Plasma membrane → separates the internal environment of the cell from the external.

 It regulates the entrance and exit of molecules into and out of the cell.
 It maintains a steady internal environment called homeostasis.
 Primarily made of a phospholipid bilayer (with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties).
- It has a fluid consistency.
- The fluidity of the membrane is regulated by steroids (ex. cholesterol) which serve to stiffen
and strengthen the membrane.
- ***Throughout the membrane there are numerous proteins.
a) Peripheral proteins → associated with only one side of the plasma membrane. They have a
structural role – they help stabilize and shape the plasma membrane.
b) Integral proteins → can protrude (stick out – προεξέχω) from one or both sides. They are
embedded in the membrane. They have a variety of functions (**functions of membrane
proteins).
 The carbohydrate chains projecting from the plasma membrane are involved in adhesion between
cells, reception of molecules, and cell-to-cell recognition.
**Fluid-mosaic model → a lipid bilayer is fluid and has the consistency of light oil.

 Proteins float inside or within the phospholipid bilayer.

 The fluid properties are associated with the nature of the phospholipids, and the mosaic pattern is
established by the embedded proteins.
Hydrophilic heads → form the inner and outer surfaces.
Hydrophobic tails → form the interior.
Both phospholipids and proteins can have attached carbohydrate chains.

 Glycolipids → lipids with attached carbohydrates.

 Glycoproteins → proteins with sugar chains attached.
***Functions of membrane proteins →
1. Channel proteins → involved in the passage of molecules through the membrane.
2. Carrier proteins → allow the passage of a substance by combining with it and helping it to move across
the membrane.
3. Cell recognition proteins → are glycoproteins. Help the body recognize when it is being invaded by
pathogens so that an immune reaction can occur.
4. Receptor proteins → have a shape that allows a specific molecule to bind to them.
 The binding causes the receptor to change its shape and thereby bring about a cellular response.
5. Enzymatic proteins → carry out metabolic reactions directly.
Selectively permeable (semipermeable) → certain substances can move across the membrane (ex. gases),
while others cannot (ex. ions, charged molecules, and macromolecules).

 Small nonpolar molecules will pass through a cell membrane most easily.
Concentration gradient → more of a substance on one side of the membrane
Going down → the movement of molecules from an area of higher to lower concentration.
 Going up → the movement of molecules from an area of lower to higher concentration – requires
energy.
Water → as a polar molecule, crosses the membrane using aquaporins – special channels that enable water to
cross the membrane – which are present in the majority of cells.
Diffusion → the movement of molecules from a higher to a lower concentration until equilibrium is reached
and they are distributed equally – no energy needed.

 A solution contains a solute (solid) and a solvent (liquid). The solute is dissolved in the solvent.
Osmosis → the diffusion of water from areas where the water concentration is higher to areas where the
water concentration is lower (diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane).

 Osmotic pressure → the pressure that develops in a system due to osmosis. The greater the possible
osmotic pressure, the more likely it is that water will diffuse in that direction.

 Isotonic solution → the solute concentration is equal inside and outside – not net gain or loss of water.
- In an isotonic environment, water will enter and exit the cell at equal rates, so no net loss or
gain occurs.
- Human erythrocytes function best in an isotonic solution.
 Hypotonic solution → a solution has a lower solute concentration than the inside of a cell.
- Cell gains water: cytolysis occurs.
- When placed in a hypotonic environment, water will enter the cell and cytolysis will occur.
 Hypertonic solution → a solution has a higher solute concentration than the inside of a cell.
- Cell loses water: crenation (shriveling) occurs.
- The net movement of water is from the inside to the outside of the cell.
- When placed in a hypertonic environment, water will exit the cell towards the area of higher
solute concentration.
Transport by carrier proteins → the plasma membrane allows the passage of few substances.

 Substances enter or exit cells because of carrier proteins. Carrier proteins are required for:

1. Facilitated transport → explains the passage of molecules (ex. glucose, amino acids) across the
plasma membrane even though they are not lipid-soluble.
2. Active transport → the transport of molecules against their concentration gradient.
- Requires energy, usually ATP.
- Sodium-potassium is an example of active transport – it helps establish an electrochemical
gradient across the membrane, concentrates sodium on the outside of the membrane, uses
carrier protein and chemical energy, and is present in the plasma membrane.
- Uses protein pumps, is most associated with muscle and nerve cells and requires a large
number of mitochondria due to the large energy demand.

Bulk transport → macromolecules are transported into or out of cells by vesicle formation.

 Energy is required to form vesicles.

1. Exocytosis → a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane as secretion occurs.

  The vesicle membrane becomes part of the plasma membrane.
2. Endocytosis → cells take in substances by vesicle formation.
 A portion of the plasma membrane invaginates to envelop the substance, and the membrane pinches
off to form an intracellular vesicle.
Three forms →
a) Phagocytosis → transports large substances (ex. viruses).
b) Pinocytosis → transports small substances.
c) Receptor-mediated endocytosis → special form of pinocytosis.

Modifications of cell surfaces → cells live and interact within an external environment that can dramatically
affect cell structure and function.
Two different types of animal cell surface features → both of these can connect to the cytoskeleton and
contribute to communication between cells, and therefore tissue formation.
1. Extracellular matrix (ECM) → is a meshwork of proteins and polysaccharides closely associated with cells
that produced them. It influences a cell’s shape and behavior.
 It has numerous functions that affect the shape and activities of the cell that produces it.
Common structural proteins →
a) Collagen → resists stretching.
b) Elastin fibers → gives the ECM resilience.
c) Fibronectin → an adhesive protein that links to integrin, which in turn links to the cytoskeleton.
2. Junctions → occur between some types of cells.
a) Adhesion junctions → mechanically attach adjacent cells.
b) Tight junctions → proteins connect plasma membranes of adjacent cells form impermeable
barriers.
c) Gap junctions → plasma membrane channels cells join, allowing communication and strength.
- Allows for cytoplasm-to-cytoplasm communication between cells.