Introduction To Forages

Introduction to Forages:
Define forages and differentiate between forage types.

Forages are plants or parts of plants eaten by livestock (cows, horses, sheep, goats, llamas), and
wildlife (deer, elk, moose, rabbits).
There are many different types of forages. Some of the most important are listed in the table
below.
Table 1. Forage types and definitions.
Vegetation Definitions
Terms
Forage Edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that can provide feed for
grazing animals, or that can be harvested for feeding. Includes browse, herbage,
and mast.
Browse Leaf and twig growth of shrubs, woody vines, trees, cacti, and other non-
herbaceous vegetation available for animal consumption.
Herbage The biomass of herbaceous plants, other than separated grain, generally above
ground but including edible roots and tubers.
Forb Any herbaceous broadleaf plant that is not a grass and is not grass-like.
Legume Members of the plant family Fabaceae.
Grass Members of the plant family Poaceae.
Grass-like Vegetation that is similar to grass in appearance and is usually a member of the
plant family Cyperaceae (sedges) or Juncaceae (rushes).
Pasturage Not a recommended term.The recommended definition of pasture refers to a
specific kind of grazing management unit, not that which is consumed, which is
forage. Thus, pasturage is not a useful term.
Mast Fruits and seeds of shrubs, woody vines, trees, cacti, and other non-herbaceous
vegetation available for animal consumption.
Forage crop A crop of cultivated plants or plant parts, other than separated grain, produced to
be grazed or harvested for use as feed for animals.
Aftermath Forage grown following a harvest.
Residue Forage remaining on the land as a consequence of harvest.
Silage Forage preserved in a succulent condition by partial anaerobic, acid
fermentation.
Hay Grass or other plants, such as clover or alfalfa, cut and dried for fodder.
Haylage Product resulting from ensiling forage with around 45% moisture, in the absence
of oxygen.
Fodder Coarse grasses such as corn and sorghum harvested with the seed and leaves
green or alive, then cured and fed in their entirety as forage.
Green chop Fresh cut forages.
Source: Allen, 1991
Grasses:
Grasses are very common but very important.
Next in importance to the divine profusion of water, light, and air, those three great physical
facts which render existence possible, may be reckoned the universal beneficence of grass. Grass
is the forgiveness of nature-her constant benediction...Forests decay, harvests perish, flowers
vanish, but grass is immortal. It yields no fruit in earth or air, and yet should its harvest fail for a
single year, famine would depopulate the earth. Grass softens the rude outline of the world. Its
tenacious fibers hold the earth in its place. It invades the solitude of deserts, climbs the
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inaccessible slopes and forbidding pinnacles of mountains, modifies climates, and determines the
history, character, and destiny of nations.
-John James Ingalls
Some have speculated that without grass man would be just a beast of burden, the great
conquests of Attila, Genghis Khan, or Caesar would never have occurred, and wars would be
constant tribal feuding to avoid starvation.
Forages are plants or parts of plants eaten by livestock and wildlife and the variety of plants that
are eaten is amazing. It is helpful, therefore, to classify those plants into groupings. The major
group of forages are grasses (75%), but there are also legumes, forbs, shrubs, brassicas, and some
trees. Ten of the fifteen crops that keep mankind from starvation are grasses. There are around
10,000 species, though about 1400 are seen in the United States, covering almost half of the
nation. Only orchids and daisies have more species that grasses. There are grasses for almost
every temperature and precipitation range. Only lichens and algae extend to wider climate zones.
Because of the wide range of adaptation for many grasses, they are often introduced into new
areas. Many of the common grasses used today for forage in the U.S. are not native, and
scientists throughout the world work to breed grasses to thrive in varying places. Learning to
manage imported or new species is a part of current grassland management. Grasses are often
taken for granted but actually are the most important plant group.
Grasses belong to the Poaceae family which is also known as Gramineae. Grasses are usually
herbaceous which indicate that they produce a seed, do not develop woody tissue, and die down
at the end of a growing season. They are monocotyledonous which means one leaf sprouts from
the seed, and often have jointed, slender, sheathed leaves. A cotyledon is the first leaf to emerge
from a seed. Legumes are dicotyledons, meaning two leaves emerge from the soil surface.
Grasses can be large, like bamboo or corn, or small like annual bluegrass. Grass plants develop
fruit called grain which feed much of the world and yet have green leaves and stems not
digestible for humans that are the main food source for animals. Grasses can also be used for
building materials, medicines, and biomass fuels.
Differentiate warm-season from cool-season grasses.

About 2/3 of the world's land mass contains predominantly grasses but there are many species
and types. To better understand grasses, it is appropriate to begin to differentiate between warm-
season and cool-season grasses.
Although animals eat all year round, there is no "all season" plant to use as forage. Knowing that
some plants are C3 (cool season) and some plants are referred to as C 4 (warm season) is a basic
key to having quality forage all year long. But understanding the physiology (internal chemical
changes) of both can even further improve the management of forages.
The science:
C4 and C3 plants both utilize photosynthesis, which is a chemical process in which light energy
from the sun is captured and mixed with water and carbon dioxide to make sugars which are
used as food for chemical energy.
Carbon dioxide + water + sun light energy -------> sugars + water + oxygen
Chemically, 6 CO2 + 12 H2O + sun light energy -----> C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2
Sugars become energy. The water is used for cell function and the oxygen is plant waste.
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But C3 and C4 plants use different leaf anatomies to carry out photosynthesis. The differences are
reflected in how plants take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use the components for
plant functions. But it should be noted that photosynthesis is also influenced by solar radiation,
temperature, water stress, and mineral nutrition.
C3 plants
The science:
C3 plants are called temperate or cool season plants and reduce (fix) CO2 directly by the enzyme
ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase in the chloroplast. The reaction between CO 2 and ribulose
bisphophate, a phosphorylated 5-carbon sugar, forms two molecules of a 3-carbon acid. This 3-
carbon acid is called 3-phosphoglyceric acid and explains why the plants using this chemical
reaction are called C3 plants. The 3-phosphoglyceric acid molecules move out of the chloroplast
to the cytoplasm and are used to make hexose, sucrose and other compounds. The enzyme
ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase also triggers a reaction where oxygen splits ribulose
bisphophate into a 2-carbon acid and a 3-phosphoglyceric acid. The 2-carbon acid is respired to
carbon dioxide and basically a loss to plant function. 15-40% of the light energy taken into the
C3 plants is lost in this process called photorespiration. The percentage goes up in higher
temperatures, so C3 plants use more available oxygen in cooler environments.
The ramifications:
C3 plants have an optimum temperature range of 65-75 degrees F. Growth may begin when the
soil temperature is 40-45 degrees F. C3 plants become less efficient as the temperature increases
but have higher protein quantity. The lower temperatures in early spring also affect the existence
of other organisms so C3 need nitrogen in the spring because of low microbial action in the soil.
(Alfalfa, a legume, has a faster photosynthesis rate than most other C 3 plants. The protein content
of alfalfa leaves is very high and most of the protein is ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase.)
C3 plants can also be annual or perennial. Annual C 3 plants include wheat, rye, and oats.
Perennial C3 plants include orchardgrass, fescues, and perennial ryegrass. The degradation of C3
grasses in the rumen of an animal is often faster than C4 grasses because of the thin cell walls and
leaf tissue and they are therefore often of higher forage quality.
C4 plants
C4 plants are often called tropical or warm season plants and reduce carbon dioxide captured
during photosynthesis to useable components by first converting carbon dioxide to oxaloacetate,
a 4-carbon acid. This gives the reason for the plants being referred to as C 4 plants.
Photosynthesis then continues in much the same way as C 3 plants. But during this type of
photosynthesis, the process is very efficient and little oxygen is lost to the environment.
The ramifications:
C4 plants are more efficient at gathering carbon dioxide and utilizing nitrogen from the
atmosphere and recycled N in the soil. They also use less water to make dry matter. They grow
best at 90-95 degrees F. They begin to grow when the soil temperature is 60-65 degrees F.
Forage of C4 species is generally much lower in protein than C 3 plants, but the protein may be
more efficiently used by animals since a portion of the protein may bypass degradation in the
rumen where microbes would utilize some of the protein. Post-rumen degradation of protein
(bypass or escape protein) is an important part of ruminant nutrition and production. For more
information see ...C. Jerry Nelson p. 33 in Forage Text
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C4 plants can be annual or perennial. Annual C 4 plants include corn, sudangrass and pearlmillet.
Perennial C4 plants include big bluestem, indiangrass, bermudagrass, switchgrass, and Old World
Bluestems.
All of the information about warm and cool season plants provides a foundation to forage
management decisions. With this understanding, managers can know when they will have peak
pasture growth, what and when to plant supplemental crops, when to harvest, how to prepare the
fields for winter, and how and when plant regrowth can be best utilized.
Summarize the distinctive physical characteristics of grasses
The study of the physical features (external structure) of plants is referred to as morphology.
Morphology of grass plants is not just a biological pursuit but can aid in many everyday
decisions for the forage manager. Grasses, whether annual or perennial, are mostly herbaceous
(not woody), monocotyledon plants with jointed stems and sheathed leaves. They are usually
upright, cylindrical, with alternating leaves, anchored to the soil by roots. Grasses have leaves
(blades that narrow into a sheath), a stem (culm), a collar region (where leaves attach to the
stem), roots, tillers, and during the reproductive stage an inflorescence or seedhead develops.
Grasses may have rhizomes or stolons and the collar regions have differing variations of ligules,
auricles, and blades (laminas). Inflorescences of grasses also vary widely so during vegetative
stages, the collar and leaves help in proper identification and during reproductive stages the
inflorescence is very helpful.
Inflorescences are an arrangement of many spikelets composed of individual florets. Grasses

have three main inflorescence (seedhead) types: panicle, spike, and raceme.
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From a seed, primary (seminal) roots develop to nourish and anchor the seedling. Eventually
fibrous or adventitious roots develop from lower stem nodes. Some grasses have underground
stems called rhizomes which grow horizontally before pushing above ground to a new shoot.
Some grasses have stolons which are above ground, trailing stems that produce leaves, roots, and
flowering shoots from the nodes. Some grasses have both while some have neither.
Stems or culms are really a series of sections called internodes which are separated by nodes.
This is why grasses are referred to as jointed or as "joints" (during the proliferation of
marijuana). The internodes or sections are very close together near the stem and but lengthen or
stretch out as the plant matures. The internodes are most often hollow but a few grasses have
internodes of white pith, such as sorghum. The branching of leaves always occurs at the nodes
and develops from a bud that is between the leaf-sheath and the stem. When branching results
from nodes at the base of the plant it is called tillering (suckering, stooling).
All grasses have a distinctive collar region. Proper identification requires a look at this area
where the leaf blade wraps around the stem. If the leaf blade is pulled back, the collar region
reveals a unique combination of ligule, auricle, and meristemat tissue. Barnyardgrass has no
ligule or auricles. But other grasses will have a ligule (hairy or membraneous growth at the
blade-sheath junction). Ligules vary in size, shape, and type. Many grasses will also have
distinctive auricles (appendages that wrap the blade around the stem). The meristematic tissue
will appear whitish and is the area of leaf blade growth and expansion.
When learning about grasses, it is helpful to learn how certain physical characteristics can affect
other features. For example: meadow foxtail can be described as a cool-season, pasture grass.
But its physical trait of having few leaves means it would not make a great hay and even as
pasture, protein content may be a concern. Corn is a common warm-season grass but it is too tall
for a pasture. How high a grass can grow or other unpalatable features will enter into forage-
livestock decisions.
Whether a grass is an annual or perennial will determine many forage-related decisions. Annual
species usually have inflorescences on more stems. Annual species typically require annual re-
establishment costs and labor. This also may lead to erosion hazards. Most annuals grow during
the spring and summer but some grasses are winter annuals and when used carefully can add
flexibility to a grazing system. Wheat, annual ryegrass, and barley can extend the grazing
seasons and reduce winter feed costs. Perennials have inflorescences on some stems but also
produce vegetative tufts which will wait for two years or more to produce an inflorescence.
Perennials reduce the yearly cost and labor or reseeding but must be managed to thrive or may
not be as productive.
Each grass has its own list of environmental characteristics as well. The following traits should
be considered by forage managers: winter hardiness, drought tolerance, salinity tolerance, soil
pH tolerance, production potential, and livestock suitability.
Different grasses have different palatability, digestibility, and sometimes harmful effects on
certain livestock. Livestock do have preferences and will be choosy, so careful management is
necessary to ensure the best animal nutrition and pasture longevity and yield.
Understanding grass formation and structure can help managers wisely use the vast variety of
grasses available.
Describe how knowledge of grass regrowth is beneficial to

forage managers.
Grass has the amazing attribute of being able to produce tons of livestock feed then to be mowed
or grazed and grow greater quantities and better quality again and again. Some trees can be
pruned or trimmed and continue to grow and produce fruit but only after considerable time for
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rejuvenation. Ornamental flowers are clipped and expected to grow back next spring or summer,
but grass can be grazed or harvested repeatedly in a growing season. Grasses are tremendous
producers. But not all grasses react to defoliation in the same way, so grasses must be studied to
best utilize this outstanding feature.
A grass seed contains nutrients to help the plant begin to grow. In spring, soil temperature,
moisture, planting depth and seed vigor contribute to a seedling (cotyledon) emerging from the
seed. All grasses are hypogeal, which means the first leaf remains below the surface of the soil.
Also from the seed, a primary root called the radicle emerges. Additional roots soon develop
from the seed and are called seminal roots. These roots are crucial for the absorption of water
and nutrients but are short-lived. After the root growth is underway, the shoot (epicotyl) emerges
and grows towards the surface. At first, since the development is underground (hypogeal) and
since there is so little leaf material available to manufacture sunlight energy for growth, the plant
uses stored carbohydrate reserves within the seed. But quickly a tube containing leaves
(coleoptile) elongates toward the soil surface and emerges. It then stops growing, but leaves
within unfurl and begin utilizing the sunlight. Since the primary root and seminal roots are short-
lived, new roots (adventitious roots) develop if soil moisture is sufficient. With appropriate
temperatures, leaf production then proceeds rapidly. Within a week, buds at the bottom of
sheaths of lower leaves develop into new stems called tillers. Usually by the time three leaves
appear, one or two tillers are visible. For the first month or so, the plant is busy producing leaves
and tillers. This will continue until climatic conditions trigger the plant to focus on reproduction.
Then the plant will elongate and send up a flag leaf and then a peduncle which is a stem that will
support a reproductive inflorescence. The goal of forage production is to utilize grass growth
before the reproductive stage when stems thicken and quality and palatability decrease.
Managers must learn to use leaf material wisely and, if possible, postpone the reproductive stage.
It is interesting to learn that various grass species have specific patterns of leaf/tiller growth
patterns. For example: perennial ryegrass will produce three leaves and then a tiller. And leaf
formation will directly reflect a specific number of growing days when temperatures are
conducive for growth. It is wise to learn the specific growth pattern of the grass species you
produce.
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When a grass plant has been defoliated (grazed or mowed) and some leaf material remains, the
plant can continue growth because leaves will utilize sunshine and so photosynthesis continues.
If defoliation severely reduces the leaf material, stored carbohydrates must be used for new
growth because there is not enough leaf surface to support photosynthesis. The plant stops root
growth and other functions to focus on replacing leaf tissue. Managers need to encourage leaf
growth without using carbohydrate reserves and stopping root growth. This requires managing
defoliation so that enough leaf surface remains to continue the photosynthesis process.
Another way to address this same growth process is to look at the apical meristem. Grass plants
have a growing point called the apical meristem located in a bulge in the stem. It initiates new
leaf growth, supports new buds and develops cells of the nodes. All of these functions actually
determine the growth rate of a plant. This meristem remains close to the soil surface for quite a
while. When climatic conditions are right and the plant is of good size, the meristem develops
(differentiates) into a flower (inflorescence). Then it is pushed to the top of the plant, produces
seed and dies. The root system of a plant also dies when the inflorescence dies. But while the
meristem remains vegetative (not differentiated) and intact, the plant can be very productive in
leaf developement even after grazing or mowing. If the meristem is grazed or mowed, however,
new growth will cease. New growth can only continue from other sources like "daughter plants"
called tillers. Tillering can take two forms, a vertical growth pattern which results in grass
growing in bunches or horizontal growth resulting in grasses that form a sod or carpet. Bunch
grasses, like orchardgrass, big bluestem, and wheatgrasses, sometimes only produce a few tillers.
But sod-forming grasses, like Kentucky bluegrass, bermudagrass, and some bromegrasses, may
send many tillers out and away from the plant by either underground (rhizome) or above ground
(stolon) branches. Bunchgrasses allow for more competition from other plants by leaving open
soil, so legumes are often planted with them. Sod-forming grasses usually have abundant
terminal meristems and lots of leaf area close to the soil surface which results in better stability
when the grass is closely or frequently grazed or mowed. They also work better for areas of
heavy traffic.
As the growing season progresses, grass can be mowed or grazed and will continue to regrow as
long as the meristem remains intact. The meristems may be the growing point or the area where
the leaf blade wraps around the stem called the intercalary meristem. Growth is high-quality,
leafy forage resulting in high animal performance. When a plant is reproductive (after
differentiation of the growing point meristem), the palatability and digestibility of a grass plant is
lower than leafy vegetative grass plants. Unless the grower is interested in seed production,
forage plants are better feed when in the vegetative stage and repeated defoliation actually helps
maintain that.
Once defoliated, grass will grow back from several ways but there are variations in how that is
done. Grasses grow back because the base of the leaf blade, if not removed, expands and grows.
Or regrowth can come from new leaves, tillers and buds. Some plants also have corms, which are
carbohydrate reserves that look like bulbs near the surface of the soil.
Some grasses grow back in the same way they first grew. They are sometimes called jointed
grasses but that terminology is confusing because all grasses have jointed stems. Basically
"jointed grasses" grow back with the same leaf/tiller pattern and elongation of the stem during
the reproductive phase as was seen in initial, undisturbed growth. These grasses must be
managed carefully because the growing point can be elevated and become vulnerable to
defoliation. These grasses include timothy and bromegrasses. However, some grasses regrow
without the repeating the elongation of the stem for reproduction. These "nonjointed grasses" are
more tolerant of continued grazing because the growing point is not continually elevated and
therefore remains intact for future growth. Pastures with a mixture of grasses can be difficult to
manage when jointed grasses are growing with nonjointed grasses.
Another factor involved in regrowth is that all grasses produce some tillers that do not flower.
They are sterile tillers. Some grasses have many sterile tillers while others have a low percentage
of sterile tillers. The sterile, nonflowering tillers maintain a low growing point so are less
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vulnerable to defoliation. The growing point may affected by long periods of dry conditions and
long rests may cause the leaf blade base (intercalary meristems) to extend and be removed by
grazing or clipping. But, generally, grasses with many sterile tillers will respond well to intensive
grazing.
At the end of the growing season, a manager of grasses and legumes must consider when to mow
or graze for the last time before winter arrives. The grass plant needs enough reserved
carbohydrates to last the winter and begin new growth in the spring. A severe defoliation late in
the season will remove the site of late photosynthesis and the plant will utilize reserves for root
growth and plant functions and then will not have enough reserves for winter use and spring
regrowth.
Forage managers can produce much more forage and have forage stands persist much longer
when they understand how grasses grow and regrow. Though most grasses grow similarly in
initial growth and when left undisturbed, grass species vary in regrowth mechanisms. This is
crucial since the greatest benefit of forage is its ability to regrow many times in a growing
season.
Legumes:
Legumes are a valuable part of forage production.
Next to grasses, legumes are the prominent plant species used for forage. Legumes are plants of
the Leguminosae family that bear pods containing one or many seeds. The pods dehisce (split
open) along both sutures. Leguminous plants have roots that act as hosts for nodule-forming
bacteria of the genus Rhizobium. Legumes are a source of protein-rich food both as forage and
seed, they are useful as cover and green manure crops, improve soil structure, are self-reliant in
terms of acquiring nitrogen, and are known to improve the quality of pastures when seeded with
grasses. Currently millions of dollars and millions of gallons of oil and natural gas are used to
produce the nitrogen fertilizers for farm and home use. Agriculture that uses less petroleum-
based fertilizers is desirable. Legumes can help in that goal.
Alfalfa is the most common legume used for forage but the clovers and many other species are
part of the legume family. In studying legumes, look for their fruit in pods, like peas; their
colorful variety in inflorescence; additional leaf structures called stipules; and their well-
developed root systems. Legumes can be annual, biennial, or perennial and are dicotyledons,
which mean they emerge from the soil with two leaves. Grasses are annual or perennial, have
rather bland inflorescences in comparison and are monocotyledons.
Differentiate warm-season from cool-season legumes.

some plants are C3 (cool season) and some plants are referred to as C 4 (warm season) is a basic
key to having quality forage all year long. But understanding the physiology (internal chemical
changes) of both can even further improve the management of forages.
The science:
C4 and C3 plants both utilize photosynthesis which is a chemical process in which light energy
from the sun is captured and mixed with water and carbon dioxide to make sugars which are
used as food for chemical energy.
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Sunlight
Carbon dioxide (CO2) + water (H2O) -> carbohydrate (food) + oxygen (O2)
green plant material
Sugars become energy. The water is used for cell function and the Oxygen is plant waste.
plant functions. But it should be noted that photosynthesis also is influenced by solar radiation,
C3 plants
The science:
C3 plants are called temperate or cool season plants and reduce (fix) CO2 directly by the enzyme
ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase in the chloroplast. The reaction between CO 2 and ribulose
bisphophate, a phosphorylated 5-carbon sugar forms two molecules of a 3-carbon acid. This 3-
carbon acid is called 3-phosphoglyceric acid and explains why the plants using this chemical
reaction are called C3 plants. The 3-phosphoglyceric acid molecules move out of the chloroplast
to the cytoplasm and are used to make hexose, sucrose and other compounds. The enzyme
ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase also triggers a reaction where oxygen splits ribulose
The ramifications:
C3 plants have an optimum temperature range of 65-75 degrees F. Growth may begin when the
soil temperature is 40-45 degrees F. C3 plants become less efficient as the temperature increases
but have higher protein quantity. The lower temperatures in early spring also affect the existence
of other organisms so C3 need nitrogen in the spring because of low microbial action in the soil.
Alfalfa, a legume, has a faster photosynthesis rate than most other C3 plants. The protein content
of alfalfa leaves is very high and most of the protein is ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase.
C3 plants can also be annual or perennial. Annual C 3 legume plants include arrowleaf clover, ball
clover, berseem clover, vetches, and black medic. Perennial C3 legumes include alfalfa, alsike
clover, birdsfoot trefoil, and white clover. The degradation of C3 plants in the rumen of an animal
is often faster than C4 plants because of the thin cell walls and leaf tissue and they are therefore
often of higher forage quality.
C4 plants
photosynthesis, the process is very efficient and little oxygen is lost to the environment. Korean
and striate lespedeza are considered warm season but their photosynthesis systems are inefficient
C3 systems. Alyceclover, kudzu, cowpea, and perennial peanut are warm-season legumes.
The ramifications:
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C4 plants are more efficient at gathering carbon dioxide and utilizing nitrogen from the
atmosphere and recycled N in the soil. They also use less water to make dry matter. They grow
best at 90-95 degrees F. They begin to grow when the soil temperature is 60-65 degrees F.
Forage of C4 species is generally much lower in protein than C 3 plants but the protein may be
more efficiently used by animals.
C4 plants can be annual or perennial. Annual C4 legumes include alyceclover, cowpeas,

soybeans, velvetbeans, striate and korean lespedeza.
All of the information about warm and cool season plants provide foundation to forage
management decisions. With this understanding, managers can know what they will have during
peak pasture growth, what and when to plant supplemental crops, when to harvest, how to
prepare the fields for winter, and how and when plant regrowth can be best utilized.
Summarize the distinctive physical characteristics of

legumes.
The study of the physical features (external structure) of plants is referred to as morphology.
Morphology of legumes is not just a biological pursuit but can aid in many everyday decisions
for the forage manager. Legumes, whether annual, biennial, or perennial, are plants bearing pods
(containing one to many seeds) which dehisce (split open) along both dorsal and ventral sutures.
Legumes include alfalfa, trefoils, lupines, peas, vetches, kudzu, and lespedezas.
General Vocabulary
Inflorescence
Inflorescences are flower clusters. Legume inflorescences can be umbels (white

clover), spike-like racemes(alfalfa), or racemes (field pea). They are much more
showy and colorful than grass inflorescences and are very useful for
identification during the reproductive stage.
Fruit
Legumes form pods which contain one seed or many seeds. The pods vary in
size, color, and shape. They dehisce at both sutures which influences the
probability of shattering during harvesting.
Leaves
Legume leaf shapes are very different from grasses and have many variations.
Many clovers, alfalfa, and trefoils have three leaflets attached to a petiole making
one leaf (trifoliate) but some legumes are unifoliate. Vetches have a series of
alternating leaves. Legume leaves may be pinnate, meaning the central leaflet has
a longer petiolule (stem connecting leaflet to petiole) or palmate, meaning each
leaflet has the same length petiolule. Alfalfa and vetch leaves are pinnate, while
red clover, Korean lespedeza and lupine leaves are palmate.
Watermarks
Many legume leaflets have a distinctive whitish marking called a watermark.

Although climatic conditions may affect their appearance, they can prove helpful
to identification. The watermarks vary from thin crescents to wide "V" shapes.
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Stipules
Stipules are leaf structures located at the base of the leaf where it attaches to the
stem. Stipules or stipule scars where stipules once were are distinctive and can be
helpful in identification. Birdsfoot trefoil has such large stipules that the plant
looks as if it has five leaflets. Actually, it is trifoiliated with two large stipules.
Other legumes have smaller stipules with papery, veiny markings.
Stems
Stems of legumes show much more diversity than grass stems (culms). There can
be a wide variety of lengths, sizes, woodiness, and number of branches in
legumes. They do not have nodes, internodes, and collar regions so important to
grass identification. Although legume stems vary greatly, the leaf shapes,
appearance and shapes of watermarks, and inflorescences make identification of
legumes easier than that of grasses.
Seeds
Legume seeds are usually more round and opaque than grass seeds. They are
often hard and germination is sometimes difficult. Some common legume species
have seeds that are smaller than grass seeds and so must be carefully planted and
seeding rates will vary greatly.
In order to make the identification of legumes easier, we can start with four major categories:
medics, true clovers, vetches, and lupines.
Medics
The genus Medicago has over 50 annual and perennial species, about one half having been tested
or developed in agriculture. Although alfalfa is the most common, there are several other
important members of this group. The members of this species have three leaflets with a sharp
terminal tip with the midrib extending beyond the edge of the leaf margin (edge). The middle
leaflet has a longer petiolule than the side leaflets. The stipules tend to be serrated and the seed
pods are curved. The main medics are alfalfa, black medic, barrel medic, and a group called burr
clovers.
True Clovers
Although some medics and other species are called clovers, true clovers are those species of the
genus Trifolium, meaning three leaflets on each leaf. Although there are over 250 species, only
about ten are significant as forages. Many are prostrate in growth or weak stemmed which makes
them persistent to grazing. They have the three leaflets like medics but the middle leaflet midrib
does not extend beyond the edge of the leaflet and the petiolules are all the same length.
Trifolium stipules are not serrated as the medics and their seed pods are more likely to be
straight. The leaf shape, potential watermarks, stipules, and inflorescences make distiguishing
the trifoliums less difficult. The common trifoliums used as forage are: white, red, crimson,
subterranean, alsike, and berseem clover. Remember that burr and the sweet clovers are not true
clovers.
Vetches
The are about 150 species in the Vicia genus. Some are native to the U.S. but most are native to
the Mediterranean region. Vetches are viny annuals with stems attaining a length of 60-180 cm.
Their leaflets are pinnately arranged with tendrils at the terminal. Their racemes are colorful
(white-purple), and their seed pods are long and flattened. The seeds of vetches are oval, larger
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than most forage seeds, and often blackish. Vetches are used as green manure crops and since
they wind their viny stems around stalks, they are sometimes grown with grains.
Lupines
Of the 1200-1500 species of the Lupinus genus, only a few are appropriate as forage. Some are
bitter and potentially deadly to livestock due to their high alkaloid content. Learning to identify
lupines is helpful in order to select those suitable for animal intake. They are winter annuals with
an erect growth habit. Their stems are coarse, but the finger-like leaves make them easy to
distinguish. Leaves are palmate with five to nine leaflets, slender to obovate depending on the
species. Wild lupine species have pods that dehisce explosively, dispersing seeds widely.
Cultivated species are bred to be nonshattering. Learn to identify narrow leaf (blue) lupine, and
white lupine.
When learning about legumes, it is helpful to learn how certain physical characteristics can affect
management practices. For example: an prostrate-growing clover or vetch can be planted with
certain grasses so that the legume grows upward with the grass, making it easy to remove. This
has been successfully done with vetch grown among oats. The legume will help the soil and both
forage species can easily be harvested.
Other considerations
Whether a legume is an annual, biennial, or perennial will determine many forage-related

decisions. Annual species mean annual reestablishment costs and labor. This also may lead to
erosion hazards. Most annuals grow during the spring and summer but some legumes are winter
annuals and when used carefully can add flexibility to a grazing system. Summer annual legumes
can extend the grazing seasons and reduce winter feed costs. Perennials have inflorescences on
some stems but also produce vegetative tufts which will wait for two years or more to produce an
inflorescence. Perennials reduce the yearly cost and labor of reseeding but must be managed to
thrive or may not be as productive.
Each legume has its own list of environmental characteristics as well. The following traits should
be considered by forage managers: winter hardiness, drought tolerance, salinity tolerance, soil
pH tolerance, production potential, and livestock suitability. These traits are listed in variety
descriptions.
Different legumes have different palatability, digestibility, and sometimes harmful effects on
certain livestock. Livestock do have preferences and can be choosy so management is wise to
ensure the best animal nutrition, pasture longevity, and yield.
Understanding the physical characteristics of legumes can help managers wisely use the vast
variety of legumes available.
Define the utilization of legumes in forage-livestock systems.

The legume family is probably the third largest of the vascular plants. Orchid and grass families
are larger. However, economically, legumes are
second only to grasses in importance because of
their extensive use as forages. While only about
40 legumes are significant in forage production,
there are 12,000-18,000 species.
Although grass is the mainstay of livestock,

wildlife, and humans, legumes can provide high-
quality feed for each group. Forage legumes,
such as alfalfa, clovers, and trefoils are generally
13 Legume-grass mixture
of high quality, and their digestibility declines less rapidly as the plant matures than that of many
perennial grasses. Utilizing grasses when yield and quality are balanced is very important. Later
harvest or grazing will reap more yield but digestibility and palatability fall rapidly. Legumes
have a longer window for best utilization, so they fit well into a feed calendar. Legumes also
generally have higher levels of protein than grasses. But legumes require more management than
grasses because they are more sensitive to fertility and edaphic (soil) factors. Legumes and
grasses can be mixed together to take advantage of their strengths but since they have different
characteristics mixtures must be more carefully managed.
The basic premise of forage-livestock managers is to utilize their land so that it can produce
high-quality, high-yielding feed for as long as possible for the least amount of money or damage
to the environment. This principal portends less feed will need to be bought and brought to the
the farm if proper forage selection and management are practiced. Historically though, farmers
have not always seen the need to manage the forages for their livestock. Grain has been cheap
enough at times to allow farmers to overlook the sustainability of the plant-animal-soil
continuum on their own farms or ranches. But besides the financial considerations, forage-
livestock systems should consider the ways legumes interact in a sustainable environment. Like
grass, legumes give back to the environment and when properly managaed can provide many
additional benefits like natural self fertilization.
Grass has been more frequently utilized for conservation, environmental, and beautification
purposes. This is due, in part, to grass' extensive root systems. But legumes can be used for these
concerns. Many recreational facilities and conservaton efforts utilize white and subterranean
clovers. Landscapers often use legumes as ground covers so that the legumes will fix nitrogen
and renew the soil.
Forage managers must learn to utilize grasses and legumes for maximum quality and yield.
Management/Physiology:
Discuss the basics of grass growth.
Forages as a group are made up of many different types of plants, including grasses, legumes and
other forbs, and shrubs. Most forage species, however, are grasses. Understanding grass growth
is crucial information for a livestock manager. Grasses can be extremely productive when
managed properly because they will grow back throughout the season when defoliated (grazed or
mowed) properly. In fact, grasses will be healthier and more productive when defoliation occurs
at the right time and in the right way. To maximize grass growth and therefore yield, knowledge
of grass growth must be understood and appropriately applied.
The first step in understanding grass growth is an awareness of the different groups into which
grasses can be categorized. Grasses can have annual or perennial life cycles, tall or short statures,
jointed or non-jointed regrowth mechanisms, sod or bunch growth habits, warm or cool-season
responses to climates, and requirements or no requirements for vernalization.
Annual/perennial grass types
The labeling of plants as annuals, biennials, or perennials goes back to the early Greeks.
Annuals
Plants with annual life cycles complete their growth cycle in a single growing season (which is
not usually an entire year), and are perpetuated by seed. The major row crop plants of the world
are annuals; corn, rice, wheat, and barley.
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Biennials
Biennials are plants that take two seasons or years to complete their growth cycle. The first year
is a time for accumulating food reserves in storage organs. The second season produces
reproductive flowers and seed. Some of the root crops, such as beets, carrots, and parsnips, some
ornamental shrubs like hollyhock, and some vegetables like onions and cabbage are biennials.
There are no common biennial grasses.
Perennials
Perennials are plants that continue to grow indefinitely. Some may die back to the ground each
winter (herbaceous perennials), but revive from the roots in the next spring. They propagate by
tillers and seeds. Many of the forage grasses function in this way. Most perennial plants add new
growth each year as trees do. Some species, especially tropical forms like the tomato, are
perennials but are cultivated as annuals in certain climates. Some annuals can be managed to be
short-term perennials.
This general understanding of plant classifications will help grass managers to understand the
normal cycle of their grasses and help them make decisions on how to select forage species and
maximze their production.
The following lists include the major annual and perennial grasses:
 annuals: annual ryegrass, annual bluegrass, pearl millet, corn, and sorghum/sudangrass
 perennials: orchardgrass, tall fescue, perennial ryegrass, kentucky bluegrass, smooth
bromegrass, meadow foxtail, timothy, colonial bentgrass, bermudagrass, reed
canarygrass, wheatgrasses, big bluestem, switchgrass, and indiangrass.
Short/tall grass types
Grasses vary in size from very small species only 2-3 cm to giant bamboos measuring 30 m tall.
A few species even grow prostrate along the ground which is common in legumes but not so
common in grasses. Understanding the potential size and erectness of grasses can add to
successful decision making for forage managers.
Most references to grasses list grasses as tall or short and some grasslands are characterized as
tall or short-grass prairies, with some overlapping. The Great Plains region of North America is
known as one of the largest grassland areas in the world. It extends east to west from the
deciduous forests of the east to the foothills of the Rocky Mountatins. There is a west to east
gradient of increasing precipitation and, of course, a gradient of increasing temperature north to
south.
Some have divided the Great Plains into four prairie sections: tall grass, mixed grass, short grass,
and fescue. Thousand of years of grass growth and regrowth in the Great Plains resulted in
tremedously fertile soil which is now mostly used for crop production.
The tall grass prairie is mainly made up of warm-season grass species like big bluestem, little
bluestem, indiangrass, and switchgrass. These species thrive with higher precipitation.
Precipitation is a direct factor in tall grasses. Tall grasses are also often located near ditches,
riparian zones, and other areas where water collects. Tall grass prairies extend from Texas north
into Manitoba.
Short grass prairies are dominated by blue grama and buffalograss. The semiarid climate east of
the Rockies, from Texas to Saskatchewan supports these shorter grasses.
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The mixed grass prairies are transition grasslands containing a mixture of tall and short grasses.
This is a result of intermediate precipitation in Kansas up into Canada.
In the foothills of the Rocky Mountain range, the prairies consist of fescues and oatgrass.
The major tall-grass prairies of the Midwest and Great Plains were quite overwhelming to early
settlers. Tall-grass prairies have been described as oceans, and some found them too vast to
cross. After the American Revolution, settlers and pioneers waited almost 40 years (1840-1880)
before inheriting 700 million acres of bountiful prairies.
Without large numbers of domesticated animals and plows, the tall-grasses seemed too massive
to control. Pioneers felt more comfortable with trees and felt land that grew only grass was
inferior. They mistakenly reasoned that if there wasn't enough rain for trees, then there wouldn't
be enough rain for crops. They avoided the "Great American Desert". Some historians felt that
the Indians (Native Americans) of the prairies were more feared than Indians (Native Americans)
of the woodlands and this feeling contributed to the slow acquisition of the prairies.
Other practical factors entered into the matter: few navigable rivers, the different prairie soil did
not respond to the plows available, few railroads extended into the prairie, settlers often did not
own enough horses and mules, few available trees for building homes, fences, tools and fuel. So,
much of the tall-grass prairies was given away. Without understanding the needs and growth
habits of grass, the immense prairies were almost destroyed within 50 years. By the time of the
Dust Bowl the prairies were in grave danger.
Tall grasses are those that grow erectly over 3-4 feet high and include switchgrass, big and little
bluestem, and Indiangrass. Their stature must be supported by adequate precipitation.
The short grasses are blue grama, buffalograss, annual bluegrass, and western wheatgrass. Most
of the common forage grasses, perennial and annual ryegrass, orchardgrass, bermudagrass,
kentucky bluegrass, and tall fescue are erect but not considered tall grasses.
Sod/bunchgrass types
Sod-forming grasses have strong, creeping rhizomes that extend through the soil or have stolons
that grow above ground, producing new plants when they root at the nodes. This type of growth
that extends out into the soil is called extravaginal growth. New plants (shoots) develop either
from buds (encasings) in crown tissue or from apical meristem at the tips of rhizomes and/or
stolons.
The Bromus and Agropyron species are sod grasses, sometimes called "sod formers."
Bermudagrass, creeping bentgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and St. Augustine grass are sod grasses.
Tall fescue has lower, lateral growth but is not aggressive. Creeping foxtail and smooth
bromegrass are very aggressive and need careful management to not become pests.
Bunchgrasses grow from intravaginal tillering at or near the soil surface without rhizomes or
stolons. New plants (shoots) arise from buds within basal sheath tissue and grow up from within
the plant forming distinct clumps or tufts of vegetation. Bunchgrasses can eventually cover a
pasture with a good stand but sod grasses can do so much more quickly. While empty space
exists between bunchgrasses the opportunity for weed infestation is greater. Bunchgrasses can be
more productive than sod-formers because they are putting all their energies into above ground
structures which can be utilized. Sod formers have structures at ground level and below.
The following lists designate the sod-forming or bunchgrass growth habits of the common forage
grasses.
 Sod-forming grasses: kentucky bluegrass, creeping foxtail, colonial bentgrass,

bermudagrass, quackgrass, rough bluegrass, annual bluegrass, and redtop.
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 Bunchgrasses: perennial ryegrass, annual ryegrass, timothy, orchardgrass, meadow
foxtail, and tall fescue.
Warm/cool season grass types

Understanding warm-season (C4) and cool-season(C3) plants.
some plants are C3 (cool season, temperate) and some plants are referred to as C 4 (warm season,
tropical) is a basic key to having quality forage all year long. But understanding the physiology
(internal chemical changes) of both can even further improve the management of forages.
The science: C4 and C3 plants both utilize photosynthesis which is a chemical process in which
light energy from the sun is captured and mixed with water and carbon dioxide to make sugars
which are used as food for chemical energy.
Carbon dioxide + water + sun light energy -------> sugars + water + oxygen
6 CO2 + 12 H2O -------> C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2
plant functions. But it should be noted that photosynthesis also is influenced by solar radiation,
C3 plants (cool season)
The science: C3 plants are called temperate or cool season plants and reduce (fix) CO 2 directly by
the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase in the chloroplast. The reaction between CO 2 and
ribulose bisphophate, a phosphorylated 5-carbon sugar, forms two molecules of a 3-carbon acid.
This 3-carbon acid is called 3-phosphoglyceric acid and explains why the plants using this
chemical reaction are called C3 plants. The 3-phosphoglycieric acid molecules move out of the
chloroplast to the cytoplasm and are used to make hexose, sucrose and other compounds. The
enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase also triggers a reaction where oxygen splits ribulose
The ramifications: C3 plants have an optimum temperature range of 65-75 degrees F. Growth
may begin when the soil temperature is 40-45 degrees F. C 3 plants become less efficient as the
temperature increases but have higher protein quantity. The lower temperatures in early spring
also affect the existence of other organisms so C 3 need nitrogen in the spring because of low
microbial action in the soil.
Cool-season grasses are productive in the spring and fall because of the cooler temperatures
during the day and night, shorter photo period, often higher soil moisture. During the summer,
growth is reduced and dormancy is induced by high temperatures and low precipitation.
However, when temperatures drop and moisture is more available growth resumes, so fall is a
productive time. There is some evidence to show that warm- and cool-season grasses form
seedheads differently. Cool-season grasses may require short days and/or low temperatures in the
fall or early spring (a vernalization period) before the seedhead develops from the meristem
(growing point). There also seems to be need for a tiller (shoot, new plant) to reach a certain size
before vernalization can commence. Timothy does not require this vernalization.
(Alfalfa has a faster photosynthesis rate than most other C 3 plants. The protein content of alfalfa
leaves is very high and most of the protein is rubulose bisphosphatate carboxylase.)
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C3 plants can also be annual or perennial. Annual C 3 plants include wheat, rye, and oats.
Perennial C3 plants include orchardgrass, fescues, and perennial ryegrass. The degradation of C 3
grasses in the rumen of an animal is often faster than C4 grasses because of the thin cell walls and
leaf tissue and are therefore often of higher forage quality.
C4 plants (warm season)
photosynthesis, but the process is very efficient and little oxygen is lost to the environment.
The ramifications: C4 plants are more efficient at gathering carbon dioxide and utilizing nitrogen
from the atmosphere and recycled N in the soil. They also use less water to make dry matter.
They grow best at 90-95 degrees F. They begin to grow when the soil temperature is 60-65
degrees F. Forage of C4 species is generally much lower in protein than C3 plants but the protein
is more efficiently used by animals. (WHY?) Warm-season grasses are specifically triggered by
daylengths so latitudes should be considered in selecting warm-season grass species. They are
most productive during the warmer summer months. Often, cool-season and warm-season are
both used to provide forage throughout much of the year.
C4 plants can be annual or perennial. Annual C 4 plants include corn, Sudangrass and Pearlmillet.
Perennial C4 plants include Big Bluestem, Indiangrass, Bermudagrass, Switchgrass, and Old
World Bluestems.
Jointing/nonjointing grass types
Although grasses are often defined as mostly herbaceous, monocotyledons with jointed stems,
there are references to grasses being jointed or nonjointed. This distinction has definite
implications in grass growth/regrowth management. Grass plants emerge from the soil as small
seedlings but within the tiny structure are many nodes (masses of tissue) that will eventually be
pushed upward. The nodes appear as bulges or joints in the grass stem (culm). As the plant
grows climatic conditions induce the space between the nodes, called the internodes, to grow and
extend, elongating the plant. This growth characteristic is what is referred to as "jointed" when
grasses are defined as mostly herbaceous, jointed monocotyledons. All grasses go through this
process from germination to maturity, but some grasses, such as annual ryegrass, timothy, and
smooth brome, repeat this process after the seed head has been removed. These plants have
jointed stems (culms) in the second (aftermath) growth. Other grass species, like perennial
ryegrass, orchardgrass, and tall fescue do not.
In addition to having a regrowth that again elevates the growing point by elongating the
internodes, it is important to realize that grasses differ in their proclivity to produce mainly
reproductive culms (stems) or vegetative culms. In any given plot of grass plants, not all plants
and/or their tillers will produce a reproductive seedhead. A percentage of plants/tillers will be
sterile and remain vegetative. Some species characteristically have a high percentage of floral
tillers compared to vegetative tillers. Bromegrass produces many reproductive (floral) culms and
few sterile or vegetative tillers. They are, therefore, more sensitive to poor management because
the abundant floral tillers have elevated growing points that are vulnerable to grazing or mowing.
Species that have many sterile tillers will have many growing points remaining low in the plant
and therefore will not be removed easily by grazing. Grasses like bromegrass have quickly
disappeared from pastures when managers did not realize bromegrass has mostly floral tillers
and that the growing point is elevated in each regrowth. Grazing often removed the growing
point.
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Vernalization requiring/vernalization not required grass types
Successful pasture management requires an understanding of physiological (internal chemical)

and morphological (external structural) stages of plant development. Each stage is linked in
some manner to forage quantity, quality, and plant survival. Wise managers should learn to spot
the obvious and more subtle structural changes in order to predict what is happening inside the
plant. This monitoring provides the basis for good management decisions. It allows a manager to
know when to graze or mow in order to ensure prompt competitive regrowth and persistence of
the forage plants.
One of the physiological characteristics of grasses that is important to understanding grass

growth is vernalization. Some grass species, like perennial ryegrass, will hasten the development
of flowers and fruit (seedhead and seeds) if they experience a period of cold weather.
Some of the morphological changes in grass plants need to be understood for proper
management. Growth stages of major interest are listed below along with brief management
implications.
Stages
Within a seed, when conditions are right to begin germination, specific cells within the germ
tissue divide and expand, pushing the apical meristem contained in the seed out of the seed. A
tube-like organ called the coleoptile protects the first leaf blade while pushing through the soil,
eventually breaking through the crust of the soil. Then the first leaf unfurls.
A node (joint) at the base of the coleoptile is also pushed up towards to the soil crust within a
few centimeters of the soil surface by the elongation of an internode called the mesocotyl. The
node that is pushed upward becomes the crown tissue from which roots and additional tillers
arise.
Shortly after the coleoptile breaks through the soil crust, the first leaf unfurls. Additional leaves
will quickly develop if conditions are right.
1. Seedling: the grass plant has just emerged from the soil as a monocotyledon (one leaf-
type structure). Legumes emerge with two leaf-like structures. Grass leaves may whorl
and erect a "false stem", but the true stem (culm) has not yet formed. Although relatively
insensitive to management because the tissues involved in growth are nestled low and
deep, enough leaf must be maintained to conduct photosynthesis for rapid growth,
regrowth and root system development.
2. Vegetative: leaves continue to develop, emerge, unfurl, and die (senescence). The main
function of the plant is photosynthesis. This stage of development yields the best
livestock feed and managers should maintain this stage for as long as possible. However,
climatic conditions will induce the next stage, sometimes called jointing, but it would
more accurately be called internode elongation.
3. Jointing: the stage of grass development during which internodes commence elongation
producing a true stem (culm). This elongation is preparation for seed development. The
stem is producing a peduncle that will anchor the seedhead. The elongation elevates the
growing point (shoot primordium including the rudimentary seed head) to a vulnerable
height. Close grazing or low mowing at early jointing stage should be avoided because
the elevated growing point could be removed and alternative (below-ground) regrowth
mechanisms are not ready to function. However, removing the growing point in late
jointing stage can be advantageous for some grasses because it stops the plant from
spending so much energy on seedhead production so the plant redirects its energies to
carbohydrate reserves.
4. Anthesis: the flowering stage during which the flowers open and shed their pollen.
Grasses have perfect (sexually mature and fully differentiated) flowers and many are self
pollinating. In this stage, the flowers are formed and the anthers are shedding pollen. The
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grass's work to produce the flower has resulted in decline of other functions, such as leaf
production. The stem (culm) is more fibrous and plant palatability and digestibility
declines. The grass plant is ready for harvesting seed at this stage (and before) but is not
desirable for livestock feed.
Describe the impact of defoliation on grass plants.
Defoliation is the premature removal of grass parts, usually leaves, by cutting or grazing. Cutting
grass by mowing is usually a clean, uniform cut. Grazing animals are selective and do not
defoliate plants uniformly or evenly. Each species of livestock interacts differently within the
plant-animal-soil continuum because of the different mouth structures (tongue, teeth, lips, dental
pads) and different chewing habits of animals.
The impact of defoliation can be positive or negative and proper management will direct
defoliation results to be positive. Defoliation that yields positive results considers how severe the
defoliation is, how often defoliation occurs, and how much time takes place between defoliation.
Proper management for defoliation will produce many benefits. Just as irrigation, fertilization,
and harvesting can all be done wisely or foolishly, defoliation practices must be skillful.
For maximum production, a forage plant must be able to regrow or continue to grow. Defoliation
management means removing plant material so that the growth meristems needed for various
plant functions are left intact. Massive leaf defoliation removes the opportunity for
photosynthesis and most plant functions decline. Of course, as the plant approaches its dormancy
because of climate changes, production will decline. As the growing season ends, proper
defoliation practices will allow the plant to produce tillers and build up carbohydrate reserves to
survive the dormancy and initiate regrowth in the next season.
Since mowing can be done too low and is very uniform, poor mowing management results in
devastating damage. The basic warning for successful mowing management is to know where
the growing point is and retain the growing point. Encourage a vegetative stage for as long as
possible. This is easier said than done since different grasses have different growing point
structures and growth requirements. So forage managers must get to know their forage plants
well.
Discuss how grasses regrow.

Voisin (1959) aptly stated that "A pasture plant must be capable of growing again after it has
been cut either by a tooth of the animal or by the blade of the mower." Proper harvest
management, matching timing and intensity of defoliation with the plant's readiness to regrow,
affects both the yield and quality of harvestable forage.
Growth, as well as regrowth following defoliation, depends upon cell division and cell
expansion. Cell division and growth areas are called meristem systems or formative tissue. In as
much as these meristems are the sole mechanisms for regrowth, their location and specific
function merit close attention in forage grass management. Unfavorable consequences result
when these meristem systems are destroyed. The three main tissues involved in growth and
regrowth are: apical meristems, intercalary meristem in leaf bases, tillers (also called shoots),
rhizomes, stolons, and buds.
 Apical meristem: contains cells which eventually produce leaves, stems, and floral
structures. An apical meristem is also called a shoot apex, shoot primordium, or growing
point.
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 Leaves: are comprised of two separate organs, the sheath and the blade. The sheath is the
part of the leaf that wraps around the stem. The blade of a leaf arches away from the
stem. A narrow band of intercalary meristem is found in the basal zone of both the sheath
and the blade. This meristem accounts for the increasing length of the sheath and blade.
The narrow band of meristem at the base of the blade is designated as the collar.
 Tillers: are cylindrical bundles of relatively immature leaf blades enclosed by mature leaf
sheaths. The apical meristem cells in the base of the tillers develop leaves.
 Basal buds: are capable of developing new tillers and will do so when the apical
meristem is removed. Grasses can develop new tillers from basal buds on stem bases,
rhizomes, or stolons.
Within a seed, when conditions are right to begin germination, specific cells within the
germ tissue divide and expand, pushing the apical meristem contained in the seed out of
the seed. A tube-like organ called the coleoptile protects the first leaf blade by pushing
through the soil eventually breaking through the crust of the soil. Then the first leaf
unfurls. Many will follow.
A node at the base of the coleoptile is also pushed up towards within a few centimeters of
the soil surface by the elongation of an internode called the mesocotyl. The node that is
pushed upward becomes the crown tissue from which roots and additional tillers arise.
Seedling roots develop through branching into an efficient seminal (seed) root system
capable of supplying water and inorganic nutrients. Later, an adventitious root system
forms.
A crown of a grass plant is where the stem projects upward and the roots extend below
and serve as a base for the plant's growth. The crown is actually a contracted stem with its
nodes stacked closely on each other. These nodes will be pushed upward with internodes
between nodes as the stem elongates. The crown is the organ that produces leaves, roots,
tillers, and elongated stems. It is also a storage organ for carbohydrates which fuel new
plant parts.
People think of stems as growing upright but grasses have stems that can also grow
horizontally. Rhizomes and stolons are elongated and horizontal stems. They emerge or
branch outward which is called extravaginal branching. Bunchgrasses have extravaginal
branching growth.
Grasses can tolerate defoliation because during their vegetative phase, leaves continue to
form after defoliation. During the vegetative phase almost all cells capable of dividing
into new cells (meristem) remain at or near the surface of the ground although each new
leaf forms higher on the stem than the previous leaf. They are too low for mowing blades
and biting teeth of grazing animals until stems elongate, pushing the meristem cells
upward. This growth is fueled by storage reserves and other leaves.
Discuss how livestock interaction impacts grass growth.

Beside the obvious but complicated impact of being partially severed, livestock also impact grass
growth and regrowth by trampling, fouling, selecting or rejecting certain plants and pugging the
soil. All these interactions should be considered in determining forage yield and efficient
management.
Grasses and other types of forage are consumed by all classes of domestic animals and many
classes of wildlife although the various animals do not consume grasses in the same way or in
the same amount. Dog foods contain some grains; poultry rations contain some grain to supply
vitamins, minerals, and proteins; swine consume some grasses but horses, goats, sheep, and dairy
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and beef cattle may get all their feed from forage. The differences in how much and what is
consumed result from the different digestive systems and abilities to handle food containing
celluloses and lignins. Horses, cattle, and sheep have advantages for utilization of forages over
single-stomach animals. It is also important to look at how different animals chew their food and
interact with a pasture to really understand how to best utilize the growth and regrowth of
grasses. It is beneficial to look at the the chewing habits of the main forage livestock, as well as
the effects of trampling of grass plants by livestock, and the effects of pasture pugging and
fouling by urine and manure.
When cows eat grass, their tongue sweeps out in an arc, wraps around the plant parts, then pulls
them between the teeth on the lower jaw and a pad on the upper jaw. The cow swings its head so
its teeth can sever the grass. It then grinds the food and mixes it with saliva before swallowing.
The lips, teeth, and jaws of a cow make it difficult to get closer than 2 inches from the soil. They
eat most efficiently when the grass is about 6 inches tall. At that height, cows can snip the grass
and don't have to pull it into their mouths. This allows them to concentrate on arranging the feed
into a bolus for swallowing. Any time the feed is longer or shorter than about 6 inches, cows
have to work harder for each mouthful of food. When eating efficiently, cows can take about 80
bites a minute, 8 hours a day with about 12 hours for rumination. That often adds up to more
than 130 pounds of food each day. Cows will not work overtime to eat more food...even if they
have very little grass to eat. Pasture height, quality, and density should be considered.
Sheep do not extend their tongues. Rather their split lips move away from the teeth on the lower
jaw, bringing in feed and cutting it across a dental pad on the upper jaw. Sheep take smaller bites
than cows and can be more selective. They also can sever plants closer to the ground.
Horses have teeth on the upper and lower jaws. A set of incisors are in the front of the mouth for
biting and severing and a set of molars used for grinding are in the back. A horse's bit fits
between the two sets of teeth. Horses have a short tongue and a sensitive, strong, upper lip that
brings in food for the front incisors to bite. Horses are selective grazers, yet spend less time
eating than cows or sheep. Of course, weight gain, milk or wool production are not desired.
These main livestock types are basically grazers, eating grasses, legumes, and other leafy plants.
Goats are browsers, consuming woodier plants. Goats have a pad on the upper jaw like sheep and
cows but their upper lips are very mobile and their tongues are great for selecting and grabbing.
Trampling: To a young grass seedling the size and grazing habits of the livestock on a pasture
can mean total destruction. Every pasture will experience the loss of plant material because the
plants could not survive the traffic of livestock. Certain species are more sensitive to trampling
and the stage of maturity also influences the effect of heavy traffic. The size of the livestock also
enters into the picture. Trampling, or treading as it is termed in some references, damages
pastures of all soil types, soil moisture levels, plant species, or livestock species. Forage yields
are reduced most when animals are allowed to graze plants on wet soils. Trampling is more
adverse on clay soils than sandy. Shorter forage bears more damage than tall forages, and
trampling promotes more prostrate than erect growth. And, of course, trampling packs the soil
which reduces the moisture infiltration into the soil.
The above generalities can lead a manager to consider what species will best tolerate livestock
traffic. Then grass growth and regrowth concepts can be applied to the specific grazing system.
Perennial ryegrass and white clover mixtures are more tolerant of trampling than orchardgrass or
red clover.
Pugging: The weight of livestock animals has its impact on the soil and the feed growing in that
soil. The indentations of the animals' hooves into soil, especially damp or wet soil are called
pugs. A field is dramatically altered by pugging. The pug holes are areas where seedlings and
regrowth have been smashed backed underground. Also buried are weed seeds that benefit from
the planting. A pasture loses production of the pugged area.
22
Fouling: The urine and manure recycled into the soil has many benefits but this recycling is
random and, therefore, has different effects on the different plants within the field. The growth
and regrowth of plants is directly influenced by fertilization. Some plants will receive too much
urine or manure while others are not directly treated with one or either.
Cattle defecate 11-12 times daily and urinated 8-11 times daily, with more dung being excreted
at night than during the day. But dung pats cover less than 0.9 m 2 and urine patches 0.3 to 0.4 m2.
Many have learned that excreta is beneficial to a pasture but a small percentage of the acreage is
affected especially since excreta is often concentrated near water or salt sources and shade spots.
(The problem is worse at low stocking rates than at high stocking rates on intensively managed
pastures.) Only 10-15% of a pasture benefits from excrement. Urine deposits will provide
concentrated N and K which stimulate grass growth. But the utilization of the possible N and K
from the urine is influenced by moisture and temperature. Much of the nutrients are lost through
leaching and volatilization (vaporization). Dung, however, provides P, Ca, and Mg and is often
buried into the soil within 4-5 days by dung beetles. Without the beetles, dung deposits may
remain for 3-12 months in the tropics. Livestock will quickly graze urine spots but will avoid the
odor of dung deposits and eventually the less palatable grass plants that have matured there.
Although most of the pasture is not greatly affected by excrement, managers can use this
knowledge in determining traffic lanes, water locations, salt availability, day/night paddocks, and
fertilizer needs.
Discuss grass growth in mixed stands.

Understanding the growth/regrowth habits of an individual grass easily translates into
management decisions. However, when different grasses or grass/legume combinations are
growing together, which may result from planning or from weed infestation, the management
decisions require more strategy.
Advantages of Mixtures
The advantages of mixing a grass and a legume center around utilizing the best qualities of each.
A mix may
 extend the growing season of a pasture,

 improve the quality of forage,
 reduce nitrogen fertilizer requirements because of the legume's nitrogen fixation
capacities,
 prove more adaptable for a wider range of conditions,
 improve flexibility to survive environmental conditions,
 and reduce susceptibility to insect and disease attacks.
23
Here is a graph depicting a probable pasture production for perennial ryegrass in the northern
hemisphere. As you can see, there are times when other feed will be needed. Utilizing another
grass or legume that flourishes during the less productive periods for perennial ryegrass extends
the season of production and maintains the quality of feed.
If hay or silage making is the goal, the thoughts of using mixtures should consider those species
that can be harvested at the same time.
Mixtures can improve the feed quality. Legumes have a higher protein content than grasses.
Growing animals have a high protein requirement that can be met to a large degree by adequate
legumes in the forage mix. Furthermore, the palatability and digestibility may also be improved.
Although planting a legume with a grass does not mean all nitrogen fertilizer needs will be met,
grasses can eventually benefit from being planted in soil where legumes fixed atmospheric
nitrogen.
A mixture of species in a pasture can adapt to a wider range of conditions. Some species tolerate
wet conditions, some dry, some acid, and some alkaline or sodic soils. Mixtures provide some
insurance to unexpected conditions or a variety of conditions which may occur in a single
pasture.
A rule for mixtures is "remember simplicity". A large number of species in a mixture, sometimes
called a "shotgun" mixture, should be avoided. Often a single grass and a single legume will best
provide the benefits intended.
Discuss the practical applications of regrowth mechanisms.
24
1. A sod farmer in the Chicago area had a large acreage of Merion bluegrass to be sold as sod.
The seed was contaminated with smooth bromegrass; hence the sod could not be certified. The
owner asked for a mowing schedule which would destroy the brome but save the bluegrass.
2. Most of the grass that remained after the "Dust Bowl" of the 30's was buffalo grass and blue
grama. The bluestems, Indiangrass, stipa species and side-oats grama disappeared. Why?
3. Orchardgrass is well fertilized and irrigated. After being harvested with a low set cutter bar, in
August after a 7 weeks recovery growth, there was a complete loss of orchardgrass. Orchardgrass
harvested with a higher cutter bar on the same date with 3-5 weeks recovery showed no stand
reduction. Explain the management implications.
4. A large number of orchardgrass clones are planted 30" apart in 30" spaced rows. The clones
measured 12" in diameter. All are mowed in the same manner: moving in an easterly direction
such that shoots leaning toward the mower (west side of the clone) would be cut lower than those
on the opposite side. Two weeks later, shoots in the west side of all the clones were completely
dessicated, as were those in the center of the clone. However, shoots on the perimeter of the east
side were normal, with about 6 inches of recovery growth. What factors are in play in this
situation?
Grass Growth and Regrowth for Improved Management

Defoliation
How grass grows is only part of the secret to better management. Grasses can be most productive
when clipped by mowers or bitten by animals. The word defoliation comes from "folium," Latin
for leaves. So the word itself is a great reminder that leaves are the primary target when
harvesting grass. And the term defoliation assumes those leaves will be removed prematurely
(not as a result of death).
Defoliation can be productive or destructive. There are several areas where plants grow (roots,
leaves, culm, rhizomes, stolons, and crown). But regrowth from the leaves is most important for
efficient regrowth after defoliation. For optimal regrowth following defoliation there must be cell
division and expansion in certain meristem systems. Knowledge about the location and specific
function of these meristems is critical for successful forage management.
Meristem systems
1. Apical meristem: the apex (primordium, growing point) of a shoot or tiller eventually
produces leaves, stems, and seed heads.
2. Intercalary meristem: located where a leaf blade (lamina) joins the sheath, represents the collar
of a grass plant. The intercalary meristem accounts for the increasing length of leaves and
sheaths.
3. Shoot or tiller: a cylindrical bundle of relatively immature leaf blades enclosed by sheaths or
more mature leaves. Leaves are formed from successive layers of cells in the apical meristem.
4. Basal buds: shoot initials in crown tissues which develop into new tillers (recovery growth)
when defoliation destroys the growing point of the "mother" shoot.
Successful regrowth after defoliation will depend on productive meristem systems.
25
Grazing
Grazing affects grass growth/regrowth differently

than mowing. Mowing can often cut too low and
completely, but can be used wisely to encourage
certain regrowth mechanisms. Grazing livestock are
more selective. They don't defoliate as low or
completely, and are players in the plant-soil-animal
continuum. Each animal species interacts
differently with plants and each plant species
responds differently to the grazing habits of the
animal. Careful attention to this interaction will
help forage-livestock producers be more successful.
Plant-animal interaction will be presented with a
discussion on defoliaton and some general keys to
grazing management.
The net effect of defoliation can be either

detrimental or beneficial. Often discussed is the
severity of defoliation, characterized by grazing
height, frequency, duration and rest interval, but the
critical issue is: "What growing points must remain for productive regrowth?"
Proper defoliation can increase total production. If a grass is allowed to head out and only
harvested once at the end of the growing season as is done with grain crops, the total yield will
be much less and quality will be lower than if it is harvested several times during the growing
season. If harvesting considers plant requirements (i.e. water, fertilizer, height of cutting,
frequency, etc.) the forage is maintained in an active growing and tillering phase longer than if
allowed to mature naturally. As long as the plant is vigorous and an active growing point
remains, forage production can continue. Forage production will decline as the plant nears fall
dormancy. Consequently, the goal of grazing management is to maintain the meristems in an
active growth phase under the most suitable conditions for as long as possible and then provide
conditions for retillering and/or carbohydrate storage.
The degree of defoliation during the growing season should be designed to allow enough leaf
area to remain to provide carbohydrates for regrowth rather than using stored carbohydrates.
Previously, defoliation during the early stages of growth was thought to be most detrimental
because root carbohydrate reserves are lowest at that point and regrowth required a major draw
of carbohydrates. However, vigorous plants have a great capacity to replenish carbohydrate
reserves during the season of peak growth. Consequently, severe defoliation during the late part
of the growing season is more detrimental than early season defoliation followed by rest. Late in
the season environmental conditions do not favor the rapid growth observed in early season.
Energy reserves increase in crowns during the latter part of the growing season and buds for next
year's tillers develop. Consequently, severe defoliation near the end of the growing season will
reduce the production of crown tissue and cause a decline in forage production the following
year.
Generally, plants are not capable of supporting rapid growth in their shoots and roots
simultaneously for an extended period of time. If pastures are grazed severely, root growth stops
and roots may die. If overgrazing continues, the grass has little leaf area to carry on
photosynthesis so the plant is low in energy. Leaf growth has first call on carbohydrates from
photosynthesis so there is no downward movement of carbohydrates for root growth. Roots then
die and the plant has only enough energy to maintain a shallow root system. The result is a
pasture that is much more susceptible to stress conditions such as dry weather and weed
infestation. Even if plants stay alive, there may be enough open ground for weeds to establish if
they have little competition for light. This whole process accelerates as unfavorable conditions
26
increase. The pasture begins to deteriorate as desirable pasture plants are replaced by plants that
are of low palatability and avoided by livestock or require less in regrowth.
The grazing animal can be used to alter pasture composition. Coordinating the natural selectivity
of livestock with the period of active growth of undesirable species is a very useful management
tool. Many times shifts in species composition are the result of mismanagement. However,
knowledge of plant growth and animal behavior enables the producer to cause a desired shift
rather than be a victim of an undesirable shift. For example, if a cool-season grass is invading a
warm-season pasture, the cause could be heavy grazing in the summer with little or no spring or
fall grazing. This grazing management scheme would favor cool-season grasses and harm warm-
season grasses. A possible alternative that would shift the species composition back towards
warm-season dominance would be intensive grazing in the spring and fall and non-use or limited
use during the summer for a year or two. Legumes and grasses can be kept in good balance when
grazing management is designed with the growth and regrowth of each in mind.
A livestock producer must visit his pastures frequently, to not only check the livestock, but also
to check on the grasses. Anticipate what is happening with the grasses and correct any potential
problem before it is apparent in reduced livestock performance.
Keys To Successful Grazing ManagementPerennial forages are a renewable resource. They

don't require planting every year and grow with predictable annual cycles. With the basic
understanding of how grasses grow, knowledgeable adjustments in grazing systems can enhance
grass growth. Here are some key points:
1. Bud and carbohydrate management: Buds are formed during the season prior to winter
dormancy. Carbohydrates are stored late in the growing season. Consequently, fall
management is a critical period and adequate time should be provided after grazing and
before dormancy for carbohydrate accumulation and bud development to ensure an over-
wintering reservoir.
2. Remaining leaf area management: Adequate remaining leaf area (residual dry matter)
will minimize plant dependency on carbohydrate reserves. This will insure continued root
growth and carbohydrate storage for winter. Remaining leaf material also enhances the
microclimate for growth during the growing season and improves rain interception,
insulation, and snow capture.
3. Defoliation: Optimum grazing management avoids repeated, severe defoliation of a tiller
without a recovery period (planned non-use). This recovery period is often call a "rest"
but that gives an impression of little growth occurring. In reality, the grass is productively
preparing for more growth. Fresh growth is highly palatable and livestock will graze
selectively. Therefore, the duration of livestock occupation must be controlled to
optimize plant and animal production. Repeated severe defoliation of desirable plants or
areas in pastures can be reduced by decreasing stocking density and reducing the duration
of grazing.
4. Tiller management: Since grasses are more productive with defoliation, timely canopy
removal can be used to stimulate tillering (regrowth). This will be dependent on the
species, environment, and previous management.
5. Livestock nutritional needs: To optimize animal performance (gain/head) and pasture
production (gain/acre), the duration of non-use is critical. Non-use periods should be long
enough to allow the plant to recover from defoliation, but short enough to avoid plant
maturity when pastures are used more than once per season. Successful grazing
management must also consider the type of livestock and their nutritive needs. Producers
must match the nutritive needs of their livestock and management goals for livestock
performance with the seasonal quality of available forages.
6. Grazing program: Appropriate grazing management will be dependent on the individual
operation. Controlled grazing programs allow stocking rates to be sustained at higher
levels compared to continuous, season-long grazing because of improved harvest
efficiency. Grazing distribution, season of grazing, and degree of use must all receive
27
emphasis in the grazing program. On occasion, it may be necessary to intensively graze a
pasture late in the season. If the grass has been properly managed in previous years, it
will recover from this late season grazing; however, the same pasture should not be the
last pasture grazed the following year.
Successful livestock production cannot be accomplished by ignoring either plant or animal

requirements. It will require several kinds of forages, several pastures, and a grazing plan.
Understanding where and how forage plants grow is the best way to utilize several kinds of
forages. Remember, not all grasses grow and regrow in the same manner.
Mixed Species
Understanding the growth/regrowth habits of an individual grass easily translates into

management decisions. However, when different grasses or grass/legume combinations are
growing together, which may result from planning or from weed investation, the management
decisions require more strategy.
Advantages of Mixtures
The advantages of mixing a grass and a legume center around utilizing the best qualities of each.
A mix may:
 extend the growing season of a pasture,

 improve the quality of forage,
 reduce nitrogen fertilizer requirements because of the legume's nitrogen fixation
capacities,
 prove more adaptable for a wider range of conditions,
 improve flexibility to survive environmental conditions,
 and reduce susceptibility to insect and disease attacks.
Here is a graphic depicting a probable pasture production profile for various forages in the
northern hemisphere. As you can see, there are times when other feed will be needed. Utilizing
another grass or legume that flourishes during the less productive periods extends the season of
production and maintains the quality of feed.
The graphic (page 24) depicts a simplistic growing season of an area with the traditional four
seasons. Growth patterns will vary in areas with different climates.
Mixtures can improve the feed quality. Legumes typically have a higher protein content than
grasses. Growing animals have a high protein requirement that can be met to a large degree by
adequate legumes in the forage mix. Furthermore, the palatability and digestibility may also be
improved with legumes. If hay or silage making is the goal, the thoughts of using mixtures
should consider those species that can harvested at the same time.
Planting a legume with a grass does not mean all nitrogen fertilizer needs will be met. However,
grasses can eventually benefit from being planted in soil where legumes fixed atmospheric
nitrogen.
A mixture of species in a pasture can adapt to a wider range of conditions. Some species tolerate
wet conditions, some dry, some acid, and some alkaline or sodic soils. Mixtures provide some
insurance to unexpected conditions or a variety of conditions which may occur in a single
pasture.
A rule for mixtures is "remember simplicity." A large number of species in a mixture, sometimes
called a "shotgun" mixture, should be avoided. Often a single grass and a single legume will best
provide the benefits intended. A simple mixture means a producer can know how each species
28
grows and regrows. Then management decisions reflecting that knowledge can lead to successful
yield, quality, and persistence.
Mowing
Although much of this project assumes that livestock will be defoliating the grass plants, the art
of timely mowing can result in more than simply harvesting for hay or silage. Mowing is a
critical management practice in optimizing forage production from pastures. Mowing is different
than grazing in two ways: 1) mowing usually results in a uniform cutting height and 2) the height
can be predetermined. Since the mower can be set for a particular height, understanding how
grass grows and regrows should guide that height decision.
Mow the grass at a height that is advantageous for grass regrowth mechanisms and for stand
longevity. Mowing can achieve at least two basic purposes: 1) it can keep a majority of tall
growing weeds from going to seed, thereby reducing weed problems in the pasture, and 2)
mowing can keep grasses in a vegetative state longer, where leaf surface area will be maximized
and the plant will not produce a seed head. Under an intensive rotational system, where large
numbers of livestock are pastured on relatively small paddocks for short periods of time, little
mowing will be required. With less intensive rotational programs or continuous grazing, more
mowing will be required as livestock have the opportunity to selectively graze various plant
species. Mowing should be done immediately after livestock are removed from the pasture.
Mowing off tall, uneaten plants will stimulate new growth. Clipping a pasture as seedheads
emerge can redirect plant energy from reproductive growth to other areas. Set equipment to leave
3 to 5 inches of growth for tall grass species like orchardgrass and tall fescue, and 2 to 3 inches
for low growing species like bluegrass pastures.
"Topping your pastures" may be very beneficial and is discussed in section V of Management
Scenarios in the Management section of this project.
Watching Grass Grow
- The Key to Successful Grazing

Ken Moore
Department of Agronomy
Iowa State University
The challenge of grazing management is to balance the nutritional needs of livestock with the
ability of pastures to meet those needs. One of the best strategies for achieving this balance is
through the application of the principles of management intensive grazing (MIG). What many
people do not understand is that these principles were originally based upon a fundamental
knowledge of plant growth. André Voisin, who first articulated the basic concepts of MIG in the
1950's, believed that successful grazing depended upon an understanding of how plants grow. He
discovered that by carefully managing the defoliation of the grass plant by grazing livestock it
was possible to improve the utilization of the pasture and thereby increase production.
You may not find the idea of watching grass grow very appealing, but it is the key to successful
grazing management. In MIG timing is everything and the clock to watch is the grass. In MIG
systems it is not merely sufficient to rotate livestock among several pastures -they must be
rotated at the right time and for the right reasons. The purpose of this article is to give you
enough background on the growth and development of grasses to be able to make informed
pasture management decisions.
29
Structure of the Grass Plant
The structure of the grass plant is remarkably simple and similar among the many species of
grasses. A grass plant is a collection of tillers or shoots that arise from buds at the base of the
plant which is called a crown. Each tiller is composed of a series of repeating units consisting of
a leaf, stem node, stem internode, and a bud. Each leaf is attached to the stem at a node and the
bud develops at this point as well. Early in the development of a grass plant the distance between
nodes (internodes) is very short and the stem remains compact at the base of the plant. At the top
or apex of the stem is the growing point where new leaves and stems are originated. As long as
this growing point remains intact it is capable of initiating new leaves. Later in the development
of the tiller the growing point will undergo a change and cease initiating leaves and begin
developing the inflorescence or reproductive structure of the plant. After this point in time, the
growing point is no longer capable of initiating any more new leaves and its removal has no
impact on further leaf development. Once this transition occurs, some of the upper internodes
will begin to elongate eventually raising the inflorescence to the top of the tiller.
How Grasses Develop

The development of grass tillers proceeds through a sequence of developmental stages that are
relatively common among grasses. There are three primary growth stages in grasses that you
need to be able to recognize for grazing managment: 1) vegetative; 2) elongation; and 3)
reproductive. The vegetative growth period is characterized by the development of leaves. Once
a critical number of leaves has developed on a tiller, the older, and lowermost leaves generally
die off at a rate that is about equal to the rate of development of new leaves. So once this has
occurred the number of leaves present on a tiller becomes relatively constant. Elongation is the
period during which stem internodes elongate and is often referred to as jointing. When the tiller
begins to elongate, usually in response to changing daylength, the uppermost internodes
elongate. The lowermost internodes do not elongate and remain at the base of the plant. These
lower nodes and internodes together with those of related tillers constitute the crown of the plant.
The elongation period is sometimes referred to as transition because it represents the transition
between vegetative and reproductive growth. As a result of elongation, the developing
inflorescence pushes through the uppermost leaf sheath to form what is commonly referred to as
boot stage. The reproductive stage is the period during which the developing inflorescence
emerges and pollination occurs.
Development and Plant Growth
There is a distinction between plant growth and development. As just described, development
refers to changes in the structure or form of the plant. Growth on the other hand, is an
irreversible increase in the weight or size of a plant. Generally the two are related; as a plant
grows it also develops (Fig. 1). Grass growth is initially slow, but then goes through a very rapid
period, followed by a slow down as the plant matures. This general pattern of growth is the same
for new growth in the spring and growth following defoliation. However, the rate of growth will
vary greatly depending on the season. The extent of development also varies with season. Many
temperate grasses will flower only once during the growing season. The regrowth of these
species is limited to vegetative development although some will produce sterile stems.
The productivity of grasses varies with species and season. Cool-season grasses produce most of
their growth in the spring and early summer (Fig. 2). Warm-season grasses on the other hand
produce most of their growth during the warm summer months. This seasonal variation in grass
productivity is one of the major constraints in grazing management. The nutritional needs of
livestock increase at a constant rate over the grazing season. Because the ability of a pasture to
support livestock production varies throughout the season, it is difficult to balance the nutritional
needs of livestock with nutrients available from the pasture.
30
Energy and Grass Growth
Pasture plants, like all green plants, convert solar energy into chemical energy through the
process of photosynthesis. The plant uses this energy to carry out various physiological processes
which allow it to grow and ultimately reproduce. In the spring, the energy required for the plant
to initially grow comes from energy reserves stored the previous growing season in the form of
carbohydrates. The site of energy storage varies among grass species, but typically it is in the
roots and lower portions of stems. As the plant grows it uses this energy to produce new leaves.
Once a critical number of leaves has developed the plant is able to produce enough energy to
support further growth and begins to store energy for the next growth cycle (Fig. 3). It is
extremely important that the plant not be grazed until it has had enough time to reestablish
its energy reserves. If the plant is defoliated before this occurs, regrowth will be stunted and the
stand may be weakened. The time required for a grass plant to store an adequate amount of
energy for regrowth varies with the season and intensity of defoliation. It is shortest when the
plant is growing under optimum conditions. As a rule of thumb, cool-season grasses require a
rest period of two to three weeks during the spring and fall, and five to six weeks during the
summer. Conversely, warm-season grasses require a three-week rest period during the summer,
but at least six weeks of rest in the spring and fall.
The amount of the grass plant that has been removed by grazing also has an impact on the
amount of time required for regrowth to occur. The less growth that is removed, the shorter the
recovery period will be because the residual growth will be able to photosynthesize and
contribute to the recovery. For this reason, care should be taken not to graze cool-season grasses
below a height of three to four inches and warm-season grasses below four to eight inches.
Overgrazing of grasses will lower the regrowth rate and increase the period of time required to
recover energy reserves.
The way grass pastures are managed in the fall will have an impact on how well they grow the
following spring. Since the initial growth in the spring is dependent on stored energy, it is
important that pastures have an adequate recovery period between the last summer grazing
period and the first frost. Generally, it is preferred not to graze a grass pasture three to four
weeks prior to frost. This is obviously not possible in many cases, but it should be realized that
pastures grazed during this period will require a longer period of time to reach their maximum
growth rate in the spring. It is a good management practice to defer grazing on these pastures
until late in the rotation the following spring.
Grass Regrowth Following Grazing
The stage of development has a major impact on how grasses respond to defoliation by grazing.
As long as the growing point at the apex of the stem is not removed by grazing it can continue to
develop new leaves. Developing leaves that are only partially defoliated by grazing can also
continue to grow, however, their growth is limited. Once the growing point has become
reproductive or has been removed by defoliation new regrowth must occur from buds located at
the base of the plant. In general, removal of the growing point is required to break the dormancy
of buds associated with that tiller and therefore has a beneficial effect on plant growth. In most
grasses, stem elongation does not occur until after the growing point becomes reproductive.
Since the growing point is located at or below ground level, these species are resistant to close
grazing. In some grasses, however, the growing point is elevated early in their development
(prior to the reproductive phase) and is, therefore, vulnerable to removal by grazing. Smooth
bromegrass and switchgrass are especially susceptible to defoliation during this period because
their basal buds are not yet ready to develop into new tillers and energy reserves to support new
growth are low.
Forage Quality and Grass Development
The nutritive value of grasses for grazing livestock decreases at a steady rate as the plant grows
and develops (Fig. 4). It is highest during the vegetative stage of development and for all
31
practical purposes is too low to support livestock production beyond the reproductive stage. One
of the most common mistakes made in grazing management is to delay the initiation of grazing
until after most of the quality of the pasture is lost. A grass pasture should never be allowed to
enter into the later reproductive stages of development before either being grazed or cut for hay.
Even though quality is highest during the vegetative stage, caution must be used to prevent
grazing too early so that adequate energy can be stored to support regrowth (Fig. 3). As a general
rule, the optimum time to graze a pasture is during the period of rapid growth preceding the
reproductive stage. This timing provides the optimum compromise between yield and quality,
allows sufficient time for storage of energy reserves, and assures the removal of the growing
point which will stimulate tillering.
Keying Grazing Management Decisions to Grass Development
Based upon the foregoing discussion, it is possible to make some generalizations about timing
grazing management decisions based upon grass development. Grass pastures are ready to graze
in the spring when most of the tillers have between three to four fully expanded leaves. At this
time the plants have begun to store energy reserves for the next growth cycle and have excellent
forage quality. This is not the optimum time to graze all paddocks for reasons described above,
but it is the best time to get started. Remember you are shooting at a moving target and if you
delay the initiation of grazing too long you will not be able to graze later pastures in the rotation
before they become reproductive. Pastures that reach the reproductive stage should be cut for hay
and allowed a recovery period before grazing. There is just not enough quality left in these
pastures and livestock performance will suffer if they are grazed. Rest periods need to be
adjusted according to the season of growth. Most grasses will maintain three to five leaves on a
vegetative tiller. This is the optimum number for photosynthesis and regrowth should not be
grazed until after this has been achieved. In conclusion, by observing the development of your
grass pastures you can learn to manage them for optimum productivity which will in turn result
in improved livestock production.
Additional Reading
Bartlett, Ben. 1991. Controlled grazing: Balancing forages, livestock & management. Extension
Bulletin E- 2288, Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State University.
Dietz, Harland E. 1989. Grass: The stockman's crop - How to harvest more of it. Sunshine
Unlimited, Inc., Lindsborg, Kansas.
Frank, A. B., K. H. Sedivec, and L. Hofmann. 1993. Determining grazing readiness for native
and tame pastures. North Dakota State University Extension Service Bulletin R-1061, Fargo,
ND.
Moore, K. J., and L. E. Moser. 1995. Quantifying developmental morphology of perennial

grasses. Crop Sci. 35:37-43.
Moore, Ken, Lowell Moser, Steve Waller and Ken Vogel. 1991. Staging perennial forage
grasses. Crop Production News, Agronomy Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Vol.
XI No. 13.
Moore, K. J., L. E. Moser, K. P. Vogel, S. S. Waller, B. E. Johnson and J. F. Pedersen. 1991.

Describing and quantifying growth stages of perennial forage grasses. Agronomy Journal
83:1073-1077.
Nelson, C. J. 1988. Physiological considerations in forage management. p. 262-273. In

Innovative Grazing Systems, American Forage and Grassland Council, Georgetown, TX.
Undersander, Dan, Beth Albert, Pamela Porter, Alan Crossley, and Neal Martin. 1993. Pastures
for profit: A guide to rotational grazing. Bulletin A3529, University of Wisconsin-Extension.
32
Voisin, André. 1959. Grass Productivity. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Waller, S. S., L. E. Moser, and P. E. Reece. 1985. Understanding grass growth: The key to
profitable livestock production. Trabon Printing Co., Inc., Kansas City, MO.
Waller, Steven S., Lowell E. Moser, and Bruce Anderson. 1986. A guide for planning and
analyzing a year-round forage program. Bulletin EC 86-113-C, Nebraska Cooperative Extension.
Environmental issues of forages:

Define the terms renewable resource and nonrenewable and
give examples of each resource type that are related to
forage production
One environmental issue that has been of prominent concern in the 20th century has been the
growth in human population. The chart below, from the population reference bureau, illustrates
the dramatic growth in human population beginning around the year 1750. As human population
has grown the demand for resources of all kinds has also grown. Supporting more people means
producing more food, which in turn requires greater amounts of energy, soil nutrients, water, and
other resources associated with agricultural production.
33
There are many types of resources that go into producing food and producing forages. In general
these resources have been grouped into two types: renewable resources and nonrenewable
resources. Renewable resources may be defined as resources that have the potential to be
replaced over time by natural processes. The renewal process may be relatively quick, as with
sunshine which comes on a daily basis. Or, the renewal process may be very slow, as in the
formation of soil which may take hundreds of years. Nonrenewable resources may be defined as
resources whose stock or reserves is limited or fixed. The available supply of nonrenewable
resources may be replenished through recycling (e.g. recycling aluminum cans), but the overall
supply remains relatively constant. The table below gives several examples of each type of
resource.
Renewable Resources Nonrenewable resources

Solar Energy Oil
Soil Steel
Trees Aluminum
Grass Coal
Groundwater Phosphates
Examining the resources listed in the table above suggests that modern agricultural production,
including forage production, is dependent on a number of resources that are considered
nonrenewable. Farm equipment contains steel and aluminum parts and uses oil based fuels. The
energy to manufacture fertilizer and other agrichemicals is derived from oil, coal, and natural
gas. Phosphate fertilizers are widely used on crops. The realization of this dependence on
nonrenewable resources has led to increased interest in developing and implementing so called
sustainable agricultural production systems, as will be discussed in other sections of this lecture
topic.
Describe methods in determining quality.

Since the quality of forage directly impacts the production success, there are many ways to test
forage. The first term to be understood is dry matter (DM). When forage is harvested by
machine, the amount above the leftover stubble can be dried, since 70-90% of the herbage is
water, and weighed to determine the amount of dry matter, usually referred to per acre. Testing
can be done on representative samples. But if the forage is consumed by grazing animals there
are still other ways to test for quality. Forage quality can be determined by many ways but the
three main methods are discussed below:
34
 Organoleptic Observation
 Chemical Composition
 Feed Trial Evaluations
Organoleptic observations means using the sense organs (eyes, nose, taste, ears, touch) to
evaluate the quality of the forage. This method is practical because it can be easily done, requires
no special equipment, and is readily applied. It is the simplest method but it provides the least
information. Organoleptic observation can be useful in some ways but cannot determine
chemical composition. Visually, high-quality forage should show leafiness, vivid color, little
foreign material, an appropriate stage of maturity, and no molds. The smell should be fresh and
in the case of silage sweet; a specific odor that you can learn to recognize. Livestock use their
sense of smell in selection. Some producers can even taste the right flavors, especially in good
silage. Touch can also be used to check for the right consistency. Good hay should not be too
brittle. Good silage will not be slimy.
The stage of maturity at cutting or grazing influences quality more than the species, variety,
production location, soil fertility, or seasonal influences. Early harvested alfalfa hay (cut at pre-
bud or early bud stage) or grass harvested at boot or head emergence will have the highest
nutritive value for livestock. The right time for harvest also makes the forage more palatable and
digestible. Both decrease as the crop grows older. But yield continues to improve as the plants
mature so there is a constant balancing act for producers between getting the best quality and the
best yield. However, on a yearly basis, early cut hay yields as much feed (digestible dry matter)
per acre as later-cut hay. Livestock will eat more of it because it is so palatable and digestible.
Harvesting at the best times also wisely utilizes the regrowth potential of grasses and legumes.
Two-thirds of the protein (the desired portion of food) is found in leaves of forages. Livestock
will naturally select the leafy portions when grazing but retaining leaves is more difficult in hay
and silage making. Leaf shatter during raking and baling greatly reduces hay quality, especially
of legumes. Look for lots of leaves in a bale to indicate good quality.
A laboratory evaluation of the chemical composition of forage allows the livestock manager to
more accurately determine how much forage and supplement are needed for a particular animal
and production goal. It can answer how nutritious a forage is and allows for better rationing. But
the results are only valid to the extent that the sample represents the forage being considered.
Good hay evaluation requires 20 core samples taken horizontally , 12-18 inches deep from
random bales. Cubed hay needs 40 cubes chosen randomly from a lot of 200 tons or less, placed
in air-tight containers for shipment. Freeze ten spots of exposed silage or several clipped,
equally-sized samples from various locations from the pasture for a good forage evaluation. The
samples are weighed in the testing lab, dried at 60 C for 24 hours, allowed to air equilibrate for
24 hours, and weighed again. Subsamples are used for various tests. One subsample is used for
drying at 105 C for 24 hours. This sample is weighed while hot and determines the dry matter
content (DM). Forage quality often refers to the DM
Historically from about the mid-1800's, forage quality has been measured in the laboratory by
proximate analysis which looks at the crude fiber (CF), ether extract, nitrogen-free extract, crude
protein (CP), and ash. The ash is the residue after burning or combustion and indicates the
mineral content. The CP is determined by analyzing for nitrogen (N) by a method invested by
Kjeldahl. True protein is made up of amino acids with approximately 16% nitrogen so 100%
divided by 16% = 6.25 which is used to multiply the nitrogen in a sample to estimate the amount
of protein within. Ether extract is the total compounds that can be extracted with hot diethyl
ether. Crude fiber is the organic matter insoluble in weak acid and weak alkali. Nitrogen-free
extract is the amount left when subtracting all the four components from 100 or the total sample.
The quality of forages has mainly utilized crude protein and crude fiber. Protein is critical for
animal health but crude protein does not idicate the protein available to the animal. Other testing
methods help determine this.
35
Crude fiber is calculated by treating a sample with ether to remove fats, then boiling it alternately
in a weak acid and a wead alkali or base. The remains will be crude fiber and ash which is
removed. Crude fiber contains cellulose, himicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose
are both partially digestible but lignin is not digestible. Forages that have more than 18% dry
matter crude fiber are called roughages. Concentrates have less than 18% dry matter crude fiber.
An alternative analysis was developed by Peter J. Van Soest in the 1960's. This alternative more
accurately predicts what nutrients the animals can use by distinquishing between cell walls and
cell contents. Cell walls include cellulose and hemicellulose which are less digestible and lignin
and silica, largely undigestible. Cell contents, include sugars, starches, vitamins, and minerals
which are almost all digestible. This methods results in a neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and an
acid detergent fiber (ADF). These can then lead to calorie or megacalorie quantities.
Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) is determined when a sample is extracted with a neutral detergent
solution. The cell contents are largely soluble and the cell wall components are insoluble. The
NDF score can predict dry matter intake (DMI) because a high NDF score means the animal
feels full longer because certain components are taking longer to be digested. If the animal feels
full, it eats less. Corn grain is roughly 10% NDF which means it is nearly 90% digestible. Straw
is about 20 - 50% digestible with a NDF of up to 80%.
A detergent solution containing sulfuric acid is used in acid detergent fiber (ADF) analysis.
Those cell components, like lignin, that are not soluble in this acid are even more useless to the
animal so ADF scores predict digestible dry matter (DDM). High ADF scores indicate that little
is being digested. ADF ranges from 3% in corn grain to 40% in mature forages and 50% in
straws. Using the NDF and ADF scores an estimated digestible dry matter (EDDM) score can be
obtained. EDDM = 88.9 - (o.779 x ADF%) which is comparable to the total digestible nutrients
(TDN).
Near infrared reflective spectroscopy (NIRS) is another method of testing the quality of forage.
After start-up costs, it is advantageous because it is relatively inexpensive, very fast, and samples
are easily prepared. It can feasibly test for DM, CP, ADF, and NDF by performing muliple
analyses. The process is based on different chemical constituents reflecting differently under
infrared light. The accuracy does depend on accurate calibrations and technician compentency.
Another way of determining forage quality is with feed trials and animal performance. Are
animals gaining weight, producing more milk, successfully reproducing, and living longer. All of
these take time to determine but can be measurements of successful feeding systems. The
laboraty methods can be costly and require proper sampling but are faster and more specific.
Sometimes cows are fistulated to determine exactly what is being consumed or excreted.
Fistulated cows have an opening into their stomach. Comparing what is within the cow and later
what is excreted can lead to better understanding of nutrition. But this type of evaluation is
unpleasant and not as easily extrapolated to other animals.
Vitamins and minerals are not always tested for in all analyses. Often deficiencies or toxicities
are determine by observations or symptoms.
36

Introduction To Forages

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Introduction To Forages

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Introduction to Forages:

Define forages and differentiate between forage types.

Table 1. Forage types and definitions.

-John James Ingalls

Differentiate warm-season from cool-season grasses.

Chemically, 6 CO2 + 12 H2O + sun light energy -----> C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2

Summarize the distinctive physical characteristics of grasses

Inflorescences are an arrangement of many spikelets composed of individual florets. Grasses

Describe how knowledge of grass regrowth is beneficial to

Differentiate warm-season from cool-season legumes.

C4 plants can be annual or perennial. Annual C4 legumes include alyceclover, cowpeas,

Summarize the distinctive physical characteristics of

Inflorescences are flower clusters. Legume inflorescences can be umbels (white

Many legume leaflets have a distinctive whitish marking called a watermark.

Whether a legume is an annual, biennial, or perennial will determine many forage-related

Define the utilization of legumes in forage-livestock systems.

Although grass is the mainstay of livestock,

Annual/perennial grass types

Short/tall grass types

 Sod-forming grasses: kentucky bluegrass, creeping foxtail, colonial bentgrass,

Warm/cool season grass types

C3 plants (cool season)

C4 plants (warm season)

Jointing/nonjointing grass types

Successful pasture management requires an understanding of physiological (internal chemical)

One of the physiological characteristics of grasses that is important to understanding grass

Describe the impact of defoliation on grass plants.

Discuss how grasses regrow.

Discuss how livestock interaction impacts grass growth.

Discuss grass growth in mixed stands.

 extend the growing season of a pasture,

Discuss the practical applications of regrowth mechanisms.

Grass Growth and Regrowth for Improved Management

Successful regrowth after defoliation will depend on productive meristem systems.

Grazing affects grass growth/regrowth differently

The net effect of defoliation can be either

Keys To Successful Grazing ManagementPerennial forages are a renewable resource. They

Successful livestock production cannot be accomplished by ignoring either plant or animal

Understanding the growth/regrowth habits of an individual grass easily translates into

 extend the growing season of a pasture,

Watching Grass Grow

- The Key to Successful Grazing

How Grasses Develop

Development and Plant Growth

Grass Regrowth Following Grazing

Forage Quality and Grass Development

Keying Grazing Management Decisions to Grass Development

Moore, K. J., and L. E. Moser. 1995. Quantifying developmental morphology of perennial

Moore, K. J., L. E. Moser, K. P. Vogel, S. S. Waller, B. E. Johnson and J. F. Pedersen. 1991.

Nelson, C. J. 1988. Physiological considerations in forage management. p. 262-273. In

Environmental issues of forages:

Renewable Resources Nonrenewable resources

Describe methods in determining quality.

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