Chapter 1 – Relativity

Problems that involve relativistic effects at speeds much smaller than the speed of light, or the equivalence of special relativity
and Newtonian mechanics at low speeds, often require finding differences such as

2 1
1− 1− or −1
2
2
c
1−
c2
when υ = c.
These are both differences between quantities that are equal to 1 in the limit as υ → 0, but as the quantities are not the same for
υ ≠ 0, we are interested in how the differences depend on υ (more specifically, the ratio υ/c) in the limit υ = c.
There are many ways to find the functional form of these differences; four familiar methods are explained here.

I - Binomial Theorem for Non-integral Exponents

This is the method used in Section 1.8.

A familiar form of the binomial theorem is
 ( − 1)  ( − 1)( − 2)
(1 + x) = 1 +  x + x2 + x3 + .
2 23
If α is a nonnegative integer, the coefficients of the powers of x are the usual binomial coefficients, and the series truncates.
However, if |x| < 1, the series will converge for other values of α, particularly negative integers or fractions. Specifically, if
1
 =− ,
2
 1 (−1/ 2)(−3 / 2) 2 ( −1/ 2)( −3 / 2)( −5 / 2) 3
(1 + x) −1/2 = 1 +  −  x + x + x +
 2 2 6
1 3 5
= 1 − x + x 2 − x3 + .
2 8 16
2 
When x = –  2  , this becomes
c 
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
= 1+ + + + .
2 2 c2 8 c 4 16 c6
1−
c2
Similarly, when α = 1/2,
1 1 1
(1 + x)1/2 = 1 + x − x 2 + x3 + and
2 8 16
2 1 2 1 4 1 6
1− = 1− − − + .
c2 2 c 2 8 c 4 16 c 6
In the limit υ = c, then,

2 1 2 1 4 1 1 2 3 4
1− 1−  + , −1  + .
c2 2 c2 8 c4 2 2 c2 8 c4
1−
c2
Note that the υ6/c6 and higher-order terms have been neglected; in practice, the υ4/c4 terms are seldom used.
II - Algebraic

Consider the difference

2
1+ 1− 2
2  2  c
1 − 1 − 2 = 1 − 1 − 2  
 
c c  1+ 1− 
2

c2
2
 2 
1−  1− 2 
 c 
= 
2
1+ 1−
c2
2
= c2 .
2
1+ 1−
c2
The denominator is seen to approach 2 as υ = c, and so

2 1 2
1− 1− 
c2 2 c2
for low speed. Similarly,

2
1− 1−
c2  1 
2
1
−1 =
2 2 2 c2
1− 1−
c2 c2
for low speed, where the previous result has been used.
Finding higher-order corrections by this method is possible, only slightly tedious, but fairly unenlightening. For example, for
the next order, consider

1 2 2
 1 2 1 − + 1 −
2  2 c2 c2
1 − − 1 −   .
 2 c2 c 2  1 2 2
 1− + 1− 2
2 c2 c
This algebraic method is equivalent to that used to find a derivative of a square root by taking a limit.

III - Taylor Series

Letting f(x) = (1 + x)–1/2, f(0) = 1 and direct calculations give f′(0) = –1/2 and f″(0) = 3/4 (a generalization is not hard to do
explicitly). Thus,

1  1 13 1 3
f ( x) =  1 +  −  x +   x2 = 1 − x + x2.
1+ x  2 24 2 8
This is seen to be identical (when higher-order terms are computed) to that found by the binomial theorem, and letting x = –υ2/c2
reproduces the previous result. Similarly,
 1 1
1 + x = (1 + x)1/2  1 + x − x4 ,
2 8
as before.

IV - Use the Machine

The mechanics of finding Taylor Series might often be left to mechanical devices. The following Maple commands reproduce
the above results easily and almost immediately.
>g:=sqrt (l–(v/c) ˆ2);
>series (g, v=0), 8);
>series(l/g, v=0, 8);
In the “series” commands above, the last argument is the order to which the series are calculated, and may be changed as
desired (default is 6). Since the functions considered are even in υ/c, the order is not the same as the number of terms.

1-1: All else being the same, including the rates of the chemical reactions that govern our brains and bodies, relativistic
phenomena would be more conspicuous if the speed of light were smaller. If we could attain the absolute speeds obtainable to us
in the universe as it is, but with the speed of light being smaller, we would be able to move at speeds that would correspond to
larger fractions of the speed of light, and in such instances relativistic effects would be more conspicuous.

1-2: The beam consists of different electrons and is not a single particle moving across the screen. The electrons are “aimed” at
the screen in different directions, but the rate at which this aiming angle can be changed is not constrained by special relativity.
A similar situation would be a row of headlights far away which are lit and then extinguished quickly in order. To a distant
observer, this might appear to be a single light moving, and as there is no practical limit on the time between the lighting of
successive headlights, this apparent single light could be seen to move with an arbitrarily high speed.

1-3: The given observation that the two explosions occur at the same place to the second observer means that x′ = 0 in Equation
(1.16), and so the second observer is moving at a speed

x 1.00  105 m
= = = 5.00  107 m / s
t 2.00  10−3 s
with respect to the first observer. Inserting this into Equation (1.19),

x2 x2
t− 1 − 2
t = tc 2 =t c2t 2 = t 1 − ( x / t )
1 − ( x / ct ) 2 x2 c2
1− 2 2
ct
(5.00  107 m / s) 2
= (2.00 ms) 1 − = 1.97 ms.
(2.998  108 m / s) 2
(For this calculation, the approximation 1 − ( x / ct ) 2  1 − ( x 2 / 2c 2 t 2 ) is valid to three significant figures.)
An equally valid method, and a good check, is to note that when the relative speed of the observers (5.00 × 107 m/s) has been
determined, the time interval that the second observer measures should be that given by Equation (1.30) (but be careful of which
time it t, which is t0). Algebraically and numerically, the different methods give the same result.
 1-4: In this situation, the time t in Equation (1.23) may be taken to be 0, so that υ = –c2t′/x′, where the minus sign indicates that
the second observer is moving away from the first observer relative to the direction in which x′ is measured as positive. Also,

2
because t = 0 in Equation (1.16), x = x / 1 − (which is the same as Equation (1.27)). This is solved for
c2
2
x
− = c 1 −   , so that
 x 

x  x 
2 2
x 160 km  100 
t = − = 1−   = 1−  
 x  2.998  10 m / s  160 
8
c c
= 4.16  10−4 s = 0.416 ms.

Note for Problems 1-3 and 1-4:

In both Problems 1-3 and 1-4, the intermediate calculation of the relative speed υ, either symbolically or numerically, can be
avoided by use of Spacetime Intervals, introduced in Section 1.10 and Equation (1.50); specifically,

x 2 − (ct ) 2 = x2 − (ct ) 2 . (1.50)

In Problems 1-3 and 1-4, three of the four terms x, x′, t and t′ have been given, and the fourth is required. Also, in this form, the
distinction between primed and unprimed frames is not crucial, so long as the frames are identified consistently. Signs are not
explicit.
In Problem 1-3, t = 2.00 ms, x = 100 km, x′ = 0 and t′ is required; from the above,
2
 
2
x 100 km
t  = t 1 −   = (2.00 ms) 1 −   = 1.97 ms.
 ct   (2.998  10 m / s)(2.00 ms) 
8

In Problem 1-4, t = 0, x = 100 km, x′ = 160 km and t′ is required. Then,

x  x 
2

t = 1−   ,
c x
as found previously.

1-5: (a) A convenient choice for the origins of both the unprimed and primed coordinate systems is the point, in both space and
time, where the ship receives the signal. Then, in the unprimed frame (given here as the frame of the fixed stars, one of which may
be the source), the signal was sent at a time t = –r/c, where r is the distance from the source to the place where the ship receives
the signal, and the minus sign merely indicates that the signal was sent before it was received.
Take the direction of the ship’s motion (assumed parallel to its axis) to be the positive x-direction, so that in the frame of the fixed
stars (the unprimed frame), the signal arrives at an angle θ with respect to the positive x-direction. In the unprimed frame, x = r
cosθ and y = r sinθ. From Equation (1.16),
x − t r cos  − (−r / c) cos  + ( / c)
x = = =r ,
2 2 2
1− 1− 1−
c2 c2 c2
and y′ = y = r sinθ. Then,
 y sin 
tan   = = , and
x 2
(cos  + ( / c)) 1−
c2
 2 
 sin  1 − 2 
 = arctan  c 
.
 cos  + ( / c) 
 
 
(b) From the form of the result of part (a), it can be seen that the numerator of the term in square brackets is less than sinθ, and
the denominator is greater than cosθ, and so tanθ′ < tanθ and θ′ < θ when υ ≠ 0. Looking out of a porthole, the sources, including
the stars, will appear to be in directions closer to the direction of the ship’s motion than they would for a ship with υ = 0. As υ → c,
θ′ → 0, and all stars appear to be almost on the ship’s axis (farther forward in the field of view).

1-6: For this situation, V′x = 0.500 c in Equation (1.24) for both fragments. For the one that moves backwards, υ = –0.600 c, and
so
0.500 − 0.600
Vx = c = −0.143 c.
1 + (−0.600)(0.500)
For the fragment the moves forward, υ = 0.500 c and
0.500 + 0.500
Vx = c = 0.800 c.
1 + (0.500)(0.500)
Note that for the forward-moving fragment, for which a classical calculation would give a speed of c, the result is less than c, as it
must be.

1-7: (a) If the man on the moon sees A approaching with speed υ = 0.800 c, then the observer on A will see the man in the moon
approaching with speed υ = 0.800 c. The relative velocities will have opposite directions, but the relative speeds will be the same.
The speed with which B is seen to approach A, to an observer in A, is then
0.800 + 0.900
c = 0.988 c.
1 + (0.800)(0.900)
(b) Similarly, the observer on B will see the man on the moon approaching with speed 0.900 c, and the apparent speed of A, to
an observer on B, will be
0.900 + 0.800
c = 0.988 c.
1 + (0.900)(0.800)
(Note that Equation (1.24) is unchanged if V′x and υ are interchanged.)

1-8: To the observer at rest in the laboratory, the kinetic energy of- the electron is, from Equation (1.44) and Equation (1.46),

 
 
2  1
KE = E − me c = me c
2
− 1
  2 
 1− 2 
 c 
 1 
= (0.511MeV)  − 1 = 0.341MeV.
 1 − (0.800) 2 

The moving observer will see the speed of the electron to be

 e −0.500 + 0.800
= = 0.500, so
c 1 + (−0.500)(0.800)
 
 
1
KE = E − me c 2 = me c 2  − 1
 2 
 1+ 2 
 c 
 1 
= (0.511MeV)  − 1 = 0.079 MeV.
 1 − (0.500) 2 

1-9: The astronaut’s proper length (height) is 6 ft, and this is what any observer in the spacecraft will measure. From Equation
(1.27), an observer on the earth would measure

2
L = L0 1 − 2
= (6 ft) 1 − (0.90) 2 = 2.6ft.
c

1-10: Solving Equation (1.27) for L0,

L 1.3m
L0 = = = 1.6 m.
 2
1 − (0.60) 2
1−
c2

1-11: The time will be the length as measured by the observer divided by the speed, or

2
L0 1 −
c 2 = (1.00 m) 1 − (0.100) = 3.32 10−8 s.
2
L
t= =
  (0.100) (2.998 108 m/s)

1-12: Solving Equation (1.27) for υ in terms of L and L0,

2
 L 3
 = c 1 −   = (2.998 108 m/s) = 2.60 108 m/s.
 L0  4
The time it takes the meter stick to pass is the observed length divided by the speed, or
0.500 m
t= = 1.92 10−9 s.
2.60 108 m/s

1-13: If the antenna has a length L′ as measured by an observer on the spacecraft (L′ is not either L or L0 in Equation (1.27)), the
projection of the antenna onto the spacecraft will have a length L′ cos(10°), and the projection onto an axis perpendicular to the
spacecraft’s axis will have a length L′ sin(10°). To an observer on the earth, the length in the direction of the spacecraft’s axis will
be contracted as described by Equation (1.27), while the length perpendicular to the spacecraft’s motion will appear unchanged.
The angle as seen from the earth will then be

 
   
L sin(10 )  = arctan  tan(10 )
arctan   = 14 .
 2   1 − (0.70) 2 
 L  cos(10 ) 1 − 
 c2 
The generalization of the above is that if the angle is θ0 as measured by an observer on the spacecraft, an observer on the earth
would measure an angle θ given by
 tan  0
tan  = .
2
1−
c2

1-14: We’ll need to assume that the car on the earth is moving much slower than the speed of light, so that the speed of the
spacecraft relative to the moving car is also 0.700 c. In Equation (1.30), t = 40 min is the time measured by the observer in the
moving spacecraft, while to is the time that the driver has noticed to elapse in the course of the trip, and so

2
t0 = t 1 − 2
= (40.0 min) 1 − (0.700) 2 = 28.6 min.
c

1-15: Even if the judges would allow it, the observers in the moving spaceship would measure a longer time, since they would
see the runners being timed by clocks that appear to run slowly compared to the ship’s clocks. Actually, when the effects of length
contraction are included (discussed in Sections 1.2 and 1.4), the runner’s speed may be greater than, less than, or the same as that
measured by an observer on the ground.

1-16: See Example 1.4 and Problem 1-17. In Equation (1.30), with t representing the elapsed time measured by an observer on
the earth and the time as measured on the earth for the clock in the airplane to advance by t0,

 2   (300 m/s) 2 
t − t0 = t  1 − 1 − 2  t  1 − 1 −  = 1.00s.
 c   (2.998  108 m/s) 2 
 
This can be solved for t with a calculator or program with sufficient precision, but for a ten-place calculator, the quantity

2
1− is indistinguishable from 1. Using any of the techniques outlined at the beginning of this chapter,
c2

2 1 2
1− 1−  = 5.00 10−13 ,
c2 2c 2

so that
1.00 s
t= −13
= 2.00 1012 s,
5.00 10
which is about 63 millennia.

1-17: Note that the nonrelativistic approximation is not valid, as υ/c = 2/3.
(a) See Example 1.4. In Equation (1.30), with t representing both the time measured by A and the time as measured in A’s
frame for the clock in B’s frame to advance by t0, we need

  2    2  
2

t − t0 = t 1 − 1 − 2  = t 1 − 1 −   = t (0.255) = 1.00s,
 c    3  
 
from which t = 3.93 s.
(b) A moving clock always seems to run slower. In this problem, the time t is the time that observer A measures as the time that
B’s clock takes to record a time change of t0.

1-18: From Equation (1.30), the time difference will be

 2 
t − t0 = t  1 − 1 − 2  .
 c 

As in Problem 1-16 above, the ratio of the average speed of the spacecraft to the speed of light is too small for this to be handled
by standard calculators, and the same approximation may be necessary. Then,
2
t    (86, 400s)  1.08 104 m/s 
2

t − t0 =   =  = 5.65 10 s = 56s.

5

2 c   2.998 10 m/s 
s
2
(The use of a solar day instead of a sidereal day is arbitrary in this problem.)

1-19: From Equation (1.30), for the time t on the earth to correspond to twice the time t0 elapsed on the ship’s clock,

2 1
1− 2
= , so
c 2
3 3
= c= (2.998 108 m/s) = 2.60  10s m/s,
2 2
retaining three significant figures.

1-20: The lifetime of the particle is to, and the distance the particle will travel is, from Equation (1.30),

 t0 (0.99) (2.998 108 m/s) (1.00 10−7 s)

t = = = 210 m
2 1 − (0.99) 2
1−
c2
to two significant figures.

1-21: The age difference will be the difference in the times that each measures the round trip to take, or

L0  2 
t = 2 1 − 1 − 2  = 2
  c 
4 yr
0.9
(
1 − 1 − (0.9) 2 = 5yr.)

1-22: (The unit “ly” for “light-year”, although officially “deprecated”, will be used for the solution to this problem.)
(a) Twin A, who is always moving, finds the entire distance to be

2  (12 ly) 1 − (0.6) 2 = 19.2ly,

and hence will measure the time of the journey to be (19.2 ly)/(0.6c) = 32 yr, and will send out 32 signals. Twin B will measure
the time for the round trip to be 2 × (12 ly)/(0.6c) = 40 yr and so will send out 40 signals.
(b) Each twin will receive every signal the other sent, and so twin A will receive 32 signals and twin B will receive 40. Neither
twin will receive these signals at a uniform rate (see Example 1.5), but the total number of signals sent by one twin will be the
number of signals received by the other.

1-23: It is convenient to maintain the relationship from Newtonian mechanics, in that a force on an object changes the object’s
dp
momentum; symbolically, F = should still be valid. In the absence of forces, momentum should be conserved in any inertial
dt
frame, and the conserved quantity is P = γmv, not mv.
 1-24: (a) From Equation (1.37), the ratio of the momenta will be

p0.4 c me (0.4c) / 1 − (0.4) 2

= = 2.14,
p0.2 c me (0.2c) / 1 − (0.2) 2
slightly more than 2, the classical value.
(b) A similar calculation gives

p0.8 c me (0.8c) / 1 − (0.8) 2

= = 3.06,
p0.4 c me (0.4c) / 1 − (0.4) 2

1-25: Taking the magnitudes of both sides of Equation (1.37) and squaring,

m 2 2
p2 = .
2
1−
c2
This expression certainly may be solved for υ 2 and rearranged to give the result, but a somewhat easier method is to add m2c2 to
both sides, and put the right side over a common denominator to obtain

m2c 2
p 2 + m2c2 .
2
1−
c2
Dividing by m2c2 gives the desired result.
(This problem clearly anticipates the material of Section 1.9, but the above solution does not rely on the relation between
relativistic energy and momentum.)

1-26: In order to melt the ice, heat must be added; to melt a mass M of ice, an amount of heat M Lf must be absorbed by the ice,
where Lf is the latent heat of fusion of the ice, 334 kJ/kg. This added energy becomes mass energy of the melted ice; if the mass of
the water (the melted ice) increases by ΔM, then M Lf = ΔM c2, or

M c 2 (1.00 kg)(2.998 108 m/s) 2

M= = = 2.69 1011 kg.
Lf (334 10 J/kg)
3

This would be a square volume of ice 1 km thick and about 16.5 km on a side.

1-27: For a given mass M, the ratio of the mass liberated to the mass energy is

M  (5.4 106 J/kg)

= 6.0 10−11.
M  (2.998 10 m/s)
8 2

1-28: At rest, the spacecraft has a mass of M, and the energy needed (the final kinetic energy) per unit mass is

 
   
E − Mc 2 2  1 1
=c − 1 = (2.998 108 m/s) 2  − 1
M  2   1 − (0.90) 2 
 1− 2 
 c 
= 1.16 10 J/kg.
7

1-29: If the kinetic energy KE = E0 = mc2, then E = 2 mc2 and Equation (1.44) reduces to
 1
=2
2
1−
c2
(γ= 2 in the notation of Section 1.7). Solving for υ,

3
= c = 2.60 108 m/s.
2


1-30: Using Equation (1.43) in Equation (1.44) and solving for ,
c
1/2
  E0 
2
  E0  2 
= 1 −   = 1 −    .
c  E    E  
Using the binomial theorem (as done in Section 1.8 and the beginning of this chapter), valid when (E0/E) = 1,


2
1 E 
 1−  0  .
c 2 E 
For an algebraic alternative, Equations (1.22) and (1.23) may be combined and rearranged to give

2       E 
2

1 − 2 = 1 + 1 −  =  0  .
c  c  c   E 
 
The condition E  E0 will only be valid if υ ≈ c (but of course υ < c), in which case 1 +   2 , so that
 c


2
1 E 
1−   0  ,
c 2 E 
 1
giving the same result. This result is often expressed as  1− .
c 2

1-31: Classically,

2KE 2(0.100 MeV)(1.602 10−19 J/eV)

= = = 1.88 108 m/s.
me (9.1095 10−31 kg)
Relativistically, solving Equation (1.44) for v as a function of KE,
2 2
 m c2   me c 2 
 = c 1−  e  = c 1−  
 me c + KE 
2
 E 
2
 1 
= c 1−   .
 1 + (KE/(me c )) 
2

With KE/(me c2) = (0.100 MeV)/(0.511 MeV) = 0.100/0.511,

2
 1 
 = (2.998 10 m/s) 1 − 
8
 = 1.64 10 m/s.
8

 1 + (0.100 / 0.511) 
The two speeds are comparable, but not the same; for larger values of the ratio of the kinetic and rest energies, larger
discrepancies would be found.
 1-32: (a) The kinetic energy of a particle in terms of the rest mass and the speed is found by using E = E0 + KE in Equation
(1.23) and solving for KE, giving

 
 
2  1
KE = m p c − 1 ,
  2 
 1− 2 
 c 
so for a particle of any (non-zero) mass,

 1 
 − 1
KE 0.40 c 1 − (0.40) 2
=  = 4.4,
KE 0.20 c  1 
 − 1
 1 − (0.20)
2

which is comparable to, but larger than, the classical ratio of 4.
(b) Similarly,

 1 
 − 1
KE 0.80 c 1 − (0.80) 2
=  = 7.3,
KE 0.40 c  1 
 − 1
 1 − (0.40)
2

almost twice the classical ratio of 4.


1-33: Using Equation (1.43) in Equation (1.44) and solving for ,
c
1/2
  E0 
2
  E0  2 
= 1 −   = 1 −    .
c  E    E  
With E = 21 E0, that is, E = E0 + (20) E0,
2
 1
 = c 1 −   = 0.9989 c.
 21 
(This is consistent with the expression derived in Problem 1-30.)

c
1-34: (a) Cerenkov radiation can be emitted if > . From Equation (1.41), or Equation (1.43),
n
 
 
1
KE = mc 2  − 1
 2 
 1− 2 
 c 
c
(see the solution to Problem 1-32 above). If > ,
n
(b) Using n = 1.5 and m c2 = 511 keV in the above expressions,

 1.5 
KE min = (511keV)  − 1 = 175 keV.
 (1.5) 2 − 1 
 1-35: The difference in energies will be, from Equation (1.44),

 
1 1
me c 
2
− 
 1 − ( / c ) 2
1 − (1 / c )
2 
 2 
 1 1 
= (0.511 MeV)  −  = 0.294MeV,
 1 − (2.4 / 3.0) 2
1 − (1.2 / 3.0) 2 
to three significant figures.

1-36: Using the expression in Equation (1.41) for the kinetic energy, the ratio of the two quantities is

1  
 m 2 1  2    1  2 
1

2 =  =  .
KE 2 c2   −1  2 c2   2 

1 − 1 − 2 
 c 
Algebraically, this quantity is not equal to 1 except at υ = 0. For low speeds, υ = c, the quantity in square brackets is

1 2
approximately (see the text at the end of Section 1.8 or the beginning of this chapter), reflecting the fact that the classical
2 c2
and relativistic kinetic energies have the same form in the nonrelativistic limit. However, as υ → c (or γ → ∞), the expressions are
1
not the same, even though both  m 2 and KE = (γ –1)m c2 become infinitely large. To see this explicitly, note that the ratio
2
   1
  → 1 1 as γ → ∞, so that the expression approaches as υ → c. This is consistent with setting υ = c in the last
  −1  2
expression on the right above.

1-37: The straightforward use of Equation (1.48) in the form E 2 = me2 c 4 + p 2 c 2 leads to a solution by straightforward
algebra. Denote the initial electron momentum and energy as p1 and E1 and the common final momentum and energy of each
particle as p2 and E2. These four quantities are related by Equation (1.48),

E12 = (me c 2 ) 2 + ( p1c) 2 , E22 = (mec 2 ) 2 + ( p2c) 2 .

Conservation of momentum and energy are expressed as

p1 = 4 p2 , E1 + me c 2 = 4 E2 .
There are four algebraic relations between the four unknown quantities p1, p2 E1 and E2. These relations are not linear, but a
solution is available by direct methods.
Since we are interested in the initial electron energy E1, eliminating E2 will be advantageous. The last two of the above
equations may be squared and combined as

( E1 + me c 2 ) − ( p1c) 2  = 16  E22 − ( p2c) 2  = 16(mec 2 )2 .

Using the relation (Equation (1.24)) between E1 and p1 to eliminate (p1c)2,

( E1 + me c 2 ) 2 − ( E1 ) 2 = 15(me c 2 ) 2 .
Expanding the binomial and rearranging terms, noting that the E12 terms cancel,

2 E1me c 2 = 14(mec 2 )2 , from which

E1 = 7me c 2
and KE = E1 − me c 2 = 6me c 2 .
The algebra involved, although not especially complicated, can be done using symbolic-manipulation programs. The
commands for Maple (any release) are:
 >el:=p_l=4*p_2; e2:= E_l+m=4*E_2; e3:= E_lˆ2=mˆ2+p_lˆ2;
e4:=E_2ˆ2=mˆ2+p_2ˆ2;
>solve({el,e2,e3,e4} ,{p_l,p_2,E_l,E_2});
(note that in the above, c = 1 has been used, and symbolic answers would be multiplied by c or c2). Depending on the release used,
explicit answers for p1 and p2 may or may not be given, but the needed answer E = 7 m (and E2 = 2 m) are obtained explicitly.
A conceptually more advanced, but algebraically simpler method is to consider the collision in the center-of-momentum frame
(which is not the center-of-mass frame for relativistic or massless particles). To use this method, however, students should be
familiar with the velocity addition formulas derived in Section 1.2, especially Equation (1.24). If the incident electron has speed υ0
in the lab frame, both it and the target electron have speed υ′ in the center-of-momentum frame. The advantage to this method is
that in this frame, all of the particles are at rest after the collision. Therefore, each original electron must have had energy E′ = 2

 3
mec2 in the center-of-momentum frame; in the center-of-momentum frame each original electron had γ′ = 2, and so = .
c 4
The initial speed in the lab frame is obtained from Equation (1.24), with Vx =  =   = 3 / 4c , which gives

0 3/ 4 + 3/ 4 4 3 48
= = = .
c 1+ 3 / 4 7 49
Using this in Equation (1.44) gives E1 = 7mec2.

 
 
2  1   n 
KE  mc  − 1 = mc 2  − 1 ,
 n −1 
2 2
 1−  1  
   
n
and so the minimum kinetic energy needed to emit Cerenkov radiation is

 n 
KE min = mc 2  − 1 .
 n −1 
2

(b) Using n = 1.5 and m c2 = 511 keV in the above expressions,

 1.5 
KE min = (511keV)  − 1 = 175 keV.
 (1.5) 2 − 1 

1-38: Measured from the original center of the box, so that the original position of the center of mass is 0, the final position of
the center of mass is

M  L  M  L 
 − m  + S  −  + m  − S  = 0.
 2  2   2  2 
M L 
Expanding the products and cancelling similar terms  , mS  , the result MS mL is obtained. The distance S is the product υ
 2 2 
t, where, as shown in the problem statement, υ ≈ E/Mc (approximate in the nonrelativistic limit M  E/c2) and t ≈ L/c Then,
MS M E L E
m= = = .
L L Mc c c 2

1-39: To cross the galaxy in a matter of minutes, the proton must be highly relativistic, with υ ≈ c (but υ < c, of course). The

2
energy of the proton will be E = E0γ, where E0 is the proton’s rest energy and  =1/ 1 − However, γ, from Equation (1.27),
c2
is the same as the ratio L0/L, where L is the diameter of the galaxy in the proton’s frame of reference, and for the highly-relativistic
proton L ≈ ct, where t is the time in the proton’s frame that it takes to cross the galaxy. Combining,

L0 L (105 ly)
E = E0  = E0  E0 0  (109 eV)  (3107 s/yr) = 1019 eV.
L ct c(300s)

1-40: Using the basic SI unit conversions 1 V = 1 J/C and 1 J = 1 kg·m2/s2,

1MeV 102 (1.602 10−19 C)(1 kg  m2 / s 2  C)

= = 1.782 10−30 kg.m/s.
c 2
(2.998 10 m/s)
8 2

Similarly,

1MeV 106 (1.602 10−19 C)(1 kg  m 2 / s 2  C)

= = 5.344 10−22 kg 
c (2.998 10 m/s)
8

1-41: Taking magnitudes in Equation (1.37),

me (0.511MeV/c 2 )(0.600 c)

p= = = 0.383MeV/c.
2 1 − (0.600) 2
1−
c2

1-42: The photon’s energy will be pc, where in this case p is the momentum of the proton whose kinetic energy is known.
Expressing pc in terms of KE and mpc2 = E0 using Equation (1.48),
2
 KE 
pc = (KE + E0 ) − E = E02 2
0  + 1 − 1
 E0 
2
 10.0 
= (938 MeV)  + 1 − 1 = 137 MeV.
 938 
This proton is sufficiently slow that a nonrelativistic calculation,

pc = 2m p KEc = 2m p c 2 KE = 2 E0 KE
= 2(938 MeV)(10.0 MeV) = 137 MeV
is adequate.

1-43: When the kinetic energy of an electron is equal to its rest energy, the total energy is twice the rest energy, and Equation
(1.48) becomes

4me2c 4 = me2c 4 + p 2c 2 , or p = 3(me c 2 ) / c = 3(511keV / c) = 885keV / c.

The result of Problem 1-29 could be used directly; γ = 2,  = ( 3 / 2)c , and Equation (1.47) gives p = 3me c , as above.

1-44: From Equation (1.46),

mpc2 (0.938GeV / c 2 )c 2
E= = = 2.15GeV,
2 1 − (0.900) 2
1−
c2
and KE = E – mpc2 = 2.15 GeV – 0.938 GeV = 1.21 GeV.
 From Equation (1.37), the magnitude of the momentum is

m p (0.938GeV / c 2 )(0.900 c)
p= = = 1.94 GeV / c.
2 1 − (0.900) 2
1−
c2
Of course, anticipating Problem 1-46,
 E
p=E 2
= = (2.15GeV / c)(0.900) = 1.94 GeV / c.
c c c

1-45: Solving Equation (1.46) for the speed υ in terms of the rest energy E0 and the total energy E,
2
E   0.938 
 = c 1−  0  = c 1−   = 0.963 c,
E  3.500 
numerically 2.888 × 108 m/s. (The result of Problem 1-30 does not give an answer accurate to three significant figures.) The value
of the speed may be substituted into Equation (1.37) (or the result of Problem 1-46), or Equation (1.48) may be solved for the
magnitude of the momentum,

p = ( E / c) 2 − ( E0 / c) 2 = (3.500 GeV / c) 2 − (0.93828GeV / c) 2 = 3.372 GeV / c.

(Although the final result is not affected, a more precise value for the proton rest mass, taken from the front endpapers, was used
in the last calculation.)

1-46: From Equation (1.46), E = γm c2, and taking the magnitudes in Equation (1.47), p = γmυ, the result follows immediately
for a massive particle. For a photon, υ = c and E = pc, and again the result is immediate.

1-47: From E = mc2 + KE and Equation (1.24),

(mc 2 + KE) 2 = m 2 c 4 + p 2 c 2 .
Expanding the binomial, cancelling the m2 c4 term, and solving for m,

( pc)2 − KE 2 (335MeV)2 − (62 MeV) 2

m= = = 874 MeV/c 2 .
2c 2 KE 2c 2 (62 MeV)
The particle’s speed may be found any number of ways; a very convenient result is that of Problem 1-46, giving
p pc 335MeV
 = c2 =c 2 =c = 0.36 c.
E mc + KE 874 MeV + 62 MeV
There’s a neat algebraic “trick” that may be used in this and many similar problems. (In what follows, factors of c will not be
included.) Essentially, the problem reduces mathematically to solving the two equations

E = m + KE, E 2 = m2 + p 2
for E and m, given known values for p and KE. Rewrite the two equations as

E − m = KE, E 2 − m 2 = ( E − m)( E + m) = p 2
p2
and substitute the first into the second to obtain E+m= (the KE = 0 case is trivial). Adding this to E – m = KE, and then
KE
subtracting the same relation gives

p 2 + KE 2 p 2 − KE 2
E= ,m = ,
2KE 2KE
as obtained above.

1-48: From Equation (1.48),

 E = (mn c 2 ) 2 + ( pc) 2
= ((0.940 GeV / c 2 )c 2 ) 2 + ((1.200 GeV / c)c) 2 = 1.52 GeV.

1-49: (a) Solving Equation (1.48) for m,

1 1
m= E 2 − ( pc)2 = (4.00 GeV)2 − (1.45GeV / c)c) 2 = 3.73GeV / c 2 .
c2 c2
(b) The mass will not depend on the frame, so Equation (1.24) may be applied directly to give

E = (mc 2 ) 2 + ( pc) 2 = (3.73GeV) 2 + (2.00 GeV) 2 = 4.23GeV.

1-50: Using either Equation (1.57) with υ = 0.97 c or Equation (1.59) with υ = –0.97 c, the pulses are received at a rate of

1 − / c 1 − 0.97
 = 0 = (1.00 104 pulses / s) = 3.9 103 pulses / s.
1+ / c 1 + 0.97

1-51: See Example 1.11; for the intermediate calculations, note that

c c v0 1 − / c
= = = 0 ,
v v0 v 1+ / c
where the sign convention for υ is that of Equation (1.8), with υ positive for an approaching source and υ negative for a receding
source.
For this problem,

 (1.50 104 km/s) (103 m/km)

=− = −0.0500,
c (2.998 108 m/s)
so that

1 − / c 1 + 0.0500
 = 0 = (550 nm) = 578nm.
1+ / c 1 − 0.0500

2
1-52: Using v = v0 in Equation (1.57) and squaring,
3
4 1 − ( / c)
= ,
9 1 + ( / c)
which is solved for
1 − (4 / 9) 5 5
= c = c = (2.998 108 m/s) = 1.15 108 m/s.
1 + (4 / 9) 13 13
If, instead, Equation (1.59) is used, the corresponding calculations lead to
(4 / 9) − 1 5
= c = − c,
1 + (4 / 9) 13
the negative of the previous result; this is of course consistent, in that Equation (1.8) uses the convention that a negative υ
corresponds to a receding source.

1-53: This problem may be done in several ways, all of which need to use the fact that when the frequencies due to the classical
and relativistic effects are found, those frequencies, while differing by 1 Hz, will both be sufficiently close to ν0 = 109 Hz so that
ν0 could be used for an approximation to either.
 In Equation (1.55), we have υ = 0 and V = –u, where u is the speed of the spacecraft, moving away from the earth (V < 0). In
Equation (1.57), we have υ = u (or υ = –u in Equation (1.59)). The classical and relativistic frequencies, νc and νr respectively, are

0 1 − (u / c) 1 − (u 2 / c 2 )
c = , r = 0 = 0 .
1 + (u / c) 1 + (u / c) 1 + (u / c)
The last expression for νr is motivated by the derivation of Equation (1.57), which essentially incorporates the classical result
(counting the number of ticks), and allows expression of the ratio
c 1
= .
r 1 − (u 2 / c 2 )
Use of the above forms for the frequencies allows the calculation of the ratio

  c − r 1 − 1 − (u 2 / c 2 ) 1Hz
= = = 9 =10−9.
0 0 1 + (u / c) 10 Hz
Attempts to solve this equation exactly are not likely to be met with success, and even numerical solutions would require a

higher precision than is commonly available. However, recognizing that the numerator 1 − 1 − (u / c ) is of the form that can
2 2

be approximated using the methods outlined at the beginning of this chapter, we can use 1 − 1 − (u / c )  (1 / 2) (u / c ).
2 2 2 2

The denominator will be indistinguishable from 1 at low speed, with the result

1 u2
2
= 10−9 ,
2c
which is solved for

u = 2  10−9 c = 1.34  104 m/s = 13.4 km/s.

Similar to what was done at the beginning of this chapter, the Taylor series for the desired function of u can be found by a
computer. The Maple commands would be
>f:= (1–sqrt (1–uˆ2)) / (1+u);
>series (f, u=0);
(note that for these commands, “u” represents the ratio of the recessional speed to the speed of light).
Mention had been made above of the limited possibility of a numerical solution. Depending on which release of Maple is used,
a numerical solution is indeed possible. Maple 7 will solve the given equation with the command
>solve (f=lE-9);
with the results .00004472235955, –.00004472035955 for u/c (Maple will give both positive and negative roots, and we need to
recognize which we want, as well as the limitation on precision).

1-54: In this situation, there are two frequencies that are Doppler-shifted. The original frequency is received at the speeding car

1 + ( / c)
as   =  0 and the police car receives the reflected signal at
1 − ( / c)

1 + ( / c) 1 + ( / c)
 =  =0 .
1 − ( / c) 1 − ( / c)
The frequency difference detected at the police car is
2( / c)
 =  −  0 = .
1 − ( − c)
It’s useful to find
 (150 km/h) (3.600(m/s) / (km/h))
= = 1.80 10−6 ,
c (2.998 108 m/s)
a sufficiently small ratio that the denominator in the above expression for Δν may be set to 1; then,

 = 2 (15 109 Hz) (1.80 10 −6 ) = 5.4 10 4 Hz = 54 kHz.

1-55: The transverse Doppler effect corresponds to a direction of motion of the light source that is perpendicular to the

direction from it to the observer; the angle  =  (or  90 ) , so cosθ = 0, and  =  0 1 −  2 / c2 , which is Equation (1.55).
2
For a receding source, θ = π (or 180°), and cosθ = –1. The given expression becomes

2  
1− 1− 1+
 = 0 c =2
c c = 1− / c ,
 0
 
0
1+ / c
1+ 1+ 1+
c c c
which is Equation (1.57).
For an approaching source, θ = 0, cosθ = 1, and the given expression becomes

2  
1− 1+ 1−
c 2
c c 1+ / c
 =0 =0 =0 ,
   1− / c
1− 1− 1−
c c c
which is Equation (1.58).

 
1-56: (a) Using the hint, with x = − ,1 / (1 −  / c)  1 + ; Equation (1.58) becomes
c c

1+
 = 0 c   1 +  1 +   =  1 +   .
0    0 
  c  c   c
1−
c
This is Equation (1.55) with V = 0, and, if υ > 0, represents an observer approaching a source. For a source approaching an
observer, υ = 0 in Equation (1.55) and setting V = υ (not the same “υ” in the two usages) to match the notation of Equation (1.58);
using the same approximation as above,

1  
 = 0   0 1 +  .
  c
1−
c

(b) The formulas will be those obtained by replacing υ by –υ; the needed approximation would now have x = , so 1/(1 + υ/c)
c
≈ 1 –υ/c, and similar (almost identical) calculations give

    
   0 1 −  ,  .
 c  c