Cells → the basic units of life.

Life comes from life.

***The cell theory → the basic theory of biology.
1. All organisms are made up of basic living units called cells (the smallest units of living matter).
2. Cells are the basic living unit of structure and function in organisms.
3. All cells come only from previously existing cells.
Cell size → cell size varies, but they are quite small.

 Cells must remain small in order to maintain an efficient surface-area-to-volume ratio for the
exchange of molecules with the environment.
 As the size of the cell decreases, the ratio of its surface-area-to-volume increases.
**Overview of cell structure → https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=URUJD5NEXC8&ab_channel=NucleusMedicalMedia
Two different cell types →
1. Prokaryotic → those cell that do not have a membrane-bound nucleus.
 Generally, exist as single-celled (unicellular) organisms or as simple strings and clusters (ex.
bacteria).
 They have ribosomes.
 The domains Archaea and Eubacteria consist of prokaryotic cells.
 Not all bacteria cause disease (bacteria is often used to refer to prokaryotic cells).
Plasma membrane → all cells are surrounded by it, and it consists of a phospholipid bilayer embedded
with protein molecules.

 Boundary that separates the living contents of the cell from the surrounding environment.
 Regulates the entrance and exit of molecules into and out of the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm → a semifluid medium inside the cell.

 Composed of water, salts, and dissolved organic molecules.

 Plasmids → small circular pieces of DNA found in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
***Bacterial anatomy
a) Capsule → gelatinous sheath (θήκη) that surrounds the cell wall of some bacteria.
b) Cell wall → located outside of plasma membrane consisting of Peptidoglycan.
- Acts as a form of protection for bacteria.
c) Flagella → a long, thin protein extensions, used for movement in some bacteria.
d) Fimbriae → short appendages in some bacteria that help them attach to an appropriate surface.
- Along with the capsule, they often increase the ability of pathogenic bacteria to cause
disease.
e) Nucleoid → a region of the cytoplasm where a single bacterial DNA is located. Not surrounded by a
nuclear membrane.
f) Ribosomes → used for protein synthesis.
g) Thylakoids → membranes of flattened disks that contain light-sensitive pigments in cyanobacteria.
 Prokaryotes are →
a) Structurally simple.
b) Metabolically diverse
c) Able to produce a wide variety of chemicals.
d) Adapted to most environments on earth.
***IMPORTANT***
2. Eukaryotic → they have a membrane-bound nucleus.
Eukaryotes are →
a) Structurally complex due to the presence of multiple
organelles.
b) Have nucleus.
c) Possess membrane-bounded organelles.
d) Make up animals, plants, fungi (μύκητες), and protists (πρώτιστο).
Cell walls → the majority of eukaryotic cells have a protective cell wall that surrounds the plasma
membrane.

 Cellulose → forms fibrils (ίνες) that lie at right angles to one another for added strength.
 Secondary cell wall → formed inside the primary cell wall, made of a strong compound called
lignin.
***Difference between plant and animal cells*** →

 Both animal and plant cells contain mitochondria.

 Only plant cells contain chloroplasts (enable plants to perform photosynthesis).
 Only animal cells have centrioles.
 Plant cells have a cell wall, but animal cells do not. (Cell walls provide support and give shape to
plants).
Nucleus → defining characteristic of a eukaryotic cell.

 Stores genetic material (DNA) – DNA molecules cannot by seen with microscope.
 Chromatin → is a complex of DNA and proteins.
 Chromosomes → highly condensed structures, created from the division of chromatin.
 Nucleoplasm → a semifluid medium in the nucleus containing the chromosomes.
 Nucleolus → where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is produced.
 Nuclear envelope → a double membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
 Ribosomes → responsible for the synthesis of protein.
o Composed of two subunits (large and small).
o They are found in the cytoplasm or as groups called polyribosomes.
o Attached to endoplasmic reticulum. Different destination of proteins.

*Organelles of eukaryotic cells → subcellular structures that perform a particular function.

Endomembrane system → acts as the transportation and product-processing section of the cell.
a) Nuclear envelope
 b) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) → an interconnected system of membranous channels and sacs that is
physically continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) → studded with ribosomes that synthesize proteins and is
involved in the folding, modification, and transport of proteins.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) → has various metabolic functions depending on the cell type
and it also forms vesicles (κύστη) that carry products to the Golgi apparatus.
c) Golgi Apparatus → the shipping center of the cell.
 Consists of a stack of 3 to 20 slightly curved sacs.
 Collects, sorts, packages, modifies, and distributes proteins and lipids in and out of the cell.
d) Lysosomes → membrane-bound vesicles produced by Golgi apparatus.
 Contain hydrolytic digestive enzymes.
 Act as the garbage disposals of the cellular factory.
 Break down unwanted, foreign substances or worn-out parts of cells.
e) Vacuoles → a large membranous sac – mostly found in plants.
f) Peroxisomes → membrane-bound vesicles that enclose enzymes.

***Energy-related organelles → chloroplasts and mitochondria.

 Organelles that specialize in converting energy into usable forms for cells.
 The inner membrane of chloroplasts and mitochondria is likely derived from the cell membrane of
the host.
 Chloroplasts → use solar energy to synthesize carbohydrates – photosynthesis.
- Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria have this ability – not animals.
- Solar energy is the ultimate source of energy for most cells.
- They give off oxygen (O2) and use up carbon dioxide (CO2) during photosynthesis.
Structure →
a) Double membrane
b) Stroma → fluid-filled space that contains a single circular DNA and ribosomes.
c) Thylakoids → membrane system of sacs.
 Mitochondria → use the breakdown of carbohydrates to produce ATP (used for all energy-
requiring processes in cells) – cellular respiration.
- They are abundant in human muscle cells.
- Divide by splitting in two.
- Both animal and plant cells have mitochondria because they both need ATP for energy.
- It is said to be the “powerhouse” of the cell.
- They give off carbon dioxide (CO2) and use up oxygen (O2) during cellular respiration.

Endosymbiont → a microorganism that lives within another cell, performing specific functions for its
host.
Cytoskeleton → a highly organized series of interconnecting proteins.

 It is dynamic because its protein components can assemble and disassemble as needed.
Used for →
 1. Maintaining cell shape.
2. Allowing the cell and its organelles (οργανίδια) to move.
Contains →
1. Actin filaments (νήμα) → long, extremely thin, flexible fibers that occur in bundles or mesh like
networks.
- Contains two chains of globular actin monomers twisted about one another in a helical manner.
- Located just under the plasma membrane of a eukaryotic cell.
- Roles →
- Structural role when they form a dense complex web under the plasma membrane.
- Allow the formation of pseudopods in amoeboid movement.
- Form projections in intestinal cells as microvilli.
2. Intermediate filaments → they are between actin filaments and microtubes that will perform a
structural role in the cell.
Functions →
a) Support nuclear envelope.
b) Help in the formation of cell-to-cell junctions.
c) Mechanical strength in skin cells.
3. Microtubules → small, hollow cylinders made of globular tubulin (α and β).
Roles →
a) Help maintain cell shape.
b) Interact with motor molecules kinesin and dynein to cause movement of organelles.
c) Form spindle apparatus during cell division.
4. Centrioles → found in centrosomes of animal cells.
 They act as organizing centers for microtubules.
5. Cilia and flagella → hairlike projections that aid in cell movement.

Origin and Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell →

Endosymbiotic theory → mitochondria and chloroplasts are derived from prokaryotes that were taken
up by large cells. Chloroplasts were originally thought to be photosynthetic bacteria.
***Supporting evidence (IMPORTANT)
1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to bacteria in size and structure.
2. Both organelles are bound by a double membrane.
3. Their DNA is a circular loop like that of prokaryotes.
4. They have their own ribosomes and produce some proteins. Their ribosomes resemble those of
prokaryotes.
5. The RNA base sequence of the ribosomes in chloroplasts and mitochondria also suggests a
prokaryotic origin of theses organelles.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKmaq7jPnYM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=upA4KOf84KA
Archaeal membranes have unique membrane-spanning lipids that help them survive in extremes of heat, pH,
and salinity and are not composed of peptidoglycan. Bacteria and archaea both have cell membranes but
neither have nuclei. Both have ribosomes but lack membrane-bound organelles.
Chloroplast

Mitochondrion