Energy → the ability to do work or bring about a change.

 Cells and organisms need a constant supply of energy for growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
 Life on earth is ultimately dependent on an input of solar energy.
- Photosynthesis provides nutrients for the majority of organisms (ex. plants, algae, bacteria)
Forms of energy →
1. Kinetic → the energy of motion (ex. walking, rock rolling down a hill, water flowing over waterfall)
2. Potential → stored energy – its capacity to accomplish work is not being used at the moment(ex. food).
Potential energy can be converted in →
a) Chemical energy → stored in chemical bonds of organic molecules (ex. carbohydrates).
b) Mechanical energy → energy of motion (ex. walking – chemical energy converted to kinetic).
Energy flows through an ecosystem.
Terrestrial ecosystem →
1. Through photosynthesis plants capture solar energy.
2. It is then stores in the chemical bonds of organic molecules (ex. carbohydrates)
3. When plants use carbohydrates (cellular respiration) energy is lost as heat.
4. Plants serve as food for other organisms.
Energy is lost as heat in every step – not reusable.

***Two laws of thermodynamics*** → explain why energy flows in ecosystems and in cells.
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another (learn
examples) – Law of conservation of energy. (ex. when plant cells photosynthesize, they use solar
energy to form energy-rich carbohydrate molecules from energy poor carbon dioxide.).
2. Energy cannot be changed from one form to another without a loss of usable energy (learn
examples), (ex. some of the solar energy taken in by the plant becomes heat after the chemical
conversion. When heat dissipates into the environment, it is no longer usable or available to do work.
After many energy transformations, eventually all usable forms of energy become heat waste that is
lost to the environment).

Metabolism → the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell.

 A significant part of cellular metabolism involves the breaking down and the building up of molecules.
Two types of metabolism →
1. Catabolism → the breaking down of molecules.
2. Anabolism → the building up (synthesis) of molecules.

 Exergonic reactions → spontaneous and release energy.

- Products have less free energy than reactants (ΔG – free energy is negative).
 - ex. breakdown of lipids in food during digestion.
 Endergonic reactions → require an input of energy to occur.
- Products have more free energy than reactants (ΔG – free energy is positive).
- ex. production of starch from glucose molecules.
- Dehydration reaction between amino acids.

 Reactants → substances that participate in a reaction.

 Products → substances that form as a result of a reaction. (ex. A+B → C+D – A and B are the reactants
while C and D are the products).
Free energy (ΔG) → the amount of energy available after a chemical reaction has occurred.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) → a common energy currency of cells.

 Generated from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a molecule of inorganic phosphate.

Coupled reactions → the energy released by an exergonic reaction is used to drive an endergonic reaction.

 ATP breakdown is often coupled to cellular reactions that require an input of energy.

Enzymes & Metabolic pathways →

Enzyme → catalyst – a molecule that speeds up a chemical reaction without itself being affected by the
reaction.

 Most enzymes are proteins, but some are made of RNA.

 How they speed up chemical reactions → lowering the energy of activation required.
Metabolic pathway → a series of linked reactions.

 They begin with a particular reactant and end with a final product.
How enzymes function →
Active site → a small specific part of the enzyme that combines with a substrate.
1. The substrates fits with the enzyme at the active site, the substrates react.
2. Following a reaction, the products are released.
3. The enzyme is free to act again.
Degradation → enzymatic reaction that breaks down a substrate to smaller products.
Synthesis → enzymatic reaction that synthesizes one product from multiple substrates.
***Induced fit model → the active site undergoes a slight change in shape to accommodate substrate
binding.

 Substrate and active site shapes do not fit together.

 After the reaction is completed product(s) are released.
Enzymes are often named for their substrate because enzymes complex only with their substances.
 ***Factors affecting enzymatic speed →
1. Substrate concentration → enzyme activity increases as substrate concentration increases (more
collisions between substrate molecules and the enzyme).
 The max rate is achieved when all active sites of an enzyme are filled continuously with substrate.
2. Temperature and pH → higher temperature, increased enzyme activity (higher temperatures cause
more effective collisions between enzyme and substrate).
 If the temperature rises beyond a certain point, loss of structure and function occurs, and the enzyme
is denatured.
 Decrease of temperature decreases activity.
 Each enzyme has an optimal pH at which the rate of the reaction is highest.
 Preferred pH of enzyme varies based on location.
3. Enzyme activation → genes producing enzymes can be turned on or off to regulate enzyme
concentration.
4. Enzyme inhibition → occurs when the substrate is unable to bind to the active site of an enzyme. (ex.
poisons are sometimes enzyme inhibitors).
 Feedback inhibition → how the activity of almost every enzyme is regulated.
5. Enzyme cofactors → inorganic ion or nonprotein organic molecules that help enzyme reaction.
 Inorganic ions → metals like ex. copper, zinc, or iron.
 Coenzymes → nonprotein organic molecules.
 Vitamins are often components of coenzymes that affect health and physical fitness.

Oxidation-Reduction reaction → energy transformations increase the amount of entropy (basis of 2nd law).

 Oxidation → the loss of electrons.

 Reduction → the gain of electrons.

Redox reactions → the pair of these two reactions.

Photosynthesis is a reduction reaction.
Mitochondria and Cellular respiration → mitochondria, present in both plants and animals, oxidize
carbohydrates, and use the released energy to build ATP.

 When oxygen gains electrons it becomes water.

 The complete oxidation of a mole of glucose,
releases 686 kilocalories of energy, and some of this is used to synthesize ATP molecules.
 Cells oxidize step by step, allowing energy to be gradually stored and then converted to make ATP.
Relationship of chloroplasts to mitochondria →

 Carbohydrates (glucose) are produced within chloroplasts.

 They become reactants for cellular respiration to produce ATP.
 CO2 released by mitochondria becomes a substrate (υπόστρωμα) in photosynthesis.