Plants have levels of biological organization similar to animals.

1. Tissue → composed of specialized cells that perform a particular function.

2. Organ → composed of different types of tissues.
Meristematic tissue → all the tissue types in a plant arise from it.

 Allows a plant to grow its entire life.

 How → it retains cells that forever have the ability to divide and produce more tissues.
Apical meristem → a type of meristematic tissue that is present in the tips of all growing stems and roots
of a plant. The increase in length is called primary growth.

 Continually produces three types of primary meristem →

Protection and
Epidermal tissue
conservation of water
Photosynthesis and
Ground tissue
carbohydrate storage
Transport of water and
Vascular tissue
nutrients

1. Epidermal tissue → forms the outer protective covering of a plant (protection, conservation of water).
 The walls of epidermal cells exposed to air are covered with cuticle to minimize water loss. It also
protects against bacteria and other organisms that might cause disease.
 Leaves will often contain specialized cells called guard cells and microscopic pores called stomata that
assist in gas exchange (CO2, O2).
 Guard cells → epidermal cells with chloroplasts that surround stomata.
 Stomata → when they are open gas exchange is possible, but water loss also
occurs.
 Cork → in older woody plants the epidermis is replaced by cork cells.
 Cork cells at maturity and new cells are made by a meristem called cork
cambium.

2. Ground tissue → fills the interior of a plant, the space between epidermal and vascular tissue.
 Provides location of the photosynthesis and carbohydrate storage.
 Responsible for producing hormones, toxins, pigments, and other specialized chemicals.
 Three cells in the ground tissue
a) Parenchyma cells → most abundant and least specialized of the cell types, found in all the organs of
a plant.
 They can divide and give rise to more specialized cells such as roots.
 Relatively thin walls.
 Capable of photosynthesis when they contain chloroplasts.
b) Collenchyma cells → like parenchyma cells except they have thicker primary walls.
 Form bundles underneath the epidermis.
 Give flexible support to immature regions of a plant body.
 c) Sclerenchyma cells → have a thick secondary wall impregnated with lignin, that forms between the
primary cell wall and the plasma membrane.
 Their primary function → support mature regions of the plant.
 Dead at maturity.
 Two other types → fibers and sclereids.

3. Vascular tissue → transports water and nutrients in a plant and provides support.
 In the stem it forms vascular bundles, in the leaves it is found in leaf veins, and in the roots, it is located
in the vascular cylinder.
 Two types of vascular tissues → both are complex tissues because they are composed of two or more
kinds of cells.
a) ***Xylem → transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
 Two types of conduction cells, both hollow and nonliving →
i. Vessel elements → shorter and wider, perforates plates in their end walls.
ii. Tracheids → long with tapered ends, enables water to move across pits in end walls or side
walls.
 Contains parenchyma cells that store various substances and fibers that lend support.

b) ***Phloem → transports sugar and other organic compounds including hormones from the leaves
to the roots.
 Sieve-tube members arranged to form a continuous sieve tube. Water follows sugar in the leaves.
 Contains cytoplasm but no nuclei.
 Connected by plasmodesmata – cytoplasmic connection between neighboring cells.

Plants are organized in organ systems → the roots, stems, and leaves are called vegetative organs because
they are involved in growth and nutrition, but not reproduction.
1. Root system → consists of the roots.
 It helps anchor and support plants to soil (χώμα-έδαφος), absorb water and minerals, store
carbohydrates, and produce hormones.
 Located underground. The depth and distribution of plant roots depends on the type of plant, the
timing and amount of rainfall, and soil composition.
 90% of a tree’s roots are located with 1m of the surface. Tree’s roots will extend 2 to 4 times the
diameter of the aboveground portion of the tree.
 The cylindrical shape of a root allows it to penetrate the soil as it grows and to absorb water from all
sides.

2. Shoot system → consists of the stem and leaves.

 Stem → the main axis of a plant, enables it to stretch (επιμηκύνω) and produce leaves.
 A stem has vascular tissue that transports water and minerals from the roots through the stem to
the leaves.
 Sometimes stems are green and can carry out photosynthesis.
 Nodes → occur where leaves are attached to the stem. Internode is the region between the nodes.
 Xylem → nonliving cells that form a continuous pipeline for water and mineral transport.
  Phloem → living cells that join end to end for organic nutrient transport.
 *Leaves → the major component of the plant that carries on photosynthesis.
 Receive water from the root system by way of the stem.
 The position of the leaves on a plant maximizes the plant’s photosynthetic efforts.
 Blade → the wide portion of a leaf.
 Petiole → the stalk that attaches the blade to the stem.
 Deciduous (φυλλοβόλο) → plants that lose their leaves every year.
 Evergreens (αειθαλής) → retain their leaves for 2 to 7 years.
Monocot vs Eudicot plants →
Flowering plants are divided into 2 groups, depending on the number of cotyledons they have in the
embryonic plant.
1. Monocots → one cotyledon.
(ex. corn, grass, palms).
2. Eudicots or dicots → two
cotyledons (ex. oak trees,
potatoes, kale).

Organization of roots → anchor a plant and absorb water and minerals

from the soil.

1. Zone of cell division → protected by root cap.

 Apical meristem is found in this zone. Enables the plant to
grow and give rise to the primary meristems.
2. Zone of elongation → here the newly produced cells elongate as
they grow larger.
3. Zone of maturation → cells become differentiated into particular
cell types.
 When epidermal cells differentiate, they produce root hairs –
small extensions that absorb water.
Anatomy of Eudicot Root →
1. Epidermis → the outer layer of small cells that gives rise to roots hairs. It protects inner tissues and
absorbs water and minerals.
2. Cortex → ground tissue that functions in food storage. Consists of several layers of thin-walled cells.
3. Endodermis → single layer of cells that forms a boundary between the cortex and the inner vascular
cylinder.
 Casparian strip → prevents the passage of water and mineral ions between adjacent cell walls.
4. Pericycle → a layer of one or two cells just inside the endodermis.
5. Xylem → vascular cylinder of roots with arms extended. Transports water and mineral from roots to
the stem.
6. Phloem → between the arms of xylem. Transports organic nutrients from the leaves to the roots and
other parts of the plant.
Anatomy of monocot roots → they have the same growth zones as eudicot roots, but they do not undergo
secondary growth as many eudicot roots do.

 Monocot roots contain a pith, a type of ground

tissue, which is centrally located for food
storage. It is surrounded by xylem and phloem
bundles organized in a ring shape.

Anatomy of woody stems (ex. stolon of strawberry) →

three distinct areas:
1. Bark → the dark outer area.
 Contains: both periderm and phloem.
a) Cork → a protective outer layer.
b) Cortex → stores nutrients.
 c) Phloem → transports organic nutrients.
2. Wood → secondary xylem that builds up every year, thereby increasing the girth of trees.
 Annual rings → the amount of xylem added to the plant during one growing season. The tree’s age
is estimated by the number of annual rings.
- Spring wood appear light in color, while summer wood much darker.
3. Pith → a ground tissue at the center of a woody stem that stores organic nutrients and may disappear.
Vascular cambium → an inner edge of the bark, between the bark and the wood.
- It is a meristem tissue whose activity accounts for secondary growth, the increase in girth
(περιφέρεια).
- Secondary xylem (which builds up) and phloem (which disappears) are produced each growing
season.
 Cuticle → a waxy outer layer of the epidermis that protects the leaf and prevents water loss.
 Upper & lower epidermis → single layers of cells at the upper and lower surfaces.
- Trichomes → hair that grow from the upper epidermis and help protect the leaf from insects
and water loss.
 Palisade mesophyll → near upper epidermis. Contains chloroplasts and carry on most of the plant’s
photosynthesis.
 Spongy mesophyll → near lower epidermis. They have air spaces that facilitate the exchange of
gases across the plasma membrane.
 Stoma → an opening through which gas exchange occurs and water escapes. Stomata are more
numerous in the lower epidermis.
- Guard cells → surround stomata and regulate its opening and closing.
- During the daytime they give off oxygen and take in carbon dioxide.