmental disasters that would, in turn, lead
to food shortage and mass starvation. They proposed that countries like the United States
take the lead in the promotion of global population control in order to reduce the growths to
zero. Their recommendations ranched from the bizarre (chemical castration) to the policy-
oriented (taxing an additional child luxury takes on child-related products) to monetary
incentives (paying off men who would agree to be sterilized after two children) to
institution-building (a powerful Department of Population and Environment)
There was some reason for this fear to persist. The rate of global population increase
was at its highest between 1955 and 1975 when nations were finally able to return to
normalcy after the devastations wrought by World War II. The growth rate rose from 1.8 %
per year from 1955 to 1975, peaking at 2.06 % annual growth rate between 1965 and 1970.
By limiting the population, vital resources could be used for economic progress and
not be diverted" and "wasted" to feeding more mouths. This argument became the basis for
government “population control" programs worldwide.
In the mid-20th country, the Philippines, China, India sought to lower birth rates on
the belief that unless controlled, the free expansion of family members would lead to a crisis
in resources, which in turn may result in widespread poverty, mass hunger, and political
instability. As early as 1958, the American policy journal, Foreign Affairs, had already
advocated "contraception and sterilization" as the practical solutions to global economic,
social, political problems. While there have been criticism that challenged this argument, it
persists even to this very day.
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In May 2009, a group of American billionaires warned of how a "nightmarish"

explosion of people was "a potentially disastrous environmental, social, and industrial threat
" to the world.
Finally, politics determine these "birth control" programs. Developed countries justify their
support for population control in developing countries by depicting the latter as conservative
societies. For instance, population experts blamed the "irresponsible fecundity” of Egyptians
for that nations run-on population growth, and the Iranian peasant's ''natural" libidinal
tendencies for the same rise in population.
From 1920 onwards, the Indian government " marked lower castes, working poor,
and Muslims as hypersexual and hyper-fecund and hence a drain on policies like the forced
sterilization of twenty million " violators “of the Chinese government one-child policy.
Vietnam and Mexico also conducted coercive mass sterilization.
TWO SIGNIFICANT PARTS OF FAMILY INCOMES

➢Rural families view multiple children and large kinship networks as critical
investments.
Children, for example, can take over the agricultural work. Their houses can also become
the “retirement homes” of their parents, who will then proceed to take care of their
grandchildren.
➢Urban families, however, may not have the same kinship network anymore
because couples live on their own, or because they move out of the farmlands. Thus, it is
usually the basic family unit that is left to deal with life’s challenges on its own.
❖These differing versions of family life determine the economic and social policies that
countries craft regarding their respective populations. Countries in the “less developed
regions in the world” that rely on agriculture tend to maintain high levels of population
growth.
❖The 1980 United Nations report on urban and rural population growth states that “these
areas contained 85 percent of the world population in 1975are projected to contain 90
percent by the end of the20th century.”
❖Since then, global agricultural population has declined. In 2011, it accounted for over 37
percent of the world population, compared to the statistics in1980, in which rural and urban
population percentages were more or less the same. The blog site “Nourishing the Planet,”
however, noted that even as the agricultural population shrunk as a share of total population
between 1980 and 2011, it grew numerically from 2.2 billion to 2.6 billion people during these
period.”
❖Urban population has grown, but necessarily because families are having more children. It
is rather the combination or the natural outcome of significant migration to the cities by
people working work in the “more modern” sectors of society. This movement of people is
especially manifest in the developing countries where industries and businesses in the cities
are attracting people from the rural areas. This trend has been noticeable since the 1950’s
with the pace accelerating in next half-a-century. By the start of the 21stcentury the world
had become “44 percent urban, while the corresponding figures for developed countries are
52percent to 75 percent.”
❖International migration plays a part. Today, 191million people live in countries other than
their own, and the United Nations projects that over 2.2 million will move from the developing
world for the First World countries. Countries welcome immigrants as they offset the
debilitating effects of an aging population, but they are also perceived as threats to the job
market because they compete against citizens for jobs and often have the edge because
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they are open to receiving lower wages. Voter’s pressure has often constrained their
governments to institute stricter immigration policies.
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity: ESSAY
below.
1. Differentiate the two significant parts of the family income. 5 points each
a. Rural Families
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a. Urban Families
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2. What do you think will happen if overpopulation has arrived? 5 points

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LESSON 22: POPULATION GROWTH AND FOOD

Learning Objectives SECURITY
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected

to:
1. Discuss about the global city and the poor; and
2. Describe economic globalization.
POPULATION GROWTH AND FOOD SECURITY

 Today’s global population has reached 7.4 billion, and it is estimated to increase to
9.5 billion in 2050, then 11.2 billion by 2100. The median age of this population is
30.1, with the male age at 29.4 years and female, 30.9 years. Ninety –five per cent of
this population growth will happen in the developing countries, with demographers
predicting that by the middle of this country, several countries will have tripled these
populations. The opposite is happening in the developed world. Where populations
remain steady in general, but declining in some of the most advanced countries
(Japan and Singapore). However this scenario is not a run-off that could get out to
control. Demographers predict that the world population will stabilize by 2050 to 9
billion, although they warn that feeding this population will be an immense challenge.
 The decline in fertility and the existence of a young productive population, however,
may not enough to offset this concern over food security. The food and agriculture
organization (FAO) warns that in order for countries to mitigate the impact of
population growth, food production must increase by 70 per cent annual cereal
production must rise to 3 billion tons from the current 2.1 billion; and yearly meat
production must go up to 200 global rate of growth of cereals had declined
considerably from 3.2 percent in 1960 to just 1.5 percent in 2000.
 The FAO recommends that countries increase their investments in agriculture, craft
long term policies aimed at fighting poverty, and invest in research and development.
The UN body also suggest that countries develop a comprehensive social service
program that includes food assistance, consistent delivery of health services, and
education especially for the poor. If domestic production is not enough, it becomes
essential for nations to import. The FAO therefore, enjoins governments to keep their
markets open, and to eventually “move towards a global trading system that is fair
and competitive and that contributes to a dependable market for food.
 The aforementioned are worthy recommendations but nation states shall need the
political will push through these sweeping changes in population growth and food
security. This will take some time to happen given that good governance is also a
goal that may nations, especially in the developing world, have yet to attain.
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity: ESSAY
below.
1. Describe the economic globalization of the PHILIPPINES. 5 points
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2. How is population growth affect globalization? 5 points
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2. What is food security all about? 5 points
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CHAPTER X
GLOBAL MIGRATION & IMMIGRATION
Immigration is the international movement

of people to a destination country of
which they are not natives or where they do not possess
citizenship in order to settle as permanent residents or
naturalized citizens.
23
LESSON 23: GLOBAL MIGRATION

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss about global migration; and
2. Identify the two working themes of global migration.
GLOBAL MIGRATION
The Global Migration Group (GMG) is a group consisting of fourteen UN agencies,
the World Bank and the International Organization for Migration that work to address global
migration issues. GMG was created in 2006 by then UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan to
better coordinate multilateral migration governance initiatives.
 The Group's primary aim is to improve the management of cross-border
migration, to promote further research and to develop international norms
relating to migration.
GMG ORGANIZATION
GMG is chaired on a six-month rotating basis by a member agency. For each six
month term, GMG adopts a thematic topic to guide its activities. For example, UNICEF
chaired the Group during the first half of 2011and focused on youth. UNESCO Chaired GMG
during the second half of the year and focused on climate change impacts on migration. The
GMG also coordinates its activities with the Global Forum on Migration and Development,
although the two organizations are not formally affiliated.
GMG WORKING THEMES FOR

2011
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL MIGRATION THEME (July – December

2011)
During UNESCO's 2011 chairmanship, GMG focused on linkages between the
environment, human settlement and population movement.GMG is working identify the
challenges inherent in the links between climate change and migration, displacement and
relocation. Such challenges include the legal and normative framework applicable to
environmentally induced displacement and migration.
There remains a lack of clarity on issues such as the legal status of people fleeing
environmental disasters, the need for better data collection and monitoring, and the
consideration of migration as a de facto adaptation strategy in national climate change
strategies, for example in National Adaptation Plans of Action(NAPAs).
 YOUTH AND GLOBAL MIGRATION THEME (JANUARY –JUNE 2011)

During UNICEF's 2011 chairmanship, GMG focused on bringing greater attention to
a right based approach to adolescent and youth issues within the discussion on international
migration. These issues are considered from an equity, human development and gender
perspective.
24
The GMG focuses on the medium and long-term impacts of migration on youth and
adolescents. Young people are more likely to take on the risks of international migration in
pursuit of its expected gains, including education. Greater equality of opportunity in
communities of origin, transit and destination can ensure the wellbeing of young migrants
and maximize their contributions as workers, entrepreneurs, students and members of
society. Exploring issues such as looking into how best to address inequality of opportunities
for adolescents and youth in countries of origin may reduce migration by necessity.
Special attention is paid to identifying common policy and programmatic approaches
for enhancing cooperation among governments, agencies and relevant stake holders. This
effort aims to increase policy coherence and develop the capacity of stakeholders in data
collection, analysis, evidence-based policymaking, and dissemination of best practices at
country, regional and global levels.
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity: ENUMERATION
Enumerate and state five (5) FOCUSES each of the two GMG working themes 2011; write
your answer on the spaces provided below.5 points
1. CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL MIGRATION THEME
a.________________________________________________________________________
b.________________________________________________________________________
c.________________________________________________________________________
d.________________________________________________________________________
e.________________________________________________________________________
2. YOUTH AND GLOBAL MIGRATION THEME
a.________________________________________________________________________
b.________________________________________________________________________
c.________________________________________________________________________
d.________________________________________________________________________
e.________________________________________________________________________
25
LESSON 24: IMMIGRATION

Learning Objectives

1. Understand immigration; and
2. Identify the history of immigration; and
3. Explain some reasons of immigration.
INTRODUCTION AND THE HISTORY

As for economic effects, research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the
receiving and sending countries. Research, with few exceptions, finds that immigration on
average has positive economic effects on the native population, but is mixed as to whether
low-skilled immigration adversely affects low-skilled natives. Studies show that the
elimination of barriers to migration would have profound effects on world GDP, with
estimates of gains ranging between 67 and 147 percent. Development economists argue
that reducing barriers to labor mobility between developing countries and developed
countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction. Positive net
immigration can soften the demographic dilemma in the aging global North.
The academic literature provides mixed findings for the relationship between
immigration and crime worldwide, but finds for the United States that immigration either has
no impact on the crime rate or that it reduces the crime rate. Research shows that country of
origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation, but that there is considerable
assimilation overall for both first- and second generation immigrants.
Research has found extensive evidence of discrimination against foreign born and
minority populations in criminal justice, business, the economy, housing, health care, media,
and politics in the United States and Europe.
The term immigration was coined in the 17th century,
referring to non-warlike population movements between the
emerging nation states.
When people cross national borders during their
migration, they are called migrants or immigrants
(from Latin: migrare , wanderer) from the perspective of
the country which they enter. From the perspective of the
country which they leave, they are called emigrant or
out-migrant.
Sociology designates immigration usually as migration
(as well as emigration accordingly outward migration).
26
UNDERSTANDING OF IMMIGRATION
London has become multiethnic as result of

The largest Vietnamese market in P rague , also known as immigration.In London in 2008,Black British and British
Asian children outnumbered white British children by
"Little Hanoi". In 2009, there were about 70,000 Vietnamese
about 3 to 2 in government-run schools.
in the Czech Republic.
One theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors.

Push factors refer primarily to the motive for immigration from the country of origin. In
the case of economic migration (usually labor migration), differentials in wage rates are
common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in one's
native country, he or she may choose to migrate, as long as the costs are not too high.
Particularly in the 19th century, economic expansion of the US increased immigrant flow,
and nearly 15% of the population was foreign born, thus making up a significant amount of
the labor force.
As transportation technology improved, travel time, and costs decreased dramatically
between the 18th and early 20th century. Travel across the Atlantic used to take up to 5
weeks in the 18th century, but around the time of the 20th century it took a mere 8 days.
When the opportunity cost is lower, the immigration rates tend to be higher. Escape from
poverty (personal or for relatives staying behind) is a traditional push factor, and the
availability of jobs is the related pull factor. Natural disasters can amplify poverty-driven
migration flows. Research shows that for middle income countries, higher temperatures
increase emigration rates to urban areas and to other countries. For low-income countries,
higher temperatures reduce emigration.
Emigration and immigration are sometimes mandatory in a contract of employment:
religious missionaries and employees of transnational corporations, international
nongovernmental organizations, and the diplomatic service expect, by definition, to work
"overseas". They are often referred to as "expatriates", and their conditions of employment
are typically equal to or better than those applying in the host country (for similar work).
Non-economic push factors include persecution (religious and otherwise), frequent
abuse, bullying, oppression, ethnic cleansing, genocide, risks to civilians during war, and
social marginalization. Political motives traditionally motivate refugee flows; for instance,
people may emigrate in order to escape a dictatorship.
Some migration is for personal reasons, based on a relationship (e.g. to be with
family or a partner), such as in family reunification or transnational marriage (especially in
the instance of a gender imbalance). Recent research has found gender, age, and cross
cultural differences in the ownership of the idea to immigrate. In a few cases, an individual
may wish to immigrate to a new country in a form of transferred patriotism. Evasion of
criminal justice (e.g., avoiding arrest) is a personal motivation. This type of emigration
and immigration is not normally legal, if a crime is internationally recognized, although
criminals may disguise their identities or find other loopholes to evade detection. For
example, there have been reports of war criminals disguising themselves as victims of war
or conflict and then pursuing asylum in a different country.
27
Barriers to immigration come not only in legal form or political form; natural and social
barriers to immigration can also be very powerful. Immigrants when leaving their country
also leave everything familiar: their family, friends, support network, and culture. They also
need to liquidate their assets, and they incur the expense of moving. When they arrive in a
new country, this is often with many uncertainties including finding work, where to live, new
laws, new cultural norms, language or accent issues, possible racism, and other
exclusionary behavior towards them and their family.
The politics of immigration have become
increasingly associated with other
issues, such as national security and
terrorism, especially in Western Europe,
with the presence of Islam as a new
major religion. Those with security
concerns cite the 2005 French riots and
point to the Jyllands-Posten
Muhammad cartoons controversy as
examples of the value conflicts arising
from immigration of Muslims in
Western Europe. Because of all these associations, immigration has become an emotional
political issue in many European nations.
The Iron Curtain in Europe was designed as a means of preventing emigration . "It is one of the ironies of post-war
European history that, once the freedom to travel for Europeans living under communist regimes, which had long been
demanded by the West, was finally granted in 1989/90, travel was very soon afterwards made much more difficult by the West
itself, and new barriers were erected to replace the Iron Curtain." —Anita Böcker
Studies have suggested that some special interest groups lobby for less immigration
for their own group and more immigration for other groups since they see effects of
immigration, such as increased labor competition, as detrimental when affecting their own
group but beneficial when impacting other groups. A 2010 European study suggested that
"employers are more likely to be pro-immigration than employees, provided that immigrants
are thought to compete with employees who are already in the country. Or else, when
immigrants are thought to compete with employers rather than employees, employers are
more likely to be anti-immigration than employees." A 2011 study examining the voting of US
representatives on migration policy suggests that "representatives from more skilled labor
abundant districts are more likely to support an open immigration policy towards the
unskilled, whereas the opposite is true for representatives from more unskilled labor
abundant districts."
Another contributing factor may be lobbying by earlier immigrants. The Chairman for
the US Irish Lobby for Immigration Reform—which lobby for more permissive rules for
immigrants, as well as special arrangements just for Irish people—has stated that "the Irish
Lobby will push for any special arrangement it can get—'as will every other ethnic group in
the country.'
Immigrants are motivated to leave their former countries of citizenship, or habitual
residence, for a variety of reasons, including a lack of local access to resources, a desire for
economic prosperity, to find or engage in paid work, to better their standard of living, family
reunification, retirement, climate or environmentally induced migration, exile, escape from
prejudice, conflict or natural disaster, or simply the wish to change one's quality of life.
Commuters, tourists and other short-term stays in a destination country do not fall under the
definition of immigration or migration, seasonal labor immigration is sometimes included.
28
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity 1: ENUMERATION
Enumerate the following statements:
A. 8 Non-economic factors
1. _____________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________
6. _____________________________________________________
7. _____________________________________________________
8. _____________________________________________________
B. 2 Personal reasons for migration
1. _____________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________
C. 7 Uncertainties upon arriving in a new country
1. _____________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________
6. _____________________________________________________
7. _____________________________________________________
Activity 2: ESSAY
Answer the following questions substantially.5 points each
1. What does research has found in the United States and Europe?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________
2. What does the development economists argue for efficient tools of poverty reduction?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________
29
3. When does the immigration rate tend to be higher?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________
4. What is the main purpose of the Iron Curtain of Europe?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________
5. Explain the phrase “employers are more likely to be pro-immigration than employees”.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
30
LESSON 25: ECONOMIC MIGRANT, and LAWS and ETHICS

Learning Objectives

1. Understand economic migrant, laws, and ethics; and
2. Identify the laws and ethics of economic migrant.
ECONOMIC MIGRANT
The Indo-Bangladeshi barrier in 2007. India is

building a separation barrier along the
4,000 kilometer border with Bangladesh to
prevent illegal immigration.
The term economic migrant refers to someone who has travelled from one region to
another region for the purposes of seeking employment and an improvement in quality of life
and access to resources. An economic migrant is distinct from someone who is a refugee
fleeing persecution.
Many countries have immigration and visa restrictions that prohibit a person entering
the country for the purposes of gaining work without a valid work visa. As a violation of a
State's immigration laws a person who is declared to be an economic migrant can be
refused entry into a country.
The World Bank estimates that remittances totaled $420 billion in 2009, of which
$317 billion went to developing countries.
LAWS AND ETHICS
Treatment of migrants in host countries,
both by governments, employers, and original
population, is a topic of continual debate and
criticism, and the violation of migrant human
rights is an ongoing crisis. The United
Nations Convention on the Protection of the
Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members
of Their Families, has been ratified by 48 states,
most of which are heavy exporters of cheap
labor. Major migrant receiving countries and UNHCR tents at a refugee camp following episodes of anti-
regions – including Western Europe, North immigrant
America, Pacific Asia, Australia, and the Gulf violence in South Africa, 2008
States – have not ratified the Convention,
even though they are host to the majority
of international migrant workers. Although freedom of movement is often recognized as a
civil right in many documents such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), the freedom only applies
to movement within national borders and the ability to return to one's home state.
31
Some proponents of immigration

argue that the freedom of movement
both within and between countries is a Entry (top) and Exit
basic human right, and that the (bottom) passport stamps
restrictive immigration policies, typical of issued to a citizen of
Germany by Indian
nation-states, violate this human right immigration authorities at
of freedom of movement. Such arguments New Delhi airport.
are common among ideologies like
anarchism and libertarianism. As
philosopher and Open borders activist
Jacob Appel has written, "Treating human beings differently, simply because they were born
on the opposite side of a national boundary, is hard to justify under any mainstream
philosophical, religious or ethical theory."
Where immigration is permitted, it is typically selective. As of 2003, family
reunification accounted for approximately two-thirds of legal immigration to the US every
year. Ethnic selection, such as the White Australia policy, has generally disappeared, but
priority is usually given to the educated, skilled, and wealthy. Less privileged individuals,
including the mass of poor people in low-income countries, cannot avail themselves of the
legal and protected immigration opportunities offered by wealthy states. This inequality has
also been criticized as conflicting with the principle of equal opportunities. The fact that the
door is closed for the unskilled, while at the same time many developed countries have a
huge demand for unskilled labor, is a major factor in illegal immigration. The contradictory
nature of this policy—which specifically disadvantages the unskilled immigrants while
exploiting their labor—has also been criticized on ethical grounds.
Immigration policies which selectively grant freedom of movement to targeted
individuals are intended to produce a net economic gain for the host country. They can also
mean net loss for a poor donor country through the loss of the educated minority— a "brain
drain". This can exacerbate the global inequality in standards of living that provided the
motivation for the individual to migrate in the first place. One example of competition for
skilled labor is active recruitment of health workers from developing countries by developed
countries. There may however also be a "brain gain" to emigration, as migration
opportunities lead to greater investments in education in developing countries.
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity 1: Answer the following questions with complete thought. 5 points each
1. What is economic migrant?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
32
2. What do other countries have to prohibit a person entering the country for the purposes of
gaining work without a valid work visa?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Where does freedom of movements applied?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the restrictive immigration policy?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. What is brain drain and brain gain?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
33
LESSON 26: ECONOMIC EFFECTS

Learning Objectives

1. Understand economic effects of immigration; and
2. Identify the economic effects of immigration.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
A survey of leading economists shows a consensus behind the view that high-skilled
immigration makes the average American better off. A survey of the same economists also
shows support behind the notion that low-skilled immigration, while creating winners and
losers, makes the average American better off.
European economists shows a consensus that freer movement of people to live and
work across borders within Europe makes the average European better off, and strong
support behind the notion that it has not made low-skilled Europeans worse off.
According to David Card, Christian Dustmann, and Ian Preston, "most existing
studies of the economic impacts of immigration suggest these impacts are small, and on
average benefit the native population". In a survey of the existing literature, Örn B
Bodvarsson and Hendrik Van den Berg write, "a comparison of the evidence from all the
studies... makes it clear that, with very few exceptions, there is no strong statistical support
for the view held by many members of the public, mainly that immigration has an adverse
effect on native-born workers in the destination country."
OVERALL ECONOMIC PROSPERITY
Whereas the impact on the average native tends to be small and positive, studies
show more mixed results for low-skilled natives, but whether the effects are positive or
negative, they tend to be small either way. Immigrants may often do types of work that
natives are largely unwilling to do, contributing to greater economic prosperity for the
economy as a whole: for instance, Mexican migrant workers taking up manual farm work in
the United States has close to zero effect on native employment in that occupation, which
means that the effect of Mexican workers on U.S. employment outside farm work was
therefore most likely positive, since they raised overall economic productivity. Research
indicates that immigrants are more likely to work in risky jobs than U.S.-born workers, partly
due to differences in average characteristics, such as immigrants' lower English language
ability and educational attainment. According to a 2017 survey of the existing economic
literature, studies on high-skilled migrants "rarely find adverse wage and employment
consequences and longer time horizons tend to show greater gains".
Competition from immigrants in a particular profession may aggravate
underemployment in that profession, but increase wages for other natives; for instance, a
2017 study in Science found that "the influx of foreign-born computer scientists since the
early 1990s... increased the size of the US IT sector... benefited consumers via lower prices
and more efficient products... raised overall worker incomes by 0.2 to 0.3% but decreased
wages of U.S. computer scientists by 2.6 to 5.1%."A 2019 study found that foreign college
workers in STEM occupations did not displace native college workers in STEM occupations,
but instead had a positive impact on latters' wages. A 2019 study found that greater
immigration led to less off shoring by firms.
Research also suggests that diversity and immigration have a net positive effect on
productivity and economic prosperity. Immigration has also been associated with reductions
34
in off shoring. A study by Harvard economist Nathan Nunn, Yale economist Nancy Qian and
LSE economist Sandra Sequeira found that the Age of Mass Migration (1850–1920)
contributed to "higher incomes, higher productivity, more innovation, and more
industrialization" in the short-run and "higher incomes, less poverty, less unemployment,
higher rates of urbanization, and greater educational attainment" in the long-run for the
United States. Research also shows that migration to Latin America during the Age of Mass
Migration had a positive impact on long-run economic development.
Studies show that the elimination of barriers to migration would have profound effects
on world GDP, with estimates of gains ranging between 67–147.3% in the scenarios where
billions of workers move from developing to developed countries. Research also finds that
migration leads to greater trade in goods and services, and increases in financial flows
between the sending and receiving countries. Using 130 years of data on historical
migrations to the United States, one study finds "that a doubling of the number of residents
with ancestry from a given foreign country relative to the mean increases by 4.2 percentage
points the probability that at least one local firm invests in that country, and increases by
31% the number of employees at domestic recipients of FDI from that country. The size of
these effects increases with the ethnic diversity of the local population, the geographic
distance to the origin country, and the ethno-linguistic fractionalization of the origin country."
A 2017 study found that "immigrants' genetic diversity is significantly positively correlated
with measures of U.S. counties' economic development [during the Age of Mass Migration].
There exists also a significant positive relationship between immigrants' genetic diversity in
1870 and contemporaneous measures of U.S. counties' average income."
Some research suggests that immigration can offset some of the adverse effects of
automation on native labor outcomes. By increasing overall demand, immigrants could push
natives out of low-skilled manual labor into better paying occupation. A 2018 study in the
American Economic Review found that the Bracero program (which allowed almost half a
million Mexican workers to do seasonal farm labor in the United States) did not have any
adverse impact on the labor market outcomes of American-born farm workers. A 2019 study
by economic historians found that immigration restrictions implemented in the 1920s had an
adverse impact on US-born workers' earnings.
A 2016 paper by University of Southern Denmark and University of Copenhagen
economists found that the 1924 immigration restrictions enacted in the United States
impaired the economy.
INEQUALITY
Overall immigration has not had much effect on native wage inequality but low-skill
immigration has been linked to greater income inequality in the native population. Greater
openness to low-skilled immigration in wealthy countries would drastically reduce global
income inequality.
35
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EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity 1: Answer the following questions with complete thought. 5 points each
1. Why does immigrants are more likely to work in risky jobs than U.S.-born workers?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. State at least 5 positive or negative economic effects of immigration?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
36
LESSON 27: FISCAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the fiscal effects of immigration;
2. Identify the fiscal effects of immigration; and
3. Illustrate some economists’ studies about fiscal effects.
FISCAL EFFECTS
A 2011 literature review of the economic impacts of immigration found that the net
fiscal impact of migrants varies across studies but that the most credible analyses typically
find small and positive fiscal effects on average. According to the authors, "the net social
impact of an immigrant over his or her lifetime depends substantially and in predictable ways
on the immigrant's age at arrival, education, reason for migration, and similar". According to
a 2007 literature review by the Congressional Budget Office, "Over the past two decades,
most efforts to estimate the fiscal impact of immigration in the United States have concluded
that, in aggregate and over the long term, tax revenues of all types generated by immigrants
—both legal and unauthorized— exceed the cost of the services they use."
A 2018 study found that inflows of asylum seekers into Western Europe from 1985 to
2015 had a net positive fiscal impact. Research has shown that EU immigrants made a net
positive fiscal contribution to Denmark and the United Kingdom. A 2017 study found that
when Romanian and Bulgarian immigrants to the United Kingdom gained permission to
acquire welfare benefits in 2014 that it had no discernible impact on the immigrants' use of
welfare benefits. A paper by a group of French economists found that over the period 1980-
2015, "international migration had a positive impact on the economic and fiscal performance
of OECD countries."
A. IMPACT OF REFUGEES
A 2017 survey of leading economists found that 34% of economists agreed with the
statement "The influx of refugees into Germany beginning in the summer of 2015 will
generate net economic benefits for German citizens over the succeeding decade", whereas
38% were uncertain and 6% disagreed. Studies of refugees' impact on native welfare are
scant but the existing literature shows mixed results (negative, positive and no significant
effects on native welfare).
According to economist Michael Clemens, "when economists have studied past
influxes of refugees and migrants they have found the labor market effects, while varied, are
very limited, and can in fact be positive." A 2018 study in the Economic Journal found that
Vietnamese refugees to the United States had a positive impact on American exports, as
exports to Vietnam grew most in US states with larger Vietnamese populations. A 2018
study in the journal Science Advances found that asylum seekers entering Western Europe
in the period 1985–2015 had a positive macroeconomic and fiscal impact. A 2019 study
found that the mass influx of 1.3 million Syrian refugees to Jordan (total population: 6.6
million) did not have harm the labor market outcomes of native Jordanians. A 2020 study
found that Syrian refugees to Turkey improved the productivity of Turkish firms.
A 2017 paper by Evans and Fitzgerald found that refugees to the United States pay
"$21,000 more in taxes than they receive in benefits over their first 20 years in the U.S." An
internal study by the Department of Health and Human Services under the Trump
administration, which was suppressed and not shown to the public, found that refugees to
37
the United States brought in $63 billion more in government revenues than they cost the
government. According to University of California, Davis, labor economist Giovanni Peri, the
existing literature suggests that there are no economic reasons why the American labor
market could not easily absorb 100,000 Syrian refugees in a year. A 2017 paper looking at
the long-term impact of refugees on the American labor market over the period 1980–2010
found "that there is no adverse long-run impact of refugees on the U.S. labor market."
Refugees integrate more slowly into host countries' labor markets than labor
migrants, in part due to the loss and depreciation of human capital and credentials during the
asylum procedure. Refugees tend to do worse in economic terms than natives, even when
they have the same skills and language proficiencies of natives. For instance, a 2013 study
of Germans in West-Germany who had been displaced from Eastern Europe during and
after World War II showed that the forced German migrants did far worse economically than
their native West-German counter parts decades later. Second generation forced German
migrants also did worse in economic terms than their native counterparts. A study of
refugees to the United States found that "refugees that enter the U.S. before age 14
graduate high school and enter college at the same rate as natives.
Refugees that entered the U.S. at ages 18–45, have "much lower levels of education
and poorer language skills than natives and outcomes are initially poor with low employment,
high welfare use and low earnings."But the authors of the study find that "outcomes improve
considerably as refugees’ age."
A 2017 study found that the 0.5 million Portuguese who returned to Portugal from
Mozambique and Angola in the mid-1970s lowered labor productivity and wages. A 2018
paper found that the areas in Greece that took on a larger share of Greek Orthodox refugees
from the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922 "have today higher earnings, higher levels of
household wealth, greater educational attainment, as well as larger financial and
manufacturing sectors."
B. IMPACT OF UNDOCUMENTED IMMIGRANTS
Research on the economic effects of undocumented immigrants is scant but existing
studies suggests that the effects are positive for the native population, and public coffers. A
2015 study shows that "increasing deportation rates and tightening border control weakens
low-skilled labor markets, increasing unemployment of native low-skilled workers.
Legalization, instead, decreases the unemployment rate of low-skilled natives and increases
income per native." Studies show that legalization of undocumented immigrants would boost
the U.S. economy; a 2013 study found that granting legal status to undocumented
immigrants would raise their incomes by a quarter (increasing U.S. GDP by approximately
$1.4 trillion over a ten year period), and a 2016 study found that "legalization would increase
the economic contribution of the unauthorized population by about 20%, to 3.6% of private-
sector GDP." A 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that
undocumented immigrants to the United States "generate higher surplus for US firms
relative to natives, hence restricting their entry has a depressing effect on job creation and,
in turn, on native labor markets."
A 2017 study in the Journal of Public Economics found that more intense immigration
enforcement increased the likelihood that US-born children with undocumented immigrant
parents would live in poverty.
A paper by Spanish economists found that upon legalizing the undocumented
immigrant population in Spain, the fiscal revenues increased by around €4,189 per newly
legalized immigrant. The paper found that the wages of the newly legalized immigrants
increased after legalization, some low-skilled natives had worse labor market outcomes and
high-skilled natives had improved labor market outcomes.
38
A 2018 study found no evidence that apprehensions of undocumented immigrants in

districts in the United States improved the labor market outcomes for American natives.
C. IMPACT ON THE SENDING COUNTRIES
Research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending
countries. According to one study, welfare increases in both types of countries: "welfare
impact of observed levels of migration is substantial, at about 5% to 10% for the main
receiving countries and about 10% in countries with large incoming remittances". According
to Branko Milanović, country of residency is by far the most important determinant of global
income inequality, which suggests that the reduction in labor barriers would significantly
reduce global income inequality. A study of equivalent workers in the United States and 42
developing countries found that "median wage gap for a male, unskilled (9 years of
schooling), 35-year-old, urban formal sector worker born and educated in a developing
country is P$15,400 per year at purchasing power parity". A 2014 survey of the existing
literature on emigration finds that a 10 percent emigrant supply shock would increase wages
in the sending country by 2– 5.5%.
D. IMPACT ON GLOBAL POVERTY
According to economists Michael Clemens and Lant Pritchett, "permitting people to move
from low-productivity places to high-productivity places appears to be by far the most
efficient generalized policy tool, at the margin, for poverty reduction".[17] A successful two-
year in situ anti-poverty program, for instance, helps poor people make in a year what is the
equivalent of working one day in the developed world. A slight reduction in the barriers to
labor mobility between the developing and developed world would do more to reduce
poverty in the developing world than any remaining trade liberalization.
Research on a migration lottery allowing Tongans to move to New Zealand found
that the lottery winners saw a 263% increase in income from migrating (after only one year in
New Zealand) relative to the unsuccessful lottery entrants. A longer-term studyon the
Tongan lottery winners finds that they "continue to earn almost 300 percent more than non-
migrants, have better mental health, live in households with more than 250 percent higher
expenditure, own more vehicles, and have more durable assets". A conservative estimate of
their lifetime gain to migration is NZ$315,000 in net present value terms (approximately
US$237,000).
A 2017 study of Mexican immigrant households in the United States found that by virtue of
moving to the United States, the households increase their incomes more than fivefold
immediately. The study also found that the "average gains accruing to migrants surpass
those of even the most successful current programs of economic development."
A 2017 study of European migrant workers in the UK shows that upon accession to
the EU, the migrant workers see a substantial positive impact on their earnings. The data
indicate that acquiring EU status raises earnings for the workers by giving them the right to
freely change jobs.
A 2017 study in the Quarterly Journal of Economics found that immigrants from
middle- and low-income countries to the United States increased their wages by a factor of
two to three upon migration.
E. INNOVATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
A 2017 survey of the existing economic literature found that "high-skilled migrants
boost innovation and productivity outcomes."According to a 2013 survey of the existing
economic literature, "much of the existing research points towards positive net contributions
by immigrant entrepreneurs." Areas where immigrant are more prevalent in the United
States have substantially more innovation (as measured by patenting and citations).[193]
Immigrants to the United States create businesses at higher rates than natives. A 2010
39
study showed "that a 1 percentage point increase in immigrant college graduates' population
share increases patents per capita by 9–18 percent." Mass migration can also boost
innovation and growth, as shown by the Jewish, Huguenot and Bohemian diasporas in Berlin
and Prussia, German Jewish Émigrés in the US, the Mariel boatlift, the exodus of Soviet
Jews to Israel in the 1990s, European migration to Argentina during the Age of Mass
Migration (1850–1914), west-east migration in the wake of German reunification, and Polish
immigration to Germany after joining the EU. A 2018 study in the Economic Journal found
that "a 10% increase in immigration from exporters of a given product is associated with a
2% increase in the likelihood that the host country starts exporting that good 'from scratch' in
the next decade."
Immigrants have been linked to greater invention and innovation. According to one
report, "immigrants have started more than half (44 of 87) of America's startup companies
valued at $1 billion dollars or more and are key members of management or product
development teams in over 70 percent (62 of 87) of these companies." One analysis found
that immigrant-owned firms had a higher innovation rate (on most measures of innovation)
than firms owned by U.S.-born entrepreneurs. Research also shows that labor migration
increases human capital. Foreign doctoral students are a major source of innovation in the
American economy. In the United States, immigrant workers hold a disproportionate share of
jobs in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM): "In 2013, foreign-born workers
accounted for 19.2 percent of STEM workers with a bachelor's degree, 40.7 percent of those
with a master's degree, and more than half—54.5 percent—of those with a PhD"
A number of countries across the globe offer Economic Citizenship Programs where
in return for investing into the local economy, foreign investors are awarded citizenship.
Such programs encourage innovation and entrepreneurship from foreign investors and high
net worth individuals who as new citizens in the country can offer unique perspectives. St.
Kitts and Nevis was the first country to offer economic citizenship back in 1984 creating a
new market for citizenship and by the early 2000's other Caribbean countries joined them.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity 1: Discuss a brief summary on the following effects of immigration base on what
you have read from the lesson. 5 points each
1. Impact of refugees
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________.
2. Impact of undocumented immigrant
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________.
40
3. Impact on the sending countries

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________.
4. Impact on the global poverty
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________.
5. Innovation and entrepreneurship
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________.
Activity 2: Illustrate the given statements using the empty Pi Graph below. 5 points each
1. A 2017 survey of leading economists found that 34% of economists agreed with the statement
"The influx of refugees into Germany beginning in the summer of 2015 will generate net economic
benefits for German citizens over the succeeding decade", whereas 38% were uncertain and 6%
disagreed.
2. A 2016 study found that "legalization would increase the economic contribution of the
unauthorized population by about 20%, to 3.6% of private-sector GDP."
3. According to one study, welfare increases in both types of countries: "welfare impact of observed
levels of migration is substantial, at about 5% to 10% for the main receiving countries and about 10%
in countries with large incoming remittances".
1. 2. 3.
41
4. A 2018 study in the Economic Journal found that "a 10% increase in immigration from exporters of
a given product is associated with a 2% increase in the likelihood that the host country starts
exporting that good 'from scratch' in the next decade."
5. "In 2013, foreign-born workers accounted for 19.2 percent of STEM workers with a bachelor's
degree, 40.7 percent of those with a master's degree, and more than half—54.5 percent—of those
with a PhD"
4. 5.
42
CHAPTER XI
OVERSEAS FILIPINOS
Overseas Filipinos (Filipino: Pilipino sa Ibayong-dagat ) are people

of full or partial Filipino origin, i.e. people who trace their ancestry
to the Philippines and who live reside outside of the country. This
term generally applies both to people of Filipino ancestry and to
citizens abroad. As of 2019, there are over 12 million overseas
Filipinos.
43
LESSON 28: POPULATION: IT’S ECONOMIC IMPACT

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the economic impact of population;
2. Identify the economic impact of population; and
3. Illustrate the OFW population.
OVERSEAS FILIPINOS
(Pilipino sa Ibayong-Dagat)
Total population 11–12 million (2019)
Figures below are for various years, per individual supporting sources cited.
Regions with significant populations:
United States 4,089,570 Hong Kong 186,869 (2016) Papua New Guinea 25,000
(2018) Italy 165,783 (2014) (2013)
Saudi Arabia 938,490 Spain ~150,000 (2015) Germany 20,589 (2018)
(2015) United Kingdom 200,000 Thailand 17,574 (2010)
United Arab Emirates (2017) Netherlands 16,719 (2009)
679,819 (2013) Taiwan 77,933 (2011) Macau 14,544 (2011)
Japan 325,000 (2020) (2017) South Korea 50,264 (2007) Ireland 13,976 (2013)
Australia 293,770 (2019) New Zealand 40,347 (2013) Sweden 13,000 (2012)
Kuwait 276,000 (2018) Israel 36,400 (2013) Norway 12,262 (2014)
Malaysia 245,000 (2009) Brunei 32,765 (2013) China 12,254 (2011)
Qatar 240,000 (2017) Austria 30,000 (2019) Switzerland 10,000 (2009)
Singapore 203,243 (2013) Kazakhstan 8,000 (2011)
Canada 837,130 (2016)
POPULATION
Since the liberalization of United States immigration laws in 1965, the number of
people in the United States having Filipino ancestry has grown substantially. In 2007 there
were an estimated 12 million Filipinos living overseas.
In 2013, the Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) estimated that approximately
10.2 million people of Filipino descent lived or worked abroad. This number constitutes about
11 percent of the total population of the Philippines. It is one of the largest diaspora
populations, spanning over 100 countries.
The Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) tend to be young and gender-balanced.
Based on a survey conducted in 2011, the demographics indicate how the 24-29 age groups
constitutes 24 percent of the total and is followed by the 30-34 age group (23 percent)
working abroad.
Male OFWs account for 52 percent of the total OFW population. The slightly smaller
percentage of the female overseas workers tends to be younger than their male
counterparts. Production workers and service workers account for more than 80 percent of
the labor outflows by 2010 and this number is steadily increasing, along with the trend for
professional workers, who are mainly nurses and engineers. Filipino seamen, overseas
Filipino workers in the maritime industry, make an oversize impact on the global economy,
making up a fifth to a quarter of the merchant marine crews, who are responsible for the
movement of the majority of goods in the global economy.
44
The OFW population is consistently increasing through the years and this is partly
attributed to the government's encouragement of the outflow of contractual workers as
evidenced in policy pronouncements, media campaigns, and other initiatives. For instance, it
describes the OFWs as the heroes of the nation, encouraging citizens to take pride in these
workers.
ECONOMIC IMPACT
In 2012, the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP), the central bank of the Philippines,
expects official remittances coursed through banks and agents to grow 5% over 2011 to
US$21 billion, but official remittances are only a fraction of all remittances. In 2018,
remittance had increased to $31 billion, which was nearly 10% of the GDP of the Philippines.
Remittances Economic impact by unofficial, including illegal, channels are estimated by the
Asian Bankers Association to be 30 to 40% higher than the official BSP figure. In 2011,
remittances were US$20.117 billion. In 2012, approximately 80% of the remittances came
from only 7 countries—United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, UAE, Saudi Arabia,
Singapore, and Japan.
In 2019, Overseas Filipinos sent back $32.2 billion to the Philippines.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity 1: ESSAY
Answer the following questions substantially. 5 points each
1. How does OFW population affect the economical growth of the Philippines and of the
world?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. Is there a positive effect/s of OFW population of the Philippines and of the world? Please
enumerate at least five.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. Is there a negative effect/s of OFW population of the Philippines and of the world? Please
enumerate at least five.
45
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Illustrate the given statements using the empty Pi Graph below. 5 points each
1. The demographics indicate how the 24-29 age groups constitutes 24 percent of the total
and is followed by the 30-34 age group (23 percent) working abroad.
2. Production workers and service workers account for more than 80 percent of the labor
outflows by 2010 and this number is steadily increasing, along with the trend for professional
workers, who are mainly nurses and engineers.
LESSON 29: ISSUES

Learning Objectives
46

1. Discuss about issues of overseas Filipinos;
2. Identify the issues of overseas Filipinos; and
ISSUES
 Employment conditions
Employment conditions abroad are relevant to the individual
worker and their families as well as for the sending country and its economic growth and well
being. Poor working conditions for Filipinos hired abroad include long hours, low wages and
few chances to visit family. Evidence suggests that these women cope with the emotional
stress of familial separation in one of two ways:
1. First, in domestic care situations, they substitute their host-family’s children for
their own in the love and affection they give, and
2. Second, they actively considered the benefit their earnings would have on their
children’s future.
Women often face disadvantages in their employment conditions as they tend to
work in the elder/child care and domestic. These occupations are considered low skilled and
require little education and training, thereby regularly facing poor working conditions. Women
facing just working conditions are more likely to provide their children with adequate
nutrition, better education and sufficient health. There is a strong correlation between
women's rights and the overall well being of children. It is therefore a central question to
promote women's rights in order to promote children's capabilities.
According to a statement made in 2009 by John Leonard Monterona, the Middle East
coordinator of Migrante, a Manila-based OFW organization, every year, an unknown number
of Filipinos in Saudi Arabia were then "victims of sexual abuses, maltreatment, unpaid
salaries, and other labor malpractices".
 Government Policy
Philippine Labor Migration Policy has historically focused on removing
barriers for migrant workers to increase accessibility for employment abroad. Working
conditions among Filipinos employed abroad varies depending on whether the host country
acknowledges and enforces International labor standards. The standards are set by the ILO,
which is an UN agency that 185 of the 193 UN members are part of. Labor standards vary
greatly depending on host country regulations and enforcement. One of the main reasons for
the large differences in labor standards is due to the fact that ILO only can register
complaints and not impose sanctions on governments.
Emigration policies tend to differ within countries depending on if the occupation is
mainly dominated by men or women. Occupations dominated by men tend to be driven by
economic incentives whereas emigration policies aimed at women traditional tend to be
value driven, adhering to traditional family roles that favors men's wage work. As women are
regularly seen as symbols of national pride and dignity, governments tend to have more
protective policies in sectors dominated by women. These policies risk to increase gender
inequality in the Philippines and thereby this public policy work against women joining the
workforce. Female OFWs most often occupy domestic positions. However, some
researchers argue that the cultural trends of female migrancy have the potential to
destabilize the gender inequality of the Filipino culture. Evidence suggests that in intact,
47
heterosexual families wherein the wife-mother works overseas, Filipino fathers have the
potential to take on greater roles in care-giving to their children, though seldom few actually
do Other researchers report that these situations lead to abuse, particularly of older
daughters, who face increased pressure and responsibility in the mother’s absence.
[ Likewise, the “reversal of breadwinning and care giving roles between migrant wives and
left-behind husbands” more often results in tension regarding family finances and the role
each spouse should play in decision making.
The Philippine government has recently opened up their public policy to promote
women working abroad since the world’s demand for domestic workers and healthcare
workers has increased. This has led to the government reporting a recent increase in women
emigrating from the Philippines. A healthcare problem arises as migrating women from the
Philippines and other developing countries often create a nursing shortage in the home
country. Nurse to patient ratio is down to 1 nurse to between 40 and 60 patients, in the
1990s the ratio was 1 nurse to between 15 and 20 patients. It seems inevitable that the
healthcare sector loses experienced nurses as the emigration is increasing. The Japan-
Philippines Economic Partnership Agreement is seen as a failure by most since only 7% of
applicants or 200 nurses a year has been accepted on average – mainly due to resistance
by domestic stakeholders and failed program implementation. The result is a “lose-lose”
outcome where Philippine workers fail to leverage their skills and a worldwide shortage
persists. Despite the fact that Japan has an aging population and many Filipinos want to
work in Japan, a solution has not yet been found. The Japanese Nursing Association
supports “equal or better” working conditions and salaries for Filipino nurses. In contrast,
Yagi proposes more flexible wages to make Filipinos more attractive on the Japanese job
market.
Results from a focus group in the Philippines shows that the positive impacts from
migration of nurses is attributed to the individual migrant and his/her family, while the
negative impacts are attributed to the Filipino healthcare system and society in general. In
order to fill the nursing shortage in the Philippines, suggestions have been made by several
NGOs that nursing-specializing Filipino workers overseas, locally known as “overseas
Filipino workers” (OFWs), return to the country to train local nurses, for which program
training would be required in order for the Philippines to make up for all its nurses migrating
abroad.
 House Country Policy
Wealthier households derive a larger share of their income from abroad. This might
suggest that government policies in host countries favor capital-intensive activities. Even
though work migration is mainly a low and middle class activity, the high-income households
are able to derive a larger share of their income from abroad due to favorable investment
policies. These favorable investment policies causes an increase in income inequalities and
do not promote domestic investments that can lead to increased standard of living. This
inequality threatens to halt the economic development as investments are needed in the
Philippines and not abroad in order to increase growth and well-being. A correlation between
successful contribution to the home country's economy and amounted total savings upon the
migrants return has been found; therefore it is important to decrease income inequalities
while attracting capital from abroad to the Philippines.
Many host governments of OFWs have protective policies and barriers making it
difficult to enter the job market. Japan has been known for rigorous testing of Filipinos in a
way that make them look reluctant to hold up their part of the Japan-Philippines Economic
Partnership Agreement and solely enjoy the benefit of affordable manufacturing in the
Philippines, not accepting and educating OFWs.
 Returning migration
48
Returning migrant workers are often argued to have a positive effect on the home
economy since they are assumed to gain skills and return with a new perspective. Deskilling
has caused many Filipino workers to return less skilled after being assigned simple tasks
abroad, this behavior creates discouragement for foreign workers to climb the occupational
ladder. Deskilling of labor is especially prevalent among women who often have few and low
skill employment options, such as domestic work and child or elder care. Other occupations
that recently have seen an increase in deskilling are doctors, teachers and assembly line
workers.
To underline what a common problem this deskilling is: Returning migrant workers
are calling for returnee integration programs, which suggests that they do not feel prepared
to be re-integrated in the domestic workforce.
As the Philippines among other countries who train and export labor repeatedly has
faced failures in protecting labor rights, the deskilling of labor has increased on a global
scale. A strong worldwide demand for healthcare workers causes many Filipinos to emigrate
without ever getting hired or become deskilling while possibly raising their salary. The result
is a no-win situation for the sending and receiving country. The receiving countries lose as
skilled workers are not fully utilizing their skills while the home country simultaneously
experiences a shortage of workers in emigrating prone sectors.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity 1: Discuss the issues in a very short summary under the following:
1. Employment Conditions
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
2. Government Policy
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
3. House Country Policy
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
4. Returning Migration
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
49
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
Activity 2: ESSAY
Answer the following questions substantially.5 points
1. What is an employment condition?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What potential does a female migrancy have?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What rights for female OFW must to promote in order for children's capabilities?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. What do you think might be the result of resistance by domestic stakeholders and failed
program implementation?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
50
CHAPTER XII
SUSTAINABILITY
Achieving sustainability will enable the Earth to continue

supporting life.
Banaue rice terraces in the Philippines, a UN ESCO World

Heritage site.
51
LESSON 30: HISTORY, DEFINITION AND ETYMOLOGY

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the history of sustainability and its etymology; and
2. Define sustainability.
HISTORY, DEFINITION AND ETYMOLOGY

The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere (tenere, to hold; sub,
under). Sustain can mean "maintain", "support", "uphold" or "endure". The history of
sustainability traces human-dominated ecological systems from the earliest civilizations to
the present day. This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a
particular society, followed by crises that were either resolved, producing sustainability, or
not, leading to decline.
In early human history, the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered
the natural composition of plant and animal communities. Between 8,000 and 10,000 years
ago, agrarian communities emerged which depended largely on their environment and the
creation of a "structure of permanence".
The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast
growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels. Coal was used to power ever more efficient
engines and later to generate electricity. Modern sanitation systems and advances in
medicine protected large populations from disease. In the mid-20th century, a gathering
environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with
the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed. In the late 20th century,
environmental problems became global in scale. The 1973 and 1979 energy crises
demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-
renewable energy resources.
In the 1970s, the ecological footprint of humanity exceeded the carrying capacity of
earth, therefore the mode of life of humanity became unsustainable.
In the 21st century, there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the
human greenhouse effect, produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels.
There are at least 3 letters from the scientific community about the growing threat to
sustainability and ways to remove the threat.
In 1992, scientists wrote the first World Scientists' Warning to Humanity, which
begins: "Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course." About 1,700 of the
world's leading scientists including most of the Nobel Prize laureates in the sciences signed
it. The letter mentions severe damage to atmosphere, oceans, ecosystems, soil productivity
and more. It warns humanity, that the life on earth as we know them can become impossible
and if humanity wants to prevent the damage, some steps need to be taken: better use of
resources, abandon of fossil fuels, stabilization of human population, elimination of poverty
and more. In 2017, the scientists wrote a second warning to humanity. In this warning, the
scientists mention some positive trends like slowing deforestation, but despite this, they
claim that except ozone depletion, none of the problems mentioned in the first warning got
an adequate response. The scientists called to reduce the use of fossil fuels, meat, and
other resources and stabilize the population. It was signed by 15,364 scientists from 184
countries, what made it the letter with the most signatures of scientists in history.
52
In November 2019, more than 11,000 scientists from 153 countries published a letter
in which they warn about big threats to sustainability from climate change if big changes in
policies will not happen. The scientists declared "climate emergency" and called to stop
overconsumption, move from fossil fuels, eat less meat, and stabilize population.
Sustainability is the ability to exist constantly. In the 21st century, it refers generally to the
capacity for the biosphere and human civilization to coexist. It is also defined as the process
of people maintaining change in a homeostasis balanced environment, in which the
exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological
development and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and
future potential to meet human needs and aspirations.
For many in the field, sustainability is defined through the following interconnected
domains or pillars: environment, economic and social, which according to Fritjof Capra is
based on the principles of Systems Thinking. Sub-domains of sustainable development have
been considered also: cultural, technological and political.
According to Our Common Future, sustainable development is defined as
development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs." Sustainable development may be the organizing
principle of sustainability, yet others may view the two terms as paradoxical (i.e.,
development is inherently unsustainable).
Sustainability can also be defined as a socio-ecological process characterized by the
pursuit of a common ideal. An ideal is by definition unattainable in a given time and space.
However, by persistently and dynamically approaching it, the process results in a
sustainable system. Many environmentalists and ecologists argue that sustainability is
achieved through the balance of species and the resources within their environment. As is
typically practiced in natural resource management, the goal is to maintain this equilibrium;
available resources must not be depleted faster than resources are naturally generated.
Modern use of the term sustainability is broad and difficult to define precisely.
Originally, sustainability meant making only such use of natural, renewable resources that
people can continue to rely on their yields in the long term. The concept of sustainability, or
Nachhaltigkeit in German, can be traced back to Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645–1714), and
was applied to forestry.
Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans and
other organisms. Ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly
chemical engineering, environmental resources management and environmental protection.
Information is gained from green computing, green chemistry, earth science, environmental
science and conservation biology. Ecological economics studies the fields of academic
research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems.
Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and
national law, urban planning and transport, supply chain management, local and individual
lifestyles and ethical consumerism. Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms
from reorganizing living conditions (e.g., ecovillages, ecomunicipalities and sustainable
cities), reappraising economic sectors (permaculture, green building, sustainable
agriculture), or work practices (sustainable architecture), using science to develop new
technologies (green technologies, renewable energy and sustainable fission and fusion
power), or designing systems in a flexible and reversible manner, and adjusting individual
lifestyles that conserve natural resources.
53
In sum, "the term 'sustainability' should be viewed as humanity's target goal of

human-ecosystem equilibrium (homeostasis), while 'sustainable development' refers to the
holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end point of sustainability."
Despite the increased popularity of the use of the term "sustainability", the possibility that
human societies will achieve environmental sustainability has been, and continues to be,
questioned—in light of environmental degradation, climate change, overconsumption,
population growth and societies' pursuit of unlimited economic growth in a closed system.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity 1: IDENTIFICATION
Identify the following statements and place your answer on the space before the number.
___________________________1. It is derived from the Latin sustinere (tenere, to hold;
sub, under). Sustain can mean "maintain", "support", "uphold"
or "endure".
___________________________2. It is characterized by the increased regional success of
a particular society.
___________________________3. It was used to power ever more efficient engines and
later to generate electricity.
___________________________4. A year when energy crises demonstrated the extent to
which the global community had become dependent on non-
renewable energy resources.
___________________________5. It is called to stop overconsumption, move from fossil
fuels, eat less meat, and stabilize population.
___________________________6. It is defined as development that "meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
___________________________7. It is by definition unattainable in a given time and space.
___________________________8. These are necessary to the survival of humans and
other organisms.
___________________________9. It is gained from green computing, green chemistry,
earth science, environmental science and conservation
biology.
___________________________10. It studies the fields of academic research that aim to
address human economies and natural ecosystems.
Activity 2: ESSAY
Answer the questions below substantially.10points each
“What will happen if the world has sustainable resources, and what if there is an unsustainable
resource?”
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
54
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
“What is/are your part to have sustainable resources of the country and of the world?”
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
55
LESSON 31: COMPONENTS, PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the components, principles and concepts of sustainability; and
2. Identify components, principles and concepts of sustainability; and
3. Measure environmental sustainability.
COMPONENTS
The 2005 World Summit on
3 DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY
Social Development identified
sustainable development goals, such as
economic development, social
development, and environmental
protection. This view has been
expressed as an illustration using three
overlapping ellipses indicating that the
three pillars of sustainability are not
mutually exclusive and can be mutually
reinforcing. In fact, the three pillars are
A diagram indicating the relationship between
the "three pillars of sustainability", in which both
economy and society are constrained by environmental
limits.
interdependent, and in the long run,
none can exist without the others. The
three pillars have served as a common
ground for numerous sustainability
standards and certification systems in recent years, in particular in the food industry.
Standards which today explicitly refer to the triple bottom line include Rainforest Alliance,
Fairtrade and UTZ Certified. Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated
four pillars of sustainability or a quadruple bottom line. One such pillar is future generations,
which emphasizes the long-term thinking associated with sustainability. There is also an
opinion that considers resource use and financial sustainability as two additional pillars of
sustainability.
Sustainable development consists of
balancing local and global efforts to meet basic
human needs without destroying or degrading
the natural environment. The question then becomes
how to represent the relationship between those
needs and the environment.
A study from 2005 pointed out that
environmental justice is as important as
sustainable development. Ecological economist
Venn diagram of sustainable development: at the
Herman Daly asked, "what use is a sawmill without a confluence of three constituent parts.
forest?" From this perspective, the economy is
a subsystem of human society, which is itself a
subsystem of the biosphere, and a gain in one
56
sector is a loss from another. This perspective led to the nested circles figure of 'economics'
inside 'society' inside the 'environment'.
The simple definition that sustainability is something that improves "the quality of
human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems", though vague,
conveys the idea of sustainability having quantifiable limits. But sustainability is also a call to
action, a task in progress or "journey" and therefore a political process, so some definitions
set out common goals and values. The Earth Charter speaks of "a sustainable global society
founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of
peace". This suggested a more complex figure of sustainability, which included the
importance of the domain of 'politics'.
More than that, sustainability implies responsible and proactive decision-making and
innovation that minimizes negative impact and maintains balance between ecological
resilience, economic prosperity, political justice and cultural vibrancy to ensure a desirable
planet for all species now and in the future. Specific types of sustainability include,
sustainable agriculture, sustainable architecture or ecological economics. Understanding
sustainable development is important but without clear targets it remains an unfocused term
like "liberty" or "justice" It has also been described as a "dialogue of values that challenge
the sociology of development".
PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS
The philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability draws on and connects
with many different disciplines and fields; in recent years an area that has come to be called
sustainability science has emerged.
SCALE AND CONTEXT
Sustainability is studied and managed over many scales (levels or frames of
reference) of time and space and in many contexts of environmental, social and economic
organizations. The focus ranges from the total carrying capacity (sustainability) of planet
Earth to the sustainability of economic sectors, ecosystems, countries, municipalities,
neighborhood, home gardens, individual lives, individual goods, and services this includes
the use of natural resources prudently to meet current needs without affecting the ability of
the future generation from meeting their needs., occupations, lifestyles, behavior patterns
and so on. In short, it can entail the full compass of biological and human activity or any part
of it. As Daniel Botkin, author and environmentalist has stated: "We see a landscape that is
always in flux, changing over many scales of time and space."
The sheer size and complexity of the planetary ecosystem has proven problematic
for the design of practical measures to reach global sustainability. To shed light on the big
picture, explorer and sustainability campaigner Jason Lewis has drawn parallels to other,
more tangible closed systems. For example, he likens human existence on Earth — isolated
as the planet is in space, whereby people
cannot be evacuated to relieve population pressure and resources cannot be imported to
prevent accelerated depletion of resources — to life at sea on a small boat isolated by water.
In both cases, he argues, exercising the precautionary principle is a key factor in survival.
CIRCULARITY
In recent years, concepts based on (re-)cycling resources are increasingly gaining
importance. The most prominent among these concepts might be the Circular economy, with
its comprehensive support by the Chinese and the European Union. There is also a broad
range of similar concepts or schools of thought, including cradle-to cradle laws of ecology,
looped and performance economy, regenerative design, industrial ecology, biomimicry, and
the blue economy. These concepts seem intuitively to be more sustainable than the current
linear economic system. The reduction of resource inputs into and waste and emission
57
leakage out of the system reduces resource depletion and environmental pollution. However,
these simple assumptions are not sufficient to deal with the involved systemic complexity
and disregards potential trade-offs. For example, the social dimension of sustainability
seems to be only marginally addressed in many publications on the Circular Economy, and
some cases require different or additional strategies, such as purchasing new, more energy-
efficient equipment. A review of a team of researchers from Cambridge and TU Delft
identified eight different relationship types between sustainability and the circular economy,
namely:
 a conditional relation a strong conditional relation
 a necessary but not sufficient conditional relation
 a beneficial relationship a (structured and unstructured) subset relation
 a degree relation
 a cost-benefit/trade-off relation
 a selective relation
MEASUREMENT
Sustainability measurement is the quantitative basis for the informed management of
sustainability. The metrics used for the measurement of sustainability (involving the
sustainability of environmental, social and economic domains, both individually and in
various combinations) are evolving: they include indicators, benchmarks, audits,
sustainability standards and certification systems like Fair-trade and Organic, indexes and
accounting, as well as assessment, appraisal and other reporting systems. They are applied
over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales.
Some of the best known and most widely used sustainability measures include
corporate sustainability reporting, Triple Bottom Line accounting, World Sustainability
Society, Circles of Sustainability, and estimates of the quality of sustainability governance for
individual countries using the Environmental Sustainability Index and Environmental
Performance Index.
Two of the most known ways to measure environmental sustainability is Planetary
boundaries and Ecological footprint. If the boundaries are not crossed and the ecological
footprint is not exceeding the carrying capacity of the biosphere, the mode of life of humanity
is sustainable.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity 1: ESSAY
Discuss the 3 dimensions of sustainability in a very brief summary.5 points each
ECONOMY
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
58
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
SOCIETY
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
ENVIRONMENT
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: TRUE or FALSE
Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false. Write your answer on the
space provided before the number.
____1. Two of the most known ways to measure environmental sustainability is Planetary
boundaries and Ecological footprint.
____2. The social dimension of sustainability seems to be only marginally addressed in
many publications on the Circular Economy, and some cases require different or
additional strategies, such as purchasing new, more energy-efficient equipment.
____3. The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development
goals, such as economic development, social development, and environmental
protection.
____4. Sustainability measurement is the quantitative basis for the informed management of
sustainability.
____5. Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet basic
human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment.
59
LESSON 32: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the sustainable development goals;
2. Identify the sustainable development goals; and
WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS?

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the United Nations General Assembly's
current harmonized set of seventeen future international development targets.
The Official Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted on 25 September 2015 has 92
paragraphs, with the main paragraph outlining the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and its
associated 169 targets.
WHAT ARE THE 17 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS?
1. Poverty – End poverty in all its forms everywhere
2. Food – End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture
3. Health – Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages
4. Education – Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all
5. Women – Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6. Water – Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
7. Energy – Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
8. Economy – Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
9. Infrastructure – Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation
10. Inequality – Reduce inequality within and among countries
11. Habitation – Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
12. Consumption – Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
13. Climate – Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts, ensuring that both
mitigation and adaptation strategies are in place
14. Marine-ecosystems – Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development
15. Ecosystems – Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity
loss
16. Institutions – Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
17. Sustainability – Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership
for sustainable development
As of August 2015, there were 169 proposed targets for these goals and 304 proposed
indicators to show compliance.
60
The Sustainable Development Goals replace the eight Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), which expired at the end of 2015. The MDGs were established in 2000 following the
Millennium Summit of the United Nations. Adopted by the 189 United Nations member states at the
time and more than twenty international organizations, these goals were advanced to help achieve
the following sustainable development standards by 2015.
1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. To achieve universal primary education
3. To promote gender equality and empower women
4. To reduce child mortality
5. To improve maternal health
6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. To ensure environmental sustainability (one of the targets in this goal focuses on increasing
sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation)
8. To develop a global partnership for development
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
According to the data that member countries represented to the United Nations, Cuba was
the only country in the world in 2006 that met the World Wide Fund for Nature's definition of
sustainable development, with an ecological footprint of less than 1.8 hectares per capita, 1.5, and a
Human Development Index of over 0.8, 0.855.
EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Education for sustainable development (ESD) is commonly understood as education that
encourages changes in knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just
society for all. ESD aims to empower and equip current and future generations to meet their needs
using a balanced and integrated approach to the economic, social and environmental dimensions of
sustainable development.
The concept of ESD was born from the need for education to address the growing
environmental challenges facing the planet. Education should c Sustainability in higher education is
not only limited to embedding intended learning outcomes about sustainable development into the
curriculum of higher educational institutions.
However, a sustainable campus should integrate the educational and managerial aspects of
the sustainable development along with its three dimensions (environmental, economical, social
responsibility) into its different practices.
61
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
EVALUATION ACTIVITY
Attack
Activity : REACTION
Discuss on how/what to do in order to solve some of the following problems to have a
sustainable resource in a very short but substantial answer.5 points each
Poverty
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Lack of education
__________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Hunger
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Gender In equality
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
END OF THE MODULE! THANK YOU and God bless us all!

62

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THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

LESSON 15: MEDIA AND GLOBALIZATION

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

GLOBALIZATION ENTAILS THE SPREAD OF VARIOUS CULTURES

MEDIA AND ITS FUNCTION

While it is relatively easy to define the term "media"

LESSON 16: THE GLOBAL VILLAGE AND CULTURAL

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

THE GLOBAL VILLAGE AND CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

LESSON 17: CRITIQUES OF CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

CRITIQUES OF CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

Given these patterns, it is no longer tenable to insist that globalization is a

LESSON 18: CREATION OF CYBER GHETTOS

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

CREATION OF CYBER GHETTOS

LESSON 19: WHY STUDY GLOBAL CITIES

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected

First statement-globalization is spatial because it occurs in physical spaces.

Second Statement-globalization is spatial because what makes it move is the fact

DEFINING THE GLOBAL CITY

LESSON 20: THE GLOBAL CITY AND THE POOR

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

THE GLOBAL CITY AND THE POOR

LESSON 21: THE PERILS OF OVERPOPULATION

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

THE "PERILS" OF OVERPOPULATION

In May 2009, a group of American billionaires warned of how a "nightmarish"

TWO SIGNIFICANT PARTS OF FAMILY INCOMES

2. What do you think will happen if overpopulation has arrived? 5 points

LESSON 22: POPULATION GROWTH AND FOOD

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected

POPULATION GROWTH AND FOOD SECURITY

Immigration is the international movement

LESSON 23: GLOBAL MIGRATION

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

GMG WORKING THEMES FOR

 CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL MIGRATION THEME (July – December

 YOUTH AND GLOBAL MIGRATION THEME (JANUARY –JUNE 2011)

LESSON 24: IMMIGRATION

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

INTRODUCTION AND THE HISTORY

London has become multiethnic as result of

One theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors.

3. When does the immigration rate tend to be higher?

4. What is the main purpose of the Iron Curtain of Europe?

LESSON 25: ECONOMIC MIGRANT, and LAWS and ETHICS

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

The Indo-Bangladeshi barrier in 2007. India is

Some proponents of immigration

3. Where does freedom of movements applied?

4. What is the restrictive immigration policy?

5. What is brain drain and brain gain?

LESSON 26: ECONOMIC EFFECTS

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

2. State at least 5 positive or negative economic effects of immigration?

LESSON 27: FISCAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION

At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

A 2018 study found no evidence that apprehensions of undocumented immigrants in

3. Impact on the sending countries

Overseas Filipinos (Filipino: Pilipino sa Ibayong-dagat ) are people

LESSON 28: POPULATION: IT’S ECONOMIC IMPACT