117 Bt1 Notes Text

CODE 117 │ ARCH 1093 │ BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1 – BUILDING MATERIALS
Week 1 - 2
Topic: HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS
People have constructed buildings and other structures since prehistory.
• Bridges • Pylons
• Amphitheaters • Roads
• Dams • Canals
The history of building is marked by a number of trends.

1. The increasing durability of the materials used.
2. A quest for buildings of ever greater height and span.
3.The degree of control exercised over the interior environment of buildings. 4. Is the change
in energy available to the construction process.
Chronological development
Neolithic construction (New Stone Age)
A reconstruction of a pit-house type dwelling made with mammoth bones

- a time period roughly from 9000 BC to 5000 BC named because it was the last period of the
age before wood working began.
THE TOOLS AVAILABLE MADE FROM NATURAL MATERIALS

• bone • grasses • Bamboo
• antler • animal fibers • Bark
• hide • Water • Clay
• stone • mammoth ribs
• wood • Metal
Lime plaster
USES OF THE TOOLS
-to cut such as with the hand axe, chopper, adze, and celt
-to scrape, chop such as with a flake tool, pound, pierce, roll, pull, leaver, and carry
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
- locally available materials and traditional designs and methods
Skara Brae- Europe's most complete Neolithic village, quite elaborate stone structures with
ingenuity using dry stone walling techniques
The first mud bricks, formed with the hands rather than wooden moulds, belong to the late
Neolithic period and were found in Jericho.
Neolithic architecture
• Megalith
rock-cut architecture
post and lintel
woodhenge
* There is also evidence of prefabrication of the stonework; the symmetrical geometric arrays
of stone clearly indicate that the builders of Stonehenge had mastered sophisticated surveying
methods.
A reconstruction of a neolithic fortified village showing a palisade wall and

stilt houses at the Pfahlbau Museum Unteruhidingen, Germany.
Iron Age construction- is a cultural period from roughly 1200 BC to 50 BC with the widespread
use of iron for tools and weapons.
Ancient Mesopotamia -the earliest large-scale buildings for which evidence survives
*The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilizations built
very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and ziggurats and took particular care
to build them out of materials that last, which has ensured that very considerable parts have
remained intact.
Uruk and Ur - great cities which evidenced to have a major technical achievement in
construction.
The Ziggurat of Ur is an outstanding building of the period, despite major reconstruction work.
Ancient Greece
-tended to build most of their common buildings out
of mud brick, leaving no record behind them.
-made many advances in technology including
plumbing, the spiral staircase, central heating, urban
planning, the water wheel, the crane, and more.
-the oldest "construction drawing" is in the Temple of
Apollo at Didyma.
An illustration showing masonry techniques of ancient Greece and Rome.

- Before 650 B.C.E. the now famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, but after this
date began to be built of stone.
petrification or "petrified carpentry" - The process of a timber structure being repeated in
stone
-The roof tiles allow a low roof pitch characteristic of ancient Greek architecture.
-Building structures mostly used a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches,
which based strict limits on the spans that could achieved.
-The ancient Greeks never developed the strong mortars which became an important feature
of Roman construction.
Roman Empire
In striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormous amount is known about Roman building
construction. A very large amount survives, including complete intact buildings like the
Pantheon, Rome and very well preserved ruins at Pompeii and Herculaneum. We also have the
first surviving treatise on architecture by Vitruvius which includes extensive passages on
construction techniques.
• Materials
• hydraulic lime mortar-"Roman Cement", building material that was a great Roman
development
• Pozzolana -also known as pozzolanic ash (pulvis puteolanus in Latin), is a siliceous or
siliceous and aluminousmaterial which reacts with calcium hydroxide in the presence of
water at room temperature
• They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and then filled the cavity
with massive amounts of concrete
• Arches
• Barrel vaults
• domes
• Later they used wooden shuttering which was removed for the concrete to cure.
• The Romans substituted bronze for wood in the roof truss(s) of the Pantheon's portico
which was commissioned between 27 BC and 14 AD.
• Lead was used for roof covering material and water supply and waste pipes.
• Romans also made use of glass in construction with colored glass in mosaics and clear
glass for windows.
China
Materials
• rammed earth
• Bricks
• Stones
• Wood
• tiles with lime mortar
• Traditional Chinese timber frames do not use trusses but rely only on post and lintel
construction.
• Yingzao Fashi is the oldest complete technical manual on Chinese architecture
• Nanchan Temple iwutatil-oldest wooden building
• An important architectural element is the dougong bracket sets.
Songyue Pagoda is the oldest brick pagoda dating to 523 AD. It

was built with yellow fired bricks laid in clay mortar, with twelve
sides and fifteen levels of roofs.
Anji Bridge is the world’s oldest "open spandrel stone
segmental arch bridge" built in 595-605 AD. The bridge is built
with sandstone joined with dovetail, iron joints.
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages of Europe span from the 5th to 15th centuries AD from the fall of the
Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance and is divided into Pre-Romanesque and
Romanesque periods.
Greatest Construction Projects:
• Fortifications
• Castles
• cathedrals
A revival of stone buildings in the 9th century and the Romanesque style of architecture began
in the late 11th century.
Materials
Most buildings in Northern Europe were constructed of timber until c. 1000 AD.
Brick continued to be manufactured in Italy throughout the period 600-1000 AD
Medieval stone walls were constructed using cut blocks on the outside of the walls and rubble
infill, with weak lime mortars.
Techniques
Romanesque buildings of the period 600-1100 AD were entirely roofed in timber or had stone
barrel vaults covered by timber roofs.
The Gothic style of architecture with its vaults, flying buttresses and pointed gothic arches
developed in the twelfth century.
Thin stone vaults and towering buildings were constructed using rules derived by trial and
error.
The pile driver was invented around 1500.
Villard de Honnecourt's drawing of a flying buttress at Reims, ca. AD 1320-1335

Achievements
The scale of fortifications and castle building in the Middle Ages was remarkable, but
the outstanding buildings of the period were the Gothic cathedrals with thin masonry vaults
and walls of glass.
Renaissance
The invention of moveable type and the Reformation changed the character of building.
The master mason and master carpenters learnt their trades by word of mouth and relied on
experience, models and rules of thumb to determine the sizes of building elements.
Filippo Brunelleschi was one of the first of the new style of architects.
He started life as a goldsmith and educated himself in Roman architecture by studying ruins.
He went on to engineer the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.
Materials
Water mills in most of western Europe were used to saw timber and convert trees into planks.
Bricks were used in ever increasing quantities.
An increasing amount of ironwork was used in roof carpentry for straps and tension members.
Roofing was typically of terracotta roof tiles
Stone, where available, remained the material of choice for prestige buildings.
The seventeenth century

The seventeenth century saw the birth of modern science which would have profound effects
on building construction in the centuries to come.
Structures relied strongly on experience, rules of thumb and the use of scale models.
Materials
• Glass-The major breakthrough in this period, the first cast plate glass being developed in
France.
• Iron was increasingly employed in structures.
• Christopher Wren- used iron hungers to suspend floor beams at Hampton Court Palace,
and Iron rods to repair Salisbury Cathedral and strengthen the dome of Paul's Cathedral.
• Most buildings had stone ashlar surfaces covering rubble cores, held together with lime
mortar.
Tools
Many tools have been made obsolete by modern technology, but the line gauge, plumb-line,
the carpenters. square, the spirit level, and the drafting compass e still in regular use.
The eighteenth century

The eighteenth century saw the development of many the ideas that had been born in
the late seventeenth century. The architects and engineers became increasingly
professionalised. Experimental science and mathematical methods became increasingly
sophisticated and employed in buildings. At the same time the birth of the industrial
revolution saw an increase in the size of cities and increase in the pace and quantity of
construction.
Materials
• The major breakthroughs in this period were in the use of iron (both cast and wrought).
• Steel was used in the manufacture of tools but could not be made in sufficient
quantities to be used for building. Brick production increased markedly during this
period.
• Terracotta in the form of Coade stone was used as an artificial stone in the UK.
The nineteenth century: Industrial

Revolution
The industrial revolution was manifested in new kinds of transportation installations,
such as railways, canals andmacadam roads. These required large amounts of investment.
New construction devices included steam engines, machine tools, explosives and optical
surveying. The steam engine combined with two other technologies which blossomed in the
nineteenth century, the circular saw and machine cut nails, lead to the use of balloon framing
and the decline of traditional timber framing.
As steel was mass-produced from the mid-19th century, it was used, in form of I-beams
and reinforced concrete. Glasspanes also went into mass production, and changed from luxury
to every man's property. Plumbing appeared, and gave common access to drinking water and
sewage collection. Building codes have been applied since the 19th century, with special
respect to fire safety.
The twentieth century

With the Second Industrial Revolution in the early 20th century, elevators and cranes
made high rise buildings and skyscrapers possible, while heavy equipment and power tools
decreased the workforce needed. Other new technologies were prefabrication and computer-
aided design.
• Trade unions were formed to protect construction
workers' interests. Personal protective equipment such
as hard hats and earmuffs also came into use.
• From the 20th century, governmental construction
projects were used as a part of macroeconomic
stimulation policies, especially during the Great
depression(see New Deal). For economy of scale,
whole suburbs, towns and cities, including
infrastructure, are often planned and constructed
within the same project (called megaproject if the cost
exceeds US$1 billion), such as Brasíliain Brazil, and the
Million Programme in Sweden.
• In the end of the 20th century, ecology, energy
conservation and sustainable development have
become more important issues of construction.
DIVISION 2 – SITE CONSTRUCTION WORKS
1. EARTH WORKS
1.01 ACRONYMS
AASHTO – AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND
TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS
ANSI – AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE
ASTM – AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
DPWH – DEPT. OF PUBLIC WORKS AND HIGHWAYS (PHIL GOVT)
USCS – UNIFIES SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
1.02 DEFINITIONS AND STANDARD

TESTS
AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM-
CLASSIFIES INORGANIC SOILS FOR
SUITABILITY AS SUBGRADE MATERIALS IN
TERMS OF GOOD DRAINAGE AND BEARING
CAPACITY.
AASHTO DEFINES PARTICLE SIZES AS:
BOULDERS — ABOVE 75MM
GRAVEL — 75MM TO NO. 10 SIEVE
COARSE SAND — NO. 10 TO NO.40 SIEVE
FINE SAND — NO.40 TO NO.200 SIEVE
SILT-CLAY PARTICLES — PASSING NO.200 SIEVE

ATTERBERG LIMIT
ARE TESTS PERFORMED ON SOILS
PASSING THE NO.40 SIEVE AS
FOLLOWS:
LIQUID LIMIT (LL)

THE LIQUID LIMIT IS THAT MOISTURE
CONTENT AT WHICH A SOIL CHANGES
FROM THE LIQUID STATE TO THE
PLASTIC STATE, MEASURED WHEN
SOIL IN A SHALLOW DISH FLOWS TO CLOSE A 12.5 MM GROOVE AFTER
25 DROPS FROM 1CM.
PLASTIC LIMIT (PL)

THE WATER CONTENT AT WHICH A SILT OR CLAY MATERIAL WILL JUST
BEGIN TO CRUMBLE WHEN RORLED INTO A THREAD APPROX 3.2MM (1/8
INCH) IN DIAMETER.
PLASTICITY INDEX (PI)

IS DEFINED AS THE LIQUID LIMIT MINUS THE PLASTIC LIMIT: LL — PL = PI
THAT IS THE RANGE OF WATER CONTENT OVER WHICH SEDIMENT
BEHAVES.
A. FILL MATERIALS
- SOIL, CRUSHED STONE, AND SAND USED
TO RAISE AN EXISTING GRADE, OR AS A MAN-
MADE-DEPOSIT; GENERALLY USED UNDER
FOOTINGS, PAVERS, OR CONCRETE SLABS ON
GRADE; CLASSIFIED UNDER THE UNIFIED SOIL
B. GRANULAR FILL OR FILTERS

- SOIL MATERIALS WITH SAND EQUIVALENT
OF NOT LESS THAN 50%; USED TO PREVENT THE
MOVEMENT OF FINE PARTICLES OUT OF SOILS
AND OTHER NATURAL MATERIALS THROUGH
WHICH SEEPAGE OCCURS; CONFORMING TO
ASTM C 33, SIZE 67.
C. BORROW FILL
- SELECTED LABORATORY-APPROVED PIT-RUN
GRAVEL, DISINTEGRATED GRANITE, SAND, SHALE,
CINDERS OR OTHER SIMILAR MATERIALS WITH NOT
MORE THAN 35% FRACTION PASSING THE NO. 200
SIEVE.
D. BASE COURSE MATERIALS

- HARD DURABLE FRAGMENTS OF STONE AND A FILLER OF SAND OR
OTHER FINELY DIVIDED MINERAL MATTER, FREE FROM VEGETABLE MATTER
AND LUMPS OF CLAY.
1.03 RIPRAP (ROCK LINING)
- A CONSTRUCTED LAYER OR FACING OF STONE, PLACED TO PREVENT

EROSION, SCOUR OR SLOUGHING OF A STRUCTURE OR EMBANKMENT.
- TERM "RIPRAP" ALSO IS FREQUENTLY DEFINED AS THE STONE USED TO
CONSTRUCT SUCH A LINING.
- A SPECIAL CLASS OF VERY LARGE AGGREGATE. RIPRAP GRADATIONS
RANGE IN DIAMETER FROM 50MM (2 INCHES) TO 1148MM (42 INCHES).
BECAUSE RIPRAP IS SUBJECT TO SIGNIFICANT ENERGY, IT IS IMPORTANT
THAT IT BE SOUND AND FREE FROM DEFECTS OR ENTRAINED SUBSTANCES
SUCH SOIL SHALE OR ORGANIC MATERIALS.
- RESISTANCE OF RIPRAP TO DISPLACEMENT OF MOVING WATER IS A
FUNCTION OF THE WEIGHT, SIZE, AND SHAPE OF THE STONE, THE
GEOMETRY OF THE CHANNEL OR BANK IT IS PROTECTING, AND THE FILTER
BLANKET OVER WHICH THE RIPRAP IS PLACED.
1.04 GABION SYSTEM
- WIRE-ENCLOSED RIPRAP
- CONSISTS OF MATS OR BASKETS FABRICATED FROM WIRE MESH, FILLED
WITH SMALL RIPRAP, AND ANCHORED TO A SLOPE.
- WRAPPING THE RIPRAP ENABLES USE OF SMALLER ROCKS FOR THE SAME
RESISTANCE TO DISPLACEMENT BY WATER ENERGY AS LARGER
DUNWRAPPED RIPRAP.
- IS PARTICULARLY ADVANTAGEOUS IN AREAS INACCESSIBLE TO TRUCKS OR
LARGE CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT.
- WIRE BASKETS ALSO ALLOW STEEPER (I.E., VERTICAL) CHANNEL LININGS
TO BE CONSTRUCTED.
- GABION BASKETS OR MATTRESSES CAN BE MADE FROM COMMERCIALLY
AVAILABLE WIRE UNITS OR FROM AVAILABLE WIRE FENCING MATERIAL OR
MAY BE FABRICATED FROM NO. 9 OR NO- 12 GALVANIZED WIRE.
- ACCORDING TO FHA GUIDANCE, THE THICKNESS OF WIRE MATTRESSES

USED FOR CHANNEL LININGS IS DETERMINED BY THREE FACTORS:
• THE ERODIBILITY OF THE BANK SOIL
• THE MAXIMUM VELOCITY OF THE WATER, AND
• THE BANK SLOPE.
1.05 GEOSYNTHETICS
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS CONSISTING OF SYNTHETIC COMPONENTS

MADE FOR USE WITH OR WITHIN EARTH MATERIALS GENERALLY ARE
REFERRED TO AS GEOSYNTHETICS.
GEOSYNTHETICS CAN BE FURTHER CATEGORIZED INTO THE FOLLOWING
COMPONENTS:
• GEOTEXTILES
• GEOMEMBRANES
• GEOCOMPOSITES
• GEONETS AND
• GEOCELLS
A. GEOTEXTILES
ARE THE MOST COMMON GEOSYNTHETICS AND CONSIST OF
WOVEN OR NONWOVEN FABRIC MADE FROM POLYMERIC MATERIALS
SUCH AS POLYESTER OR POLYPROPYLENE GENERALLY USED FOR
REINFORCEMENT, SEPARATION, FILTRATION, AND IN- PLANE
DRAINAGE.
REINFORCEMENT - WHEN THE GEOTEXTILE FABRIC LENDS ITS

STRENGTH TO LOW LOAD-BEARING SOIL TO INCREASE THE
OVERALL DESIGN STRENGTH AND DECREASE THE AMOUNT OF
SUB-BASE AND BASE COURSE MATERIAL.
SEPARATION - WHEN THE GEOTEXTILE IS PLACED BETWEEN
DISSIMILAR MATERIALS TO PREVENT MIGRATION OF ONE OF THE
MATERIALS INTO THE OTHER.
FILTRATION - WHEN THE GEOTEXTILE IS USED TO PREVENT THE

MOVEMENT OF FINE PARTICLES FROM SOIL THROUGH WHICH
SEEPAGE OCCURS.
FILTRATION HAS THREE SEPARATE CATEGORIES:
SUBSURFACE - THOSE EMPLOYED IN SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE

APPLICATIONS, SUCH AS FILTERS AROUND UNDER-DRAINS OR EDGE
DRAINS, OR UNDER PAVING.
EROSION CONTROL - THOSE EMPLOYED TO PROTECT CUT SLOPES OR

DRAINAGE FEATURES. WHEN USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH A STONE
LINING OR RIPRAP, THEY WOULD SERVE A SECONDARY FUNCTION OF
SEPARATION.
SEDIMENT CONTROL - ARE EXCLUSIVELY THOSE USED FOR SILT

FENCE APPLICATIONS. WHILE THEY SERVE THE PURPOSE OF
'FILTERING" RUNOFF, THE MECHANISM BY WHICH THEY FUNCTION IS
DIFFERENT THAN SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE OR EROSION CONTROL
APPLICATIONS.
IN-PLANE DRAINAGE
PARTICULAR THICK-NEEDLED NONWOVEN GEOTEXTILES HAVING
SUFFICIENT IN-PLANE FLOW CAPACITY FOR USE AS FLOW CONDUITS IN
DRAINAGE APPLICATIONS.
B. GEOMEMBRANES
- ARE CONTINUOUS POLYMERIC SHEETS THAT ARE IMPERMEABLE. THE
MOST FREQUENTLY USED FOR GROUND APPLICATIONS ARE:
THERMOPLASTIC PRODUCTS - MANUFACTURED FROM HIGH- DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE (HDPE) AND POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC).
THERMOSET POLYMER ETHYLENE - PROPYLENE DIENE MONOMER

(EPDM) FREQUENTLY USED FOR MEMBRANE ROOFING
APPLICATIONS.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOMEMBRANES HAVE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT

PROPERTIES INCLUDING:
• STRENGTH
• LONGEVITY
• RESISTANCE TO ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
• THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
• CHEMICAL RESISTANCE, AND
• EASE OF INSTALLATION
GEOMEMBRANES SHOULD NOT TO BE SUBJECTED TO TENSILE STRESSES
AND SHOULD BE TREATED GENTLY DURING INSTALLATION AND SUBSEQUENT
USE.
C. GEOCOMPOSITES
- CONSIST OF A COMBINATION OF GEOSYNTHETIC COMPONENTS; ARE

USUALLY SHEET OR EDGE DRAINS CONSISTING OF A PREFABRICATED CORE
TO WHICH A GEOTEXTILE FILTER IS BONDED.
THE CORE PROVIDES VOID SPACE TO WHICH WATER

AN FLOW IN PLANE WHILE THE GEOTEXTILE FILTER KEEPS SOIL FROM
FILLING THE VOIDS CREATED BY THE CORE.
GEOCOMPOSITE SHEET DRAINS ARE AVAILABLE THAT ALLOW FLOW IN FROM

ONE OR BOTH FACES.
D. GEONETS
IS A TYPE OF GEOSYNTHETIC THAT CONSISTS OF A CONTINUOUS

EXTRUSION OF POLYMERIC RIBS THAT FORM VOID SPACE THROUGH WHICH
PROVIDE IN-PLANE FLOW CAPACITY. GEONETS ARE AVAILABLE WITH OR
WITHOUT BONDED GEOTEXTILE FILTERS.
GEONETS WITH BONDED GEOTEXTILE FILTERS ARE SOMETIMES REFERRED
TO AS COMPOSITE DRAINAGE NETS (CDNS).
E. GEOCELLS
ARE THREE-DIMENSIONAL PREFABRICATED POLYMERIC SYSTEMS RANGING

FROM 100 TO 200 MM (4 TO 8 INCHES) HIGH. THE GEOCELL SYSTEMS ARE
COLLAPSED FOR DELIVERY TO THE SITE. UPON ARRIVAL AT A SITE, THEY
ARE SPREAD OPEN AND FILLED TO FORM A THREE- DIMENSIONAL
REINFORCED MATTRESS.
ORIGINALLY DEVELOPED TO RAPIDLY STABILIZE SOFT SUBGRADES FOR

MOBILIZATION OF LARGE EQUIPMENT, THEY ARE NOW FREQUENTLY USED
FOR PROTECTION AND STABILIZATION OF STEEP SLOPE SURFACES AND
PROTECTIVE LININGS FOR CHANNELS.
1.06 SLOPE-EROSION PROTECTION MATERIALS
THESE INCLUDE MATERIALS USED FOR BOTH TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT

EROSION PROTECTION. TEMPORARY MATERIALS CONSIST OF OPEN MESH
POLYMERIC SYSTEMS, BIODEGRADABLE MESH SYSTEM (E.G. , COIR JUTE),
OR A COMBINATION OF POLYMERIC AND BIODEGRADABLE MESH.
THE OPEN MESH SYSTEMS SERVE AS A SEMIPERMANENT MULCH,

ANCHORING SEEDS AND SOIL PARTICLES SUBJECT TO EROSIVE FLOWS IN
CHANNELS. GREATER FLOW RATES AND VOLUMES USUALLY REQUIRE
DENSER MESH AND MORE DURABLE CONSTRUCTION.
2.0 TERMITE AND BUKBOK PROOFING

2.01 TERMITE PROOFING
3 TYPES
A. PHYSICAL BARRIERS
B. CHEMICAL BARRIERS
C. COLONY ELIMINATION (BAIT) SYSTEM
A. PHYSICAL BARRIERS:
PREVENT TERMITES FROM ACCESSING THE WOOD IN A HOME. THERE ARE

A VARIETY OF METHODS:
TERMITE RESISTANT SAND - A LAYER OF SAND WITH UNIFORM SIZE

PARTICLES. THE SAND MUST BE LARGE ENOUGH TO PREVENT THE TERMITE
FROM MOVING THROUGH IT EFFECTIVELY AND OF A CONSISTENCY THAT
PREVENTS ITS USE IN "TUNNEL" CONSTRUCTION.
SOMETIMES USED AROUND THE FOUNDATION OF A HOME DURING
CONSTRUCTION.
TERMITE MESH - STEEL MESH PRODUCT THAT IS FINE ENOUGH TO KEEP

EVEN
TINY TERMITES FROM PASSING THROUGH IT. TERMITE MESH IS USED IN SLAB
CONSTRUCTION (CONCRETE SLABS ARE
POURED OVER OR WITH THE MESH). IT IS ALSO USED TOP WRAP PIPES AND
OTHER
ACCESS AREAS.
HOME CONSTRUCTION - IN PARTICULARLY HIGH-RISK TERMITE

ENVIRONMENTS, HOMES ARE SOMETIMES DESIGNED ON HIGH CONCRETE
PILLARS TO PHYSICALLY SEPARATE THE HOME FROM THE DISTANCE
TERMITES CAN TRAVEL FROM THEIR COLONY.
B. CHEMICAL BARRIERS: THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS METHOD IS TO

ESTABLISH A CONTINUOUS TERMITICIDE BARRIER OR TREATED LAREA
BETWEEN POTENTIAL SOIL ACCESS ROUTES AND THE STRUCTURE TO
EITHER KILL OR REPEL SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES
HAT ATTEMPT TO REACH THE STRUCTURE. A TERMITICIDE IS A TYPE OF
CHEMICAL USED TO CONTROL TERMITES.
- PRE-CONSTRUCTION CHEMICAL BARRIERS ARE ALMOST ALWAYS

APPLIED DURING CONSTRUCTION, TO THE SOIL AND FOUNDATION.
THERE ARE ALSO TERMITE RESISTANT BUILDING PRODUCTS, FROM
DRYWALL TO FLOOR JOISTS. THESE ARE OFTEN TREATED WITH
BORATES BEFORE USE IN HOME CONSTRUCTION. PRE- CONSTRUCTION
APPLICATIONS MUST USE ENOUGH INSECTICIDE (OFTEN 100 GALLONS
OR MORE) AT A SUFFICIENT CONCENTRATION TO ERECT AN ADEQUATE
BARRIER.
- VERTICAL BARRIERS ARE CREATED BY APPLYING 4 GALLONS OF

TERMITICIDE PER 3 LINEAR METERS BY RODDING OR TRENCHING
AROUND THE BASE OF FOUNDATIONS, PLUMBING, UTILITY ENTRANCES,
EXPANSION JOINTS, AND WHERE TWO SLABS WILL JOIN.
➢ IF AREAS TO BE TREATED ARE MORE THAN 300MM (ONE FOOT) DEEP,

THEN EACH 300MM OF DEPTH SHOULD RECEIVE 16 LITERS (4
GALLONS) PER 3 LINEAR METERS.
➢ TREATMENT OF TRENCHES INVOLVES DIGGING A TRENCH, NO WIDER
THAN 15MM (6 INCHES), APPLYING TERMITICIDE TO THE TRENCH, AND
MIXING WITH SOIL AS THE SOIL IS REPLACED.
➢ HOLLOW BLOCK VOIDS OF FOUNDATIONS SHOULD ALSO BE TREATED
WITH 16 LITERS (4 GALLONS) OF TERMITICIDE PER 3 LINEAR METERS.
- HORIZONTAL BARRIERS ARE MADE BY APPLYING 4 LITERS (ONE

GALLON) OF TERMITICIDE PER 3 SQUARE METERS. THE TREATMENT IS
USUALLY ACCOMPLISHED BY APPLYING A COARSE SPRAY AT LOW
PRESSURE. ALL TERMITE TREATMENTS TO SLAB CONSTRUCTION
SHOULD INCLUDE HORIZONTAL BARRIERS, WHICH ARE RELATIVELY
EASY TO APPLY.
➢ SLAB TREATMENT- INVOLVES DRILLING THROUGH THE SLAB FLOOR

AND INJECTING TERMITICIDES INTO THE SOIL AT REGULAR
INTERVALS.
- BASEMENTS AND CRAWL SPACES - TRENCHES ARE DUG AROUND THE

FOUNDATION, TERMITICIDE APPLIED AND THE TRENCH FILLED BACK IN.
CHEMICALS MAY ALSO BE INJECTED INTO THE SOIL IN THE CRAWL
SPACE/BASEMENT AND AROUND THE FOUNDATION. THE WALLS AND
FOUNDATION OF THE HOME ARE ALSO TREATED, AS WELL AS AROUND
PIERS, PIPES, AND OTHER ACCESS POINT.
C. COLONY ELIMINATION (BAIT) SYSTEM
- THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS METHOD IS TO ATTRACT THE TERMITE WORKERS

TO FORAGE ON A SLOW-ACTING INSECT-GROWTH REGULATOR (IGR) CALLED
HEXAFLUMURON THAT WILL WORK TO ELIMINATE THE TERMITE WORKERS
POPULATION AND EVENTUALLY RESULT IN THE DEATH OF THE QUEEN AND
ANY SUBSEQUENT FUTURE QUEENS, AND THEREFORE THE ENTIRE COLONY.
- THE SYSTEM EMPLOYS BAITING AND MONITORING DEVICES, INSTALLED

WHERE EVIDENCE OF INFESTATION IS FOUND ON THE GROUND OUTSIDE THE
HOUSE, ON WALLS, FLOORS, CEILINGS INSIDE THE HOUSE.
3. ROADS AND PARKING
3.01 SUBGRADEAND BASE COURSE MATERIALS
A. BORROW MATERIAL
B. BASE COURSE MATERIAL
C. CHOCKER AGGREGATE
A "CHOKER" COURSE IS A FILTER LAYER OF FINER MATERIAL THAT IS

INSTALLED
OVER A COARSE ROAD BASE MATERIAL. THE PURPOSE OF THE CHOKER
COURSE IS TO PROVIDE A STABLE FOUNDATION OF FINE-GRAINED
AGGREGATE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PAVEMENT.
3.02 PAVING AND SURFACING
A. CONCRETE (SEE DIVISION 3)
B. BITUMINOUS SURFACING
HOT MIX ASPHALT OR ASPHALTICCONCRETE- A DARK BROWN TO

BLACK CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL, SOLID OR SEMI-SOLID, COMPOSED OF
BITUMENS WHICH WHEN MIXED WITH GRADED AGGREGATES IS USED AS
PAVING MATERIAL BY PLACING, SHAPING, AND COMPACTING WHILE HOT
OVER A PREPARED BASE.
COLD MIX ASPHALT OR ASPHALTIC CONCRETE- IS ASPHALTIC

CONCRETE PREPARED WITH A RELATIVELY LIGHT AND SLOW-CURING
ASPHALT, PLACED OVER A PREPARED SURFACE WITHOUT HEAT. THIS
HARDENS TO A STATE THAT IS LESS FIRM AND DURABLE THAN HOT-MIX
ASPHALTIC CONCRETE.
ASPHALTICMACADAM - PAVING FOR ROADS AND OTHER SURFACES

FORMED BY GRADING AND COMPACTING LAYERS OF CRUSHED STONE OR
GRAVEL, THEN THE TOP LAYER IS BOUND BY ASPHALT TO STABILIZE THE
STONE, PROVIDE A SMOOTHER SURFACE, AND SEAL AGAINST WATER
PENETRATION.
ASPHALT OVERLAY WHEN ONE OR MORE COURSES OR LAYERS OF

ASPHALT AN ASPHALT LEVELING COURSE MADE OF AN ASPHALT AND
AGGREGATE MIXTURE OF VARIABLE THICKNESS TO CORRECT THE
CONTOUR OF EXISTING SURFACE, ARE PLACED ON EXISTING PAVEMENT.
CONCRETE
CEMENTING MATERIALS
1.01 LIME One of the oldest manufactured building materials used as a mortar and plaster by all the
early civilizations: Egyptians used lime plaster before 2600 B.C. Greeks used it extensively for mortars
and plasters Romans developed a mixture of lime putty and volcanic ash for the first real cement.
1.01 LIME The carbonates decompose into carbon dioxide, which is expelled, and calcium oxide (CaO)
called quicklime. QUICKLIME KEEP DRY Before quicklime can be used, it must first be mixed
with water in the process called staking or hydration. The lime has now become calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2), known as slaked lime or hydrated lime.
Hydrated lime mixed with water to make lime putty, is used as an ingredient of hard finish coat
for two-and three coat Portland cement plasters. It is also used for mixing with cement mortar or
concrete to: • increase its workability • decrease its permeability to water LIME • reduce cracking due
to shrinkage A type of lime which will set under water is hydraulic lime, used only where slow underwater
setting is required.
Hydraulic Lime Hydraulic lime - is produced in a similar way but from limestones with naturally
occurring impurities and it's these minerals that allow the mortar to set and harden through chemical
reactions with water (hydration). Available in powder form, hydraulic lime sets faster than non-hydraulic
lime and has a higher strength but a lower permeability. Natural hydraulic lime (NHL) is sold in various
strengths (NHL 2, 3.5 and 5) to suit different building's needs.
Natural Hydraulic Lime (NHL) NHL5 is the most hydraulic, then NHL3.5, and NHL2 the least
hydraulic lime. They do not perform in the same way as modern cements, nor contain the same
damaging components. It should be noted however that limes marked with NHL-Z or just HL on the
bag can contain some additions that could be potentially damaging and at worst be not much better
than cement. Only use limes marked NHL - these meet the highest British and European standards.
HOW ARE THEY CLASSIFIED?

(NHL) Natural hydraulic limes (NHL's) are classified by British Standard according to their
compressive strength. These grades are associated with the terms: feebly hydraulic (NHL2) moderately
hydraulic (NHL 3.5) eminently hydraulic (NHL5) However, lime-based mortars have an inherent
flexibility, are self-healing and strength is one of the less important characters. NHL 2 is softer and slow
setting, suitable for internal applications or where conservation is a primary concern with soft or
deteriorating stones and bricks. NHL 3.5 is an all-round general mortar. It can be used with bricks,
facings, commons, blockwork, sandstone, limestone, terracotta, internal & external building work, cavity
& solid wall construction, bedding, pointing and re-pointing. NHL 5 is a very strong lime mortar to be
used where there is severe exposure to weather and water, above rooflines, below DPC, including
copings and cappings, and earth retaining walls.
1.02 GYPSUM
Gypsum, like lime, was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. "Plaster" from the
Greek (gypsos) word for both the raw material and calcined product. In architectural terminology the
words "Plaster" and "gypsum" are often used interchangeably. Gypsum rock is ground fine and heated
(calcined) to between 325 °F. to 340 °F. when it loses about three-fourths of its combined water. The
remaining product is Plaster of Paris, if pure gypsum is used, or hard wall plaster, if 39.5 % impurities
are present or added to retard the set and improve the setting qualities. Hard wall plaster is harder than
lime plaster, sets more quickly and thoroughly.
Gypsum plaster is rendered more plastic by the addition of hydrated lime. Fiber or hair is also
sometimes added for greater cohesiveness. The fiber may be hemp, sisal or jute; the hair is generally
cleaned goat or cattle hair.
1.03 CEMENT
• First developed by the Romans by mixing slaked lime with pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened
under water.
• With the fall of the Roman Empire the art of cement making was lost and for several centuries. • In
1756, Smeaton, an Englishman, rediscovered hydraulic cement but it was not until 1824 that Aspdin,
an English bricklayer and mason, invented and patented Portland cement. Today, the word "cement"
generally refers to Portland cement which is the principal type of cement in use.
Portland cement is obtained by finely pulverizing clinker produced by calcining a proportioned

mixture of argillaceous (silica, alumina) and calcareous (lime) materials with iron oxide and small
amounts of other ingredients. Types of Portland cement: • slow-setting cement • quick-setting high early
strength cement • sulfate-resisting cement for applications where alkaline water and soils occur • white
cement (or stainless cement which is free of iron impurities).
Cement should be protected at the building site from injury through contact with dampness. They
should be stored in shed with a wood floor raised about 300mm (12") from the ground. • Cement is soft
and silky to the touch. If it has lumps that do not readily break, the cement has already absorbed a
damaging amount of moisture. Cement should be used as soon as possible after delivery. • Piles should
be limited to twelve sacks in height. Warehouse set - when the cement is stored in high piles for long
periods, there is a tendency for the lower layers to harden caused by the pressure above.
3.01 DEFINITION
Concrete is:
• a proportioned mixture of cement, aggregate and water. a plastic mass which can be cast, molded or
formed into predetermined size or shape
• upon hydration, becomes stone-like in strength, hardness and durability The hardening of concrete is
called setting. • when mixed with water and a fine aggregate of less than 6mm (%) is known as mortar,
stucco or cement plaster.
• when mixed with water, fine aggregate and a large aggregate of more than 6mm (4) in size produces
concrète.
• when strengthened by embedded steel, is called reinforced concrete when without reinforcement, is
called plain or mass concrete.
3.02 QUALITIES OF GOOD Concrete should be: Strong, Durable, of uniform quality, and thoroughly
sound.
These are obtained through:
• careful selection of materials
• correct proportioning
• thorough mixing
• careful transporting and placing
• proper curing or protection of the concrete after it is placed
3.03 MATERIALS OF CONCRETE

A. CEMENT
In reinforced-concrete construction should be high-grade Type 1 Portland cement type C-150
conforming to the "Standard Specifications and Test for Portland Cement" of the American
Society for Testing Materials (ASTM).
The kind of tests usually made are:

✓soundness, or constancy of volume
✓time of setting ADVANCE ETE EGATE
✓fineness
✓tensile strength
Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately 1 cu. ft. and weighs 94 lbs.
B. AGGREGATES
Are inert mineral fillers used with cement and water in making concrete, should be particles that
are durable strong, clean, hard and uncoated, and which are free from injurious number of dusts,
lumps, soft and flaky particles, shale, alkali, organic matter loam or other deleterious substances.
• Fine aggregates (aggregates smaller than 6mm () in size) consist of sand, stone
screenings or other inert materials of similar characteristics.
• Specs: 80 to 95% shall pass a No. 4 wire cloth sieve and not more than 30% nor less
than 10% shall pass a No. 50 sieve.
B. AGGREGATES
• Coarse aggregate (aggregate larger than in size) consists of crushed stones, gravel or other
inert materials of similar characteristics.
• Coarse aggregates should be well graded in size to a size which will readily pass between all
reinforcing bars and between reinforcement and forms but not exceed 25mm (1") in size for
reinforced beams, floor slabs, & thin walls.
• They may range up to 50mm (2) for less highly reinforced parts of the structures such as
footings, thick walls, and massive work.
B. AGGREGATES
Special aggregates, such as cinders, blast furnace slag, expanded shale or clay, perlite, vermiculite,
and sawdust, may produce: lightweight, nailable concrete thermal insulating concrete.
C. WATER
- should be free from oil, acid, alkali, vegetable mat or other deleterious substances - should be
reasonably clear and clean.
- The use of sea or brackish water is not allowed. Water combines with the cement to form a paste
which coats and surrounds the inert particles of aggregates.
- Upon hardening, it binds the entire mass together.
-The strength of the mixture therefore depends directly upon the strength of the paste. If there be an
excess of water the paste becomes thin and weak, and its holding power is reduced.
C. WATER
-The water-cement ratio is the amount of water used per bag of cement.
-This usually varies from 5 to 7 gallons, with 6.5 gallons as average for ordinary job conditions. The
less water used in mixing, the better the quality of concrete.
-The ideal mix is one that is plastic and workable. It should not be too dry that it becomes too difficult
to place in the forms, nor too wet that separation of the ingredients result
3.04 SLUMP TEST

In making the test, the slump tester is placed on a flat, smooth surface and is filled with newly mixed
concrete from mixer. In filling the mold with concrete, the latter is tamped in with a 12mm (1/2") rod
pointed at one end and the top of the concrete is smoothed off exactly level. The mold is then slowly
raised vertically and the height deducted from the original height of 300mm (12") represents the slump.
3.04 SLUMP TEST

- used for measuring the consistency of a concrete mix.
- Consistency may be defined as the "state of fluidity of the
mix", and it includes the entire range of fluidity from the
wettest to the driest possible mixtures.
In this test the tendency of a mix to "slump", or reduce its
height due to gravity action, is measured. The apparatus
consists of metal cone, the bottom opening being 200mm
(8 in diameter, the top opening being 100mm (4"), and the
height exactly 300mm (12").
3.04 SLUMP TEST

A harsh mix is efficient for slabs, pavements, or mass concrete where the lowest possible water-cement
ratio is desirable. The following table gives the permissible slump for various types of concrete in
relation to their uses:
3.05 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
Briefly stated, the principles of proper proportioning are as follows:
1. Use good quality materials: Portland cement, water, and aggregate.
2. Determine the strength of the concrete using the water-cement ratio. (The strength
increases as the water-cement ratio decreases).
3. Determine the consistency of the mix using the slump test using as dry a mix as
practicable.
4. Add correct proportions of aggregates to the cement and water as will give a mix of the
desired consistency.
5. Make a mix that's workable, not harsh.

The strength of a workable concrete mix depends upon the water-cement ratio.
• The economy of the mix depends upon the proper proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregates.
There are several methods of proportioning concrete:

a. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions
b. Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test
c. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus

A. Proportioning By Arbitrary Proportions
• Proportioning concrete by the arbitrary selection of the proportions is the oldest, the most
commonly used, the most convenient and the least scientific method.
• In this method, the aggregates are measured by loose volume, that is, its volume as it is
thrown into a measuring box.
• One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft.
• Enough water is used to give the desired consistency.
Common mixes expressed in proportions by
volumes of cement to fine aggregate to
coarse aggregate are as follows:
The proportion is to be read:
Class A: 1 part cement is to 2 parts sand is
to 4 parts gravel.
Each part is equivalent to one cubic foot
which is the measure of the box constructed
to be 1 foot (12 inches) on each of the three
sides.
Each bag of cement is equivalent to
approximately one cubic foot.
B. Proportioning by the Water-Ratio and Slump Test

• There are two steps to be observed: -
- Select the amount of water to be added to the cement to give the desired strength (see Table)
- Add just enough mixed aggregate to the water and cement to give a concrete mix the desired
consistency.
It is customary to specify
- the cement in sacks
- the water in gallons per sack of cement and
- the mixed aggregate in cu. ft. per sack of cement.
• Proportions of cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate may be given if desired.
Proportioning by the Water-Ratio, Slump and Fineness Modulus

This method is the same as the second except that the of the fine and coarse aggregate are
determined by proportions modulus method.
For economy, proportion the fine coarse aggregates so that the largest quantity of mixed
aggregate may be used with a given amount of cement and water to produce a mix of the d desired
consistency of slump.
Comparatively, the coarse aggregate has a lesser total surface to be covered with cement paste
and, therefore, is more economical. However, there must be enough fine aggregate present to fill the
voids in the coarse aggregate, or extra cement paste will be needed for this purpose. A well-graded
aggregate contains all sizes of fine and coarse particles in such proportions that the voids in the
combined aggregate will be a minimum.
3.06 MIXING OF CONCRETE

• Reinforced-concrete work should be mixed by machine
• Machine-mixed concrete is usually of more uniform quality than that mixed by hand and is generally
less expensive when in large volume.
• The strength of concrete is very largely dependent upon the thoroughness of mixing.

A. MACHINE MIXING
In machine-mixing, the mixing of each batch should continue not less than one minute after all the
materials are in the mixer and whenever practicable, the length of the mixing time should be increased
to 1.5 or 2 minutes. The entire contents of the drum should be discharged before recharging the mixer.
The mixer should be cleaned at frequent intervals while in use.

A. MACHINE MIXING
Concrete mixers may be divided into two general classes:
Batch mixers - into which Sufficient materials are placed at one time to make a convenient size batch
of concrete, the whole amount being discharged in one mass after it is mixed.
Continuous mixers - into which the materials are fed constantly and from which the concrete is
discharged in a steady stream.

A. MACHINE MIXING
Concrete mixers may also be classified as:
• drum mixers
• trough mixers
• gravity mixers, and
• pneumatic mixers.
*The drum mixers are the most common type.

B. HAND MIXING
-hand-mixing must be done on a water-tight platform.
-cement and fine aggregate shall first be mixed dry until the whole is a uniform color.
- water and coarse aggregate shall then be added and the entire mass turned at least three times, or
until a homogeneous mixture of the required consistency is obtained.

B. HAND MIXING
- since initial set of concrete takes place 1 to 3 hours after mixing, a batch may be used any time before
initial set takes place, provided that the mix is plastic.
- Regaging or retempering of concrete that has been allowed to stand more than ½ hour is not to be
permitted.
3.07 TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

• -Fresh concrete should be transported from the mixer as rapidly as practicable by methods that
will permit the placing of the concrete in the forms before initial set occurs and without loss or
separation of materials.
• -The delivery of the concrete from the mixer to the forms should be fairly continuous and
uninterrupted.
• -The time of transportation should not exceed 30 minutes.
3.07 TRANSPOFANING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

• The concrete may be transported by means of barrows, buggies, buckets, cableways, hoists, chutes,
belts and pipes.
• When chutes are used, the slope should not be more than 1 vertical to 2 horizontal or less than 1
vertical to 3 horizontals. The delivery end of the chutes shall be as close as possible to the point of
deposit.
3.07 TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE
• Before placing concrete, the forms shall be cleaned and inspected, surfaces wetted or oiled, and
reinforcement properly secured.
. Concrete should be deposited in approximately horizontal layers in wall, column and footing forms.
They should not be piled up in the forms which may result in the separation of the cement mortar from
the coarse aggregate.
• Concrete should never be allowed to drop freely over 5 ft. for unexposed work and over 3 ft. for
exposed work.
3.08 SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE & TEMPERATURE CHANGES

• Shrinkage of concrete due to hardening and contraction from temperature changes, causes cracks
the size of which depends on the extent of the mass. They cannot be counteracted successfully but
they can be minimized by placing reinforcement so that large cracks can be broken up to some extent
to smaller ones.
• In long continuous length of concrete, it is better to place shrinkage or contraction joints. Shrinkage
cracks are likely to occur at joints where fresh concrete is joined to concrete which has already set. and
hence in placing the concrete, construction joints should be made on horizontal and vertical lines.
3.09 CURING OF CONCRETE

Concrete must be allowed to "cure or harden after it is placed.
• Hardening is a rather slow process in which the cement and water unite to form compounds that give
strength and durability to the concrete. It continues as long as the temperatures are favorable and
moisture is present.
Three main factors that affect hardening are:
• age or time
• temperature
• moisture.
• In order that the hardening may proceed favorably, the fresh concrete, for about 7 days after placing,
should be protected from excessive vibration, loads, extreme heat or cold, too rapid drying, and contact
with impurities which may interfere with the chemical action.
• The strength of the concrete increases wil age when the curing conditions remain favorable.
. The increase in strength is rapid during the early ages and continues more slowly as time goes on.
The compressive strength reaches about 60% of its own maximum value at an age of 28 days and
about 80% at an age of 3 months.
Curing consists primarily in keeping the concrete from drying out too rapidly. This may be done by:
a. Covering the concrete. Floors shall be covered with paper sacking wetted down at the edges or with
burlap, sand or earth that is kept moist, after the concrete is hard enough to walk on.
b. Removal of forms at prescribed time. Forms shall not be removed until after the time specified.
c. Sprinkling with water. Beams, columns and walls are sprinkled or sprayed with water as soon as the
forms are removed.
d. Using curing compounds (see ADMIXTURES).
3.10
ADMIXTURES
Substances added to cements, mortars, and concrete for the purpose of improving or imparting
particular properties, such as:
• To improve workability of concrete, e.g. hydrated lime
• To improve durability by entrainment of air
• To accelerate setting or hardening (accelerators) e.g. calcium chloride
• To retard setting (retarders). To improve wear resistance
• To impart water-repellant or water proofing qualities e.g. hydrated lime, KAOLINE, CELITE
• To impart water-repellant or waterproofing qualities, e.g.. hydrated lime, waterproofing
compounds, KAOLINE, CELITE.
• To impart color, MINERAL OXIDES, COLORCON, METALICHROME.
3.10 ADMIXTURES
Admixtures may be grouped into three categories:
• those for mixing into concrete those for mixing into mortar
• those for surface application or finish.
Admixtures come in powder, paste, and liquid form, and are usually patented and sold under trademark
names.
3.10 ADMIXTURES
Concrete admixtures include:
a. Accelerators -to speed up. setting time, to develop earlier strength, and to reduce length of time for
protection, Principal ingredients are calcium chloride. Maximum amount added is 2 lbs. per bag of
cement.
Disadvantages: they increase the expansion and contraction of concrete, reduce resistance to sulfate
attack, and increases efflorescence and corrosion of high tension steels.
b. Retarders-to slow down the hydration of the cement during very hot weather, Principal ingredients
include zinc oxide, calcium lignosulfonate, derivatives of adipic acid.
Disadvantages may cause some loss of early strength and will therefore requiré careful control and
more frequent slump tests, also reduces the expansion and contraction of concrete.
3.10 ADMIXTURIS
c. Air-entraining agents - introduce minute air bubbles to greatly increase the resistance of concrete
to freezing and thawing, increase plasticity and reduce bleeding. Addition of air-entraining admixtures
is usually in the proportion of 3 to 6% of the volume of concrete. They are manufactured from such
ingredients as rosin, beef tallow, stereates, foaming agents (soap).
Disadvantages: These require careful control and more frequent slump tests. They may also cause
some loss of strength.
d. Inert, finely divided powders such as powdered glass, silica sand, stone dust, hydrated lime
- are added to improve workability, used as per manufacturer's directions. Hydrated lime is usually in
the proportion of 10 to 15% of the cement by volume.
3.10 ADMIXTURES
e. Waterproofing (permeability reducing) compounds - reduce the capillary attraction of the voids
in the concrete or mortar, but while it may decrease water absorption of the concrete or mortar, it does
not render concrete waterproof. They are manufactured from stearic acid or its compounds, mainly
calcium steareate, and include asphalt emulsions. They are introduced usually in the amounts of 0.1 to
4.0% of the weight of cement.
3.10 ADMIXURES
f. Colored pigments are mainly to used to give color to concrete floors. There are two types:
• Dry-cast, broadcast or dust on, for surface coloring. They are dusted on, usually in two coats,
after all surface water has disappeared. The surface is then finished with a steel trowel
• Integral colors, for body coloring Integral color pigments are incorporated in the mortar topping.
They are mixed dry with the cementi and aggregate before water is added Amount of color
pigment required is not more than 10% of the cement by weight, generally 3 to 6 lbs. per bag of
cement
3.10 ADMIXTURES
Admixtures for mixing into mortar include:
• Accelerators
• plasticizing agents (correctly called water-reducing agents) to lower water cement ratio and
make the mix more workable
• . waterproofing agents, and
• . color pigment
Surface application finishes for concrete consist of:
• hardeners
• . color pigments
• special aggregates
• . sealers
• abrasive materials
• waterproofing agents, and
• fillers and patchers.
3.11 FORMS
A. LUMBER FORMS
• Lumber used in form construction should only be partially seasoned.
• Kiln-dried lumber has a tendency to swell when soaked by the concrete, and this swelling causes
bulging and distortion of the forms.
Green lumber, on the other hand, dries out and shrinks if allowed to stand too long before the concrete
is placed. This tendency of green lumber to check and warp may, however, be prevented to some
extent by keeping the boards thoroughly saturated with water.
3.11 FORMS
A. LUMBER FORMS
When using natural, well seasoned lumber, care should be taken not to drive the work up too close,
since forms should always be left in a position to experience some slight swelling without any
undesirable results
3.11 FORMS
A. LUMBER FORMS
• Sheathing lumber dressed at least ono side and both edges even are used where the removal
and cleaning of the forms are necessary for re-use
• Sheathing lumber dressed on all four sides shall be used in face work where smooth and true
surface is important.
• Tongue-and-groove lumber will achieve light joints between boards in floor and wall panel
construction. Simply dressing the lumbor true to edge form square of butt joints in the forms for
columns, beams, and girders.
Sizes of lumber frequently used:

• 2-inch thick for columns, beams and girder bottoms
• 1-inch thick for floor panels and beam and girder sides
• 2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and uprights
• 1 or 2-inch thick for cleats
3.11 FORMS
A. LUMBER FORMS
Use nails sparingly in the construction of forms because unnecessary nailing not only adds to the labor
of wrecking but also renders the lumber unfit for continued use. Where nails must be used, leave the
head protruding so that they may be withdrawn without injury to the lumber.
3.11 FORMS
A. LUMBER FORMS
All forms for concrete require a coating of some lubricant to prevent concrete from adhering to the wood
and thus make a rough, unpleasant appearance. Crude oil and petroline preserve the forms against
damage by alternate wetting and drying. The forms should preferably be oiled before they are set in
place. Oil should not be used, however, on forms against surfaces which are to be plastered, as oil
prevents adhesion of the plaster. In such cases, wetting with water will be sufficient.
3.11 FORMS
A. LUMBER FORMS
The inside of forms which have been used once and are to be used again shall be coated an approved
soap or other approved material, or thoroughly wetted before concreting. No application of soap or
other material should be made to forms after the reinforcements are in place.
The forms should be durable and rigid, and should be well braced so that bulging or twisting cannot
occur. The joints should be made tight enough to prevent leakage of the mortar.
3.11 FORMS
B. PLYWOOD FORMS
Works best where a smooth surface is required. The plywood should be waterproof, Grade "A" and at
least 12mm (4") thick.
C. STEEL FORMS
Steel forms may be in the form of pans for concrete joist construction or steel decking or corrugated
steel for concrete slabs and slab and-joist construction.
D. PLASTIC FORMS
Polystyrene forms are now available for concrete work.
4. PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.01 TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE
A. "AEROCRETE"
• This is a light-weight, expanded structural concrete produced by adding a small amount of
metallic aluminum powder to the mixture of Portland cement and sand of cinders.
• On the addition of water, a gas is generated which expands the wet mix and forms small air cells
throughout the material.
• It is used for structural floor and roof slabs, partition blocks for sound proofing, wall insulation, in
rooms of refrigerator plants, lightweight fill on top of structural floor and roof slabs.
• In addition to its light weight, it has excellent fire-resistive qualities.

B. "GUNITE"
• This is the mixture of sand and cement deposited under high pneumatic pressure with a machine
manufactured under the trade name CEMENT GUN, to which the required supply of water is
added just before the dry constituents emerge from nozzle.
• GUNITE is used for encasing structural steel, when reinforced, for floor and roof slabs and
curtain walls. Ideal for swimming pool construction.

C. "PORETE"
A Portland cement concrete to which a chemical foam is added to generate gases in the process of
deposition, resulting in light weight precast or shop-made unit in both hollow and solid forms. It is
manufactured in solid slabs for short spans roofs and siding of industrial buildings.

D. "HAYDITE"
This is processed concrete added with lightweight aggregate.
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

Lightweight aggregates have the following advantages:
• Reduction of dead loads saves structural steel, reduces bearing on foundation and cuts cost of
concrete forms
• High insulating value is provided by numerous dead air spaces.
• Rough texture of surfaces have good acoustical properties.
• Lightweight allows easier handling of precast slabs and blocks
• Lightweight plaster has less tendency to crack and its heat resistance makes it a good material
for fireproofing structural steel

The major disadvantages of lightweight aggregates are a result paradoxically of the physical qualities
which make them weight saving and good insulators:
• Porosity requires changes in the usual formulas for water and slump, and closer supervision of mixing.
Very light aggregates tend to float out of the mortar and some coarse aggregate concrete mixtures
require the addition of a fine aggregate like sand to prevent harsh working and serious bleeding.
• As aggregates become lighter they become structurally weaker so the strength of the matrix must be
modified by adding more cement. More cement is needed, also to "wet" the greater aggregate surface
area, due to the irregularity of the particles.
The major disadvantages of lightweight aggregates are a result paradoxically of the physical qualities
which make them weight saving and good insulators:
• The cost of raw aggregates is higher than for gravel, rock, and sand because of small production
facilities and the additional processing that is sometimes necessary.
• Concrete using lightweight aggregate should not weigh more than 75% of ordinary concrete.
Since the aggregates compromise about 50 percent of the usual mixes, its weight should not
be more than 50 percent of that of rock or gravel aggregates for the same volume. Grade rock,
gravel aggregates weigh a little less than 100 lbs. per cu ft. thus a good lightweight aggregate
should weigh less than 50 lbs. per cubic foot.

Lightweight aggregates can be divided into four general classifications:
A. AGGREGATES OF VOLCANIC ORIGIN
Pumice, weighing from 25 to 60 lbs.per cu. ft. is well qualified as a lightweight aggregate when dry and
well graded. It is hard to be handled and mixed without excessive breakdown.
Undesirable feature, however, is its water absorption. This can be mitigated by wetting the aggregate
before it is mixed with cement.

A. AGGREGATES OF VOLCANIC ORIGIN
Perlite is composed of stable silicates, and is inert and thus durable for use as a lightweight aggregate
or for insulation. Its disadvantages are its friability, small particle size, and extreme lightness. The small
particle size requires more cement, while its lightness, from 8 to 16 lbs. per cu. ft. increases the
tendency to float out of the mortar.
Perlite is useful where maximum strength is not required, as in precast slabs and blocks and in floor
fill, fireproofing and plaster.

C. BY-PRODUCT AGGREGATES
Expanded Slag or "foamed" slags are made by treating molten blast furnace slag with controlled
quantities of water or steam. Some slags are expanded are expanded in pits in the ground; others are
made in machines. Close control of steam is very important because too much granulates the slag,
yielding soft, friable particles; too little gives a heavy aggregate.
Foamed slag has been used for precast blocks, cast-in-place walls of houses and for panel filling
of steel-framed buildings.
Cinders are composed of the ash components of the coall along with the various quantities of
unburned or partially burned combustible matter. Cinders containing a minimum amount of combustible
material are satisfactory for use in concrete but are not particularly weight saving. Lightweight cinders
often have unsound physical and chemical properties.
MANSORY
1. MORTARS AND PLASTERS
-a proportioned mixture of siliceous materials (sand, crushed stone) and cement (lime, Portland)
which, after being prepared in a plastic state with water, hardens into a stonelike mass.
• Mortar is cement mix used to glue masonry units to each other, or other surface finishing
materials like tiles, bricks,stones to a receiving structure like a wall or floor.
• Plaster is mortar applied to wall surfaces as a preparation or a hard finish coat.
1.01 CEMENT MORTAR
- is a proportioned mixture of cement, fine aggregate and water.

- For first-class mortars 1 part of cement should be added to not more than 3 parts of sand.
- Replacing 10 or 15 percent of the cement by volume with hydrated lime gives greater
workability and increases the strength of the mortar.
- For rubble stonework, 1:4 will be much stronger than lime mortar. For the top surface of floors
and walks, use 1: 1 to 1-1/2
- Mortar made with fine sand requires a much larger quantity of cement to obtain a given
strength than mortar made with coarse sand.
-Mortar may be mixed by hand or mechanical mixers, the latter being preferred for large quantities.
-When the mixing is done by hand, it should be done on platforms made watertight to prevent the loss
of cement.
-The cement and sand should be mixed dry in small batches in the proportions required on a clean
platform.
-Water is added and the whole remixed until it is homogeneous in color and leaves the mixing hoe
clean when drawn out.
-Mortar should never be retempered after it has begun to set.
1.02 PLASTER
- is a mortar of cementitious material ( lime, gypsum or cement), sand and water which is
applied in coats (layers) to masonry surfaces, lath or various types of plaster board to give a
hard finish surface to interior or exterior walls and ceilings.
- the word "plaster" refers to gypsum plaster and the words gypsum and plaster are often used
interchangeably.
• Fiber or hair is sometimes added to the mixture to give increased strength as when used for
the first coat.
• Plastering is done according to two basic methods: two-coat and three-coat. A three-coat job
consists of:a first binding coal called scratch coal a second straightening coat called the brown-
coat and a final coat called the finish coat.
In the two-coat work, the scratch and brown coats are combined into one.
1.03 TYPES OF PLASTER AND THEIR USES
LIME PLASTER
Lime putty (hydrated lime and water;none hydraulic), mixed on the job with sand and gypsum plaster,
used for two and three-coat finish surfaces for interior walls and ceilings.
Scratch coat :1 part lime putty, 1 part Portland cement or Keene's cement, 2-3/4 parts sand by
weight.
Brown coat 1 part lime putty. ipart Portland cement or Keene's cement, 3 parts sand by weight.
• Finish coat:
Hard finish: 1 part lime pulty, 1/3 gypsum plaster by volume
Sand float : 1 part lime putty, gypsum plaster, 2 parts sand by volume
DIVISION 4: MASONRY
B. GYPSUM PLASTER
• Gypsum plaster Plaster of Paris mixed with clay, lime and other materials in combinations
covered by trademarks or patents Mixed on the job with water, sand, lime putty, hair or fiber for
two or three coat finish surfaces for interior walls and ceilings; or used dry as ingredient for
hard or sand float finish with lime plaster (see above)
• High-strength gypsum plaster. Same as gypsum plaster but mixed to meet established
standards. Mixed on the job with water, sand, lime putty hair or fiber for two and three-coat
finish surfaces for both exteriors and interiors.
Gypsum Plaster
Scratch and brown coats 2 parts sand by weight
Hard finis gypsum plaster by volume
1 part high-strength gypsum plaster to
1/4 lime putty to 1 part high-strength
B. GYPSUM PLASTER
Fibered gypsum plaster Gypsum plaster premixed with fibers. Mixed on the job with water and sand
for scratch coat for three-coat plastering job
• Prepared gypsum plaster Gypsum plaster mixed with fine white sand. Used for two and three-coat
finish surfaces for interior walls and ceilings.
- Scratch and brown coats: mix per manufacturer's instructions.
- Finish coat: Any type of final coat plaster (gypsum, Keene's cement, lime or prepared finish coat)
• Bonding plaster, Gypsum plaster mixed with ingredients develop more adhesive strength in
combinations covered by trademarks or patents. Used for Interior finish for smooth concrete
walls or callings Mix and apply as per manufacturer's directions
• Lightweight gypsum plaster fire-resistant plaster Gypsum plaster mixed on the job with water,
perlite, vermiculite or other suitable mineral aggregate Lightweight gypsum plaster is used
when weight is important, and for fire-proofing other materials such as steel. Applied on lath.
For Interior use only
• Scratch and brown coats 100 b
• 2 sand, 2 cu.ft. perlite or vermiculite per of plaster
Brown coat:
• 3 sand, 3 cu I. perlite or vermiculite per 100 lb. of plaster
Finish coat:
Hard finish
Sand Float Finish:

1/3 gypsum plaster, 1 lime putty by volume
gypsum plaster, 1-1/2 sand by volume
DIVISION 4: MASONRY
1.03 TYPES OF PLASTER AND THEIR USES B. GYPSUM PLASTER

Keene's cement Plaster of Paris mixed with alum or borax or other materials and burned (calcined) at
932°F. Mixed on the job with water, lame pally and line while sand as hard finish for two and three-
coal gypsum plaster. For interior use only
• Hard finish!
• DURTY weight
• 1 Keene's cement, lime 1/10 Ene white sand by
• Sand Boat finish putty, 4 %
• Keene's cement, 2 Eme sand by volume
Plaster of Paris- For omamental plaster work and castings.

Molding plaster - For omamental plaster work and castings. Mix with water as per manufacturer's
directions
Acoustics plaster- For acoustic treatment of interior walls and celings. Applied on gypsum plaster
base coals. Mix with water as per manufacturer's directions.

C. PORTLAND CEMENT PLASTER
Mixed with water, sand and lime putty. Used for two and three-coat finish surfaces for exterior
and interior walls and ceilings
Scratch and brown coats: cement, ½ lime putty, 3 sand. Sand float finish 1 cement, % lime
putty, 3 sand. Thickness of plaster coats depends on the type of material to which the plaster is
applied. Generally the total thickness is 5/8" on métal lath and 1 1/2" on lathing board and gypsum
block.
• In three-coat plastering work, the scratch and brown coals are thick at minimum; the finish coat is
1/8" with a minimum of 1/16" at any point.
For two-coat work, the base coat is 1 1/2%" and the finish coat is the same as three-coat work.
D. "SGRAFFITO"
• The word sgraffito comes from the Italian language and is derived from graffiare ("to scratch"),
ultimately from the Greek yodgev (gráphein, "to write). Related terms include graffito and
graffiti. (Wikipedia)
• is highly decorative type of plaster work developed in Italy during the Renaissance. This type
of technique consists of applying two or three thin coats of plaster different colors and then
cutting away certain areas of one or two coats to produce a three-dimensional colored design.
2. UNIT MASONRY
2.01 DEFINITION:
• Masonry - is a built-up construction or combination of building materials as clay, concrete, or
stone set in mortar, or plain concrete.
2. UNIT MASONRY
2.01 DEFINITION:
MASONRY TERMS:
a. Bed The horizontal surfaces on which the stones or bricks of walls lie in the courses.
b. Course-A continuous layer of bricks, stones, or other masonry units
c. Wythe or Tier-Each continuous, vertical section of the wall, one masonry unit thick
d. Bond That connection between bricks, stones or other masonry units formed by lapping them one
upon another carrying up the work, so as to form an inseparable mass of building, by preventing the
vertical joints falling over each other (also called a breaking joint).
e Stretcher A brick or block masonry laid lengthwise of a wall
f. Header A brick or block masonry extending over the thickness of the wall
g. Heading course - A course in which the bricks or other masonry units are all headers.
h. Soldier A unit laid on its end with its face perpendicular to the face of the wall
i. Quoins-The corner stones at the angles of buildings, usually rusticated so as to project from the
normal surface of the wall.
j. Bond Stones Stones running through the thickness of the wall at right angles to its face, in order to
bind it together.
k. Blocking or Blocking Course - A course of stones placed on top of cornice crowning the walls
2. UNIT MASONRY
2.02 STONE
• Stone, together with wood and clay, are the basic building material of man. The history of
architecture until as late as 1900 was largely the history of stone in architecture,
• Stone was the structural material, the exterior and interior finishing material, the flooring
material and in many cases the roofing materiál.
• It was also used for all types of sculpture, statuary, and decorative and ornamental
applications. Today, stone is largely used as a surface finishing material for both the exterior
and interior of buildings.
Stone commonly used for architectural purposes include:

• GRANITE
• MARBLE
• TRAVERTINE
• LIMESTONE
• SANDSTON
• SLATE
2. UNIT MASONRY
2.02 STONE
They are commonly classified as:
a. Rubble Stone. Stone delivered from the quarries rough and irregular shape.
b. Dimension Stone. Stone cut into specific size, squared to dimensions, and to a specific thickness.
2.02 STONE
STONEWORK The types of stonework are based on the shape and the surface treatment of
finish of the stone
a. Rubble work. Masonry of rough, undressed stones when only the roughest irregularities are
knocked off, it is called scabbled rubble, and when the stones in each course are rudely dressed to a
nearly uniform height, range rubble
b. Random work. Stones fitted together at random without any attempt to lay them in course.
c. Ashlar, Squared stones in regular courses, in contradistinction to rubble work.
d. Ranged work or coursed ashlar - Uniform courses with stones uniform in size.
e. Broken range ashlar - Course laid with the horizontal joints uninterrupted, but the width of the
courses and the tength of the stones are varied to produce a wall with a less regular pattern.
2. UNIT MASONRY
2.02 STONE
STONEWOR
• Ashlar - Random course their rectangular shape and are laid on horizontal beds but no effort is
made to continue the horizontal beds through in an uninterrupted manner. Large stones
combine with small ones in a convenient and, if possible, an interesting manner.
• Rustic or Rock work- Courses of stone face which is jagged, so as to present a rough surface.
• Rustication occurs when heavier stones or areas of stone project from the normal face of the
surrounding wall or of the joint themselves.
2.03 BRICK
- are structural units of clay or shale formed while plastic and subsequently fired
- The manufacture of brick consists essentially of screening grinding, or working the clay to the
desired consistency for moulding, whether by hand or machine.
- After moulding the bricks are dried and then burned in kilns for many hours at high
temperatures, approximately 2000 F These processes punty the raw products, make it uniform
and homogeneous, burn out all combustible matter, and result in a product which is both stable
and physically permanent Standard size of brick is 3:3/4 x 2 1/4 x 8
The types of bricks most frequently used in architecture are Common or building brick. Used for all
purposes, including facing
b. Facing brick. Specially processed to give certain specific surface characteristics. Used for exposed
masonry surfaces.
C. Glazed brick. These have a smooth outer surface with a dull satin or high gloss finish. They are
load bearing, fire resisting, and Impérvious. They are usually formed with vertical hollow cores
through the body with scoring on the back. d. Fire (refractory) brick. These are ordinarily made from a
mixture of fint clay and plastic clay, and are used for the lining of furnaces, fireplaces, and chimneys.
• Mortar joints between brick courses are usually from 4.5mm (3/16") to 12mm (1").
2.03 BRICK BRICK WORK.
The usual methods of laying brick are as follows

e. Running Bond. A brick work or masonry bond composed of overlapping stretchers.
f. Soldier Course. A continuous course of soldiers in a brick work.
g. Stack Bond. A brickwork or masonry bond having successive courses of stretchers with all head
joints aligned vertically.
2. UNIT MASONRY
2.04 CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCK
• Concrete Hollow Block (CHB) is a hollow masonry unit, with two or three cells or cores, made
of the following ingredients: water, Portland cement, and vanous types of aggregate such as
sand, gravel, and crushed stone.
• Lightweight concrete hollow blocks are also manufactured with such aggregates as cinders,
expanded slag, expanded shale or clay. Expanded blast furnace slag rates the highest in fire
resistance, and due to its cellular structure, has high sound and thermal insulation quality
• These are manufactured by machine-mixing the ingredients, pouring the mix into molds, and
curing the block by air drying. A steam-and-pressure curing process is also used which can
produce concrete hollow block in a few hours.
2. UNIT MASONRY
• Standard CHB sizes are from thicknesses of 100mm (4"), 150mm (6") and 200mm (8") x
height of 200mm (8") x length of 400mm (16").
• CHB of 100mm (4") thickness should be used only for interior partition walls where weather-
tightness is not required.
2. UNIT MASONRY
2.04 CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCK (PLATE NO.2-PR)
• The different types of concrete hollow block include:
A STRETCHERS
B. HEADER
C. CORNER BLOCKS
D. JAMB BLOCKS
E BEAM OR LINTEL BLOCKS
2. UNIT MASONRY
• Concrete hollow blocks should be laid on a full bed mortar with horizontal and vertical joints
10mm (3/8") thick.
• Reinforcement for 100mm (4") and 150mm (6") thick wall shall be 10mm2 vertical bars at
600mm on centers and 10mm horizontal bars every third course
• Reinforcement for 200mm (8) thick walls shall be 12mm vertical bars at 600mm on center and
12mm horizontal bars every third course
• All horizontal reinforcement shall be tied to the vertical reinforcement at their intersections.
• Dowel bars should be placed into the piers, columns. slabs, leaving 20 bar diameters exposed
to splice with the reinforcement of the hollow blocks.
2. UNIT MASONRY
- Block cells with reinforcement are filled with cement mortar.
- Concrete hollow block walls should have a reinforced concrete lintel or beam block course
every twelfth course, and a concrete column stiffener at every 4.80 meters length.
2. UNIT MASONRY
2.05 "DURISOL" BLOCK
"DURISOL" block is lightweight block made from fiber and cement

- DURISOL" block units are two-core, 100mm (4) or 150mm (6) x 87mm (7-1/2") x 600mm (24)
- Reinforcement shall be 10mm vertical bars at 720mm (36) on center and at every 4th course.
Every 4th course should be a beam block course, Cores shall be solidly filled with cement mortar.
2. UNIT MASONRY
2.07 STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE
Structural clay tile are hollow masonry units, open at two ends with interior webs or partitions 19mm
(4) to 25mm (1") dividing the block into longitudinal cells.
In its manufacture, the various shapes of clay tile are formed through special dies and then wire-cut
into the required lengths.
It may have a smooth or scored (grooved) surface. Structural clay tile is classified into:
Load-bearing wail tile, 300mm x 300mm x 300mm (12 x 12" x 12")
b. Non-load bearing, fireproofing, partition, and furring tile, 100mm (4") or 125mm (5") x 200mm x
300mm
2. UNIT MASONRY
3. 2.06 PLASTER BLOCK
- also known as gypsum partition blocks are usually made of gypsum, vegetable
fibers as binders, and reinforcement used for lightweight, fire-resistant interior partitions and for
furring and fireproofing columns.
- Gypsum hollow blocks are manufactured in units of 75mm (3"), 100mm (4") or 150mm (8)
thicknesses, x 300mm (12") height x (9) 700mm (30) length.
- Gypsum solid block is manufactured only with a 50mm (2") thickness.
METALS
DIVISION 5: METALS
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
• is a soft, nonmagnetic silvery metal
• characterized by its light weight (1/3 that of iron, brass or copper)
• low melting point
• high thermal and electrical conductivity (surpassed only by silver and copper)
• moderately high coefficient of expansion
1. TYPES OF METALS
• readily combines with oxygen to form aluminum oxide, a transparent film that makes it corrosion
resistant
• is readily attacked by alkalis, hydrochloric acid and other dilute acids.
• is subject to galvanic action and should therefore be electrically insulated from direct contact with
metals other than zinc, cadmium, magnesium and nonmagnetic stainless steel.
• is easily worked: can be hot or cold rolled, extruded, forged, pressed, drawn, molded, stamped, bent
and shaped.
• can be riveted, bolted, welded, brazed and soldered.
In architectural work practically all

fabricated forms of aluminum are used:
• Rod
• Bar
• Extrusion
• Casting
• Sheet
• strip, etc.
EXTRUSION
- is the process of shaping material by forcing it to flow through
a shaped opening in a die.
- Extruded material emerges as an elongated piece with the same
profile as the die opening.
- However, these products are not fabricated from pure aluminum but in alloy combination with iron, silicon,
copper, manganese, magnesium, zinc, chromium and nickel in small quantities to give strength and other
desirable characteristics but often reduces its corrosion resistance.
"Alclad" is a term applied to certain aluminum products,

refers to the protective coating (cladding) applied, primarily
for corrosion resistance, to thin sheets of an alloy whose
corrosion resistance has been decreased by the constituents
added to give strength and other characteristics. (ACP
aluminum composite panel)
Cladding improves the appearance of the alloy. This thin, integral cladding usually consists of pure aluminum.
magnesium silicide, or zinc alloys, with or without manganese.
A. TYPES OF ALUMINUM
ALUMINUM SHEET AND STRIP, used for roofing, flashing,
gutter, etc.
ALUMINUM FOIL-rolled to a thickness of 0.005" (above

0.005 it is technically considered to be sheet), used mainly for
thermal insulation and vapor barriers.
It may serve also as a surface finish material when laminated to various sheet and board materials. In this form
it also supplies additional insulation value to the sheet or board
CORRUGATED ALUMINUM. - This is rigidized sheet

fabricated of special aluminum alloys specifically developed for
this purpose. It usually consists of an aluminum alloy core of one
type clad with another, highly corrosion-resistant aluminum
roofing and siding.
STRUCTURAL ALUMINUM - When aluminum is used as a structural material, important factors, arising
from its physical and chemical characteristics, are considered:
- Aluminum can be extruded; therefore, a structural
shape can be produced economically to meet the
specified structural design requirements.
- Very corrosion resistant aluminum alloys are available;
requiring no painting and the thickness of sections can
be reduced since a safety margin is not necessary to
cover loss of strength due to corrosion
STRUCTURAL ALUMINUM. - Aluminum is very lightweight

material, hence aluminum girders and columns show increased
efficiency with large bay spacing. However, because the modulus of
elasticity of aluminum alloys is lower than steel, its means that
buckling is a possibility and should always be checked.
ALUMINUM DOORS AND WINDOWS- These are generally

fabricated from extrusions and rolled shapes.
ALUMINUM PANELS AND SANDWICH PANELS -are pre-fabricated units, generally manufactured:
- using dimensions of modular and non-modular window-width for building exterior, and
- in 600mm, 900mm, and 1200mm widths for interior partitions and dividers.
Panels for the exterior of buildings primarily consist of :
- an aluminum exterior facing which may be an aluminum casting
- an extrusion or sheet material which has been pressed, stamped or formed into specially design
shapes.
ALUMINUM PANELS AND SANDWICH PANELS - A sandwich panel comprises a system of construction
called skin construction.
A cellular core of aluminum or other material has a skin of
aluminum applied and bonded to both sides. thereby forming a
unified whole in which all the components work as one.
ORNAMENTAL ALUMINUM. - Many kinds of rods, bars, pipes, railings,

fittings, and special shapes are manufactured as stock items for use in
ornamental design of railings, grilles, screens, etc.
Aluminum Mesh and Wire Cloth are used for fencing.

particularly chain link fencing and insect screening.
B. TYPES OF ALUMINUM FINISHES

MECHANICAL FINISHES - obtained by grinding polishing, scratching,
sandblasting, embossing, or other treatment of the surface to achieve a
desired effect or to provide a base for other finishes.
Chemical finishes - based on chemical reactions with the aluminum

surface to achieve one of the following results:
(a) etching, cleaning, or polishing of the surface to remove any

oxide film or surface irregularity and provide a design, a clean surface texture, or a polished effect, and
(b) oxidizing the surface with aluminum or other metallic oxides that protect the surface or serve
as a base for subsequent treatment, or both. Chemical finishes permit only limited colors that are not as
satisfying as the color films obtained on electrolytically applied (anodized) oxide films.
ELECTROLYTIC FINISHES Commonly referred to as anodized finishes, these finishes are based on the
specific ability of aluminum to develop a protective coating of oxide on its surface.
The coating formed may be transparent or opaque. It is hard,
yet when colored finishes are desired, it is porous enough to absorb
dyes until the final treatment which seals the surface.
Of the colors used in anodic treatments, architectural gold has
proven to be one of the most stable from the standpoint of fade
resistance. Others are blue and, more recently, brown and black
ELECTROPLATING. Aluminum can be covered with a protective or decorative film or another metal, usually
by electrodeposition. In the case of copper and nickel, the coating should be complete and unbroken;
otherwise there will be galvanic action which is destructive to aluminum.
PORCELAIN OR VITREOUS ENAMEL. This finish forms a hard, resistant surface. It

is available in a broad color range that creates a different feeling in that colors are
glassy, whereas anodic color is metallic in nature.
PAINT - Paint, lacquer and enamel can be applied as finishes to aluminum surfaces
that have been prepared by a suitable chemical treatment finish. Lead base paints
must not be used on aluminum.
1.02 IRON
Pure iron is:
• tough,
• malleable silvery-white metal that IS
• soft and ductile as copper
• it is easily magnetized
• is the most magnetically permeable of the metals
• it oxidizes rapidly in air and is readily attacked by most acids.
• can be hardened by heating and sudden cooling
• and made more pliable or more workable by heating and slow cooling.
• At very low temperatures is very brittle
• at red heat it is soft, and at white heat it can be welded.
As pure iron passes through these temperature ranges, it undergoes changes in its structure and properties
that are vitally important in the preparation of steel (an iron-carbonalloy).
The commercial form in which iron is first prepared is crude or pig iron. This impure form which contains 3% to
4% carbon and varying amount of phosphorous, silicon, sulfur, and manganese, is the starting point from
which all other kinds of iron and iron alloys (or steel) are produced.
The key to the various types of iron and steel is the carbon-iron relationship.
A. CAST IRON
- is an iron-carbon alloy that contains more than 1.7% carbon
- is poured while molten into forms
- it can be easily cast into any shape, but it is too hard and brittle to be shaped by hammering, rolling, or
pressing.
- Cast iron is used in the architectural field mainly for piping and fittings, ornamental ironwork,
hardware, as the base metal for porcelain enameled plumbing fixtures, and for miscellaneous casting
such as floor and wall brackets for railings, vents, circular stairs manhole covers, and gratings
The types of cast iron generally used are gray cast iron and malleable cast iron. Cast irons find their largest
use in heavy machinery and industry because it has significant compressive strength and the ability to absorb
energy and stop vibration.
B. WROUGHT IRON
• is almost pure iron with less than 0.1% carbon, usually not more than 0.05%.
• contains 2.5%, of slag (iron silicate) in purely physical association, not alloyed.
• Wrought iron is soft, malleable, tough, fatigue-resistant, and resistant to progressive corrosion.
• It has good machinability and can be forged, bent, rolled, drawn, and spun. It can be welded by any of
the commonly used procedures. Wrought iron is available in the form of pipes, plates, sheets, special
shapes, and bars.
• Wrought iron is now used in the architectural field primarily in the form of genuine wrought iron pipe,
chain, sheet, and ornamental ironwork. Wrought iron pipe is used extensively for plumbing, heating,
and air conditioning where a corrosion resistant, tough, durable material is required.
• Because it is intrinsically related to classical architecture and requires high skilled craftsmanship,
wrought ironwork today is used only in furniture, railing, fences, grilles, and small decorative objects.
1.03 STEEL
• The word "steel" refers usually to plain carbon steels which is defined as alloys of iron and carbon whi
do not contain more than 2% carbon and which are made in malleable or ingot form.
• In the plain or straight carbon steels the iron is always in excess of 95%.
• phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are present, the last three as impurities.
• Manganese, silicon, aluminum, copper and nickel may also be present either as residual impurities or
as elements deliberately added in small quantities to control the properties of the steel.
• Carbon steel can be wrought, rolled, cast, and welded, but not extruded.
A. WROUGHT CARBON STEEL
Structural steel. This is a medium carbon steel with its carbon content controlled to give both the strength
and ductility necessary for its use.
Structural steel is available in angles, channels, I-beams, H columns, T shapes, Z shapes, plates, round pipe
columns, sheet piling, open web joists, and light steel framing shapes.
Reinforcement of concrete - Usually deformed bars of varying grades and diameters.

Sheet and strip. Steel sheet is made from low carbon steels generally containing about 0.15% carbon and
not exceeding 0.25% carbon. Strip by definition is sheet material that is 12" or less wide. It is used in
fabricated form as decking galvanized sheet, expanded metal, panels and sandwich panels, and as a base
metal for porcelain enamel
Corrugated steel. This is rigidized sheet fabricated from low-carbon cold or hot rolled steel sheets which
are either galvanized or covered with some type of bituminous coating. If galvanized, corrugated steel is
silvery in color and has a glittering frosted surface. It is generally available in 18, 20, 22, 24, and 26 gauge sheet
and strip.
Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth. They are used for concrete reinforcement, lath for plaster, stucco, and
cement, fencing, insect screens
Steel Windows and Doors.

Hardware such as nails, screws, rivets, etc
B. . ALLOY STEEL
• steels to which manganese, silicon, aluminum, titanium, and molybdenum have been added in
sufficient quantity to produce properties unobtainable in carbon steels in cast, rolled or heat-
treated form.
The alloying elements are added to increase the following properties:
✓strength
✓hardness
✓ease and depth of hardenability
✓performance at high or low temperatures
✓electromagnetic properties
✓wear resistance
✓electrical conductivity or resistivity.
In structural applications only the properties of:

✓strength
✓expansion
✓resistance to corrosion
✓ductility, and
✓workability are of interest to the architect.
➢ High-strength low-alloy steels are a group of trade name steels with improved mechanical
properties and resistance to atmospheric corrosion, They are being increasingly used as reinforcing for
pre stressed concrete, high strength bolts, special structural steels and cables for elevators, etc.
➢ Stainless steels generally used in architecture are highly alloyed steels that contain more than 10%
chromium. They are characterized by their resistance to heat, oxidation and corrosion. They are used
where corrosion resistance, durability, and minimum of maintenance is necessary principally for
exterior and interior wall finishes, doors, windows, trims, railings, signs and letters, appliances, etc.
1.04 COPPER
• is ductile, malleable, nonmagnetic metal with a characteristic bright, reddish brown color.
• has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any substances except silver.
• Copper useful alloys have enough strength for minor structural work
• easily worked.
• It is attacked by alkalis and many of the common acids.
• It is highly resistant to corrosion by air and salt water.
• On exposure it soon reacts to form a surface layer of an insoluble green salt which retards further
corrosion; this green color on copper is known as its patina.
• Copper can be cast, drawn, extruded, hot and cold worked, spun, hammered, punched, welded,
brazed, and soldered.
• The galvanic action of copper must be considered when copper is used in architecture. When in
contact with many of the common construction materials and in the presence of an electrolyte; it will
corrode these materials near the area of contact.
• The copper itself, being cathode, will not corrode. Therefore a careful check should be made of the
methods of attachment, support and securing into place.
• As copper is one of the best electrical conductors, it finds tremendous use in the entire electrical field,
from very fine wires to bus bars.
• Copper sheet and strip are used for roofing and flashing.
1.05 TIN
• is a soft, ductile, malleable, bluish-white metal.
• Because it is normally covered with a thin film of stannic oxide, it resists corrosion by air, moisture,
sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide (which usually tarnishes and corrodes other metals).
• takes a highly reflective polish and has the ability to wet other metals.
• The main use of the tin is in metallic form of either pure tin or tin-containing alloys for protective
coatings on stronger metals.
• Architectural uses of tin include bronzes, brasses, terneplate, mirrors, gilding, solders, hardware and
fusible alloys.
1.06 ZINC
• is medium hard, bluish-white metal
• is characterized by brittleness and low strength.
• is readily attacked by acids and alkalis.
• It is resistant to corrosion by water. On exposure to air, a film of zinc carbonate or oxide forms which
protects zinc from further oxidation.
• The most important uses of zinc are
• as protective coatings (galvanizing) on iron and steel
• as die-casting metal, and
• as an alloying element in brasses.
Galvanizing is the process whereby a protective coat of zinc is applied to steel and iron to
protect them against corrosion. The advantage of coating them with zinc is that, should the iron or steel
become exposed through wear, aging or discontinuities, galvanic reaction between the coating and the base
metal causes the zinc to corrode and form compounds which cover and continue to protect the iron and steel
for as long as any zinc remains.
Hot-dip galvanizing- metal parts are fully submerged in a bath of molten zinc.
Zinc plating-(also known as electro galvanising) is a process where zinc is applied by using a current of
electricity. While is does provide some rust protection, its thinner coating is not as rust resistant as hot dip
galvanising. Its main advantage is it is cheaper and easier to weld.
• The most common galvanized material used in architecture is galvanized iron (steel) sheet and strip.
• Galvanized sheets become defaced and discolored when subjected to dampness and extremes of
temperature.
• If the sheets are piled flat in the open or tightly bundled in a warehouse, the zinc coating can also be
damaged by the consequent absence of oxygen and carbon dioxide between two sheets. This absence
prevents the formation of a protective film of zinc carbonate; instead zinc hydroxide forms and
destroys the galvanizing.
1.07 BRASS
• fundamentally an alloy of copper and zinc with small quantities of other elements sometimes added to
give the special qualities.
• The copper-zinc proportions may vary from 95% copper and 5% zinc to 55% copper and 45% zinc.
• As a class, brass alloys are less hard and strong than steels (iron-base alloys) but are superior in
workability and resistance to corrosion.
• All brasses react with other metals. When brass is used in direct contact with any other metal, a careful
check should be made of its position on the galvanic series.
• Brass should not come into direct contact with iron, steel or stainless, aluminum, zinc or magnesium if
there is an electrolyte present or the possibility of one forming at the point of contact.
• In architecture, brasses are used for doors, windows, door and window frames, and for ornamental
metalwork such as railings, trims, grilles, etc.
• They are also used extensively for finish hardware, plating of hardware, and other miscellaneous
accessories such as screws, nuts and bolts, anchors, etc.
1.08 BRONZE
• True bronze is an alloy of copper and tin which varies only slightly from 90% copper and 10% tin
composition.
• This bronze is a rich golden-brown metal, originally worked by forging and particularly suited for
casting since it is corrosion resistant, dense and hard enough to take an impression of a mold of any
delicacy whatever.
• The term "bronze" however, is no longer used in this limited sense. In commercial practice the terms
"brass" and "bronze" may be used without much regard for their original meanings.
• The term "bronze" now usually has a prefix and indicates alloys of copper with silicon, manganese,
aluminum, and other elements with or without zinc, e.g. silicon bronze.
• A few brasses are known as bronzes because they have the characteristic bronze color.
• Of the three types of so-called bronzes in architectural work, only one is true bronze. This is the
statuary bronze, which consist usually of 97% copper, 2% tin and 1% zinc.
• As for the others, architectural bronze is really a leaded brass, and commercial bronze is one of the
more commonly used brasses (90% copper and 10% zinc).
• The architectural uses of bronze are confined to statuary, plaques, medallions and other
ornamentation, and miscellaneous rough and finish hardware.
1.09 CHROMIUM
• is a steel-white metal which takes a brilliant polish and is harder than cobalt or nickel.
• It is nonmagnetic at ordinary temperatures but becomes magnetic at 13°F.
• It does not tarnish in air, resists oxidizing agents, is soluble in acids and strong alkalis.
• The principal use of chromium is an alloying ingredient in ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy.
• Chromium plating is one of the most commonly encountered usage of this material in architecture. It
gives a thin, hard, bright, wear resistant surface which sheds water when highly polished. The metals
that can be plated with chromium include aluminum, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium, zinc
and their alloys. The chromium is electro deposited as a thin layer of pure metal.
1.10 NICKEL
• is an inert silvery metal
• is resistant to strong alkalis and to most acids.
• It resembles iron in strength and toughness and copper in its resistance to oxidation and corrosion.
• Nickel takes a high polish and can be hot and cold rolled forged, bent, extruded, spun, punched and
drawn.
• When alloyed with other metals, nickel imparts its qualities of strength, hardness, toughness, ductility,
corrosion resistance, and strength at high temperatures to the resulting material. The major use of
nickel therefore is in alloys
• Another important use of nickel is as protective or decorative coating for other metals. It can be
applied to the following base metals and their alloys: aluminum, brass, copper, iron, magnesium, steel,
tin, and zinc.
1.11 LEAD
• Lead is a blue-gray, soft, very heavy metal (the heaviest of the common metals). It is extremely
workable, has good corrosion resistance, is easily recovered from scrap materials, and is relatively
impenetrable to radiation. The corrosion resistance of lead arises from the fact that metallic lead does
not react with many compounds or solutions, and with certain others it forms compounds which act as
protective coatings against further corrosion.
• Lead is available (1) extruded in the forms of pipe, rod, wire, ribbon, etc. (2) rolled into sheet, foil, strip,
(3) cast. There are several grades of lead metal of which corroding lead, chemical lead and common
desilverized lead are of interest to the architect. Corroding lead is used for fine white lead paints, red
lead, litharge (see PAINT). Chemical lead and common desilverized are used for sheet, pipe, powdered
lead, ribbon lead and alloys.
• Lead also finds many uses in rough hardware items such as expansion shields for securing bolts,
screws, and other accessories in masonry, washers, lead-headed nails, etc.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS
2.01 SOLDERING
• is a method to join metals, to make electrical connections, to seal joints hermetically with another
lower melting metal or alloy called the solder.
• Since the temperatures used are comparatively low, there is no alloying action between the solder and
the metals being joined, which are usually stronger than the solder itself.
• Soldered joints have very little tensile, shear or impact strength; therefore this method should not be
used where a strong joint is required.
• Solders are mostly alloys of tin and lead in various proportions with small percentages of other
elements added to give special characteristics. They can be divided into the following major types:
- tin-lead
- tin-lead-antimony
- silver-lead.
• Tin-lead solder of the 50% tin, 50% lead variety is the most commonly used general purpose of solder.
• Some tin-lead are used for coating the metals before soldering. This is known as pre tinning.
A. METAL BATH DIP: defined as a metal-joining process where the workpieces to be joined are immersed
in a pot of molten solder.
Because of the relatively low melting temperature of the soldér (between 350 and 600 degrees F), only
adhesion between the solder and the workpieces results.
A flux or metal cleaner is used to prepare the workpiece for bonding with the solder.
Typically, dip soldering is an automated process used extensively in the electronics assembly industry.
B. SOLDERING IRON -In this method the iron piece is preheated and applied to the joint along with the
solder and the flux (the flux is a substance used in soldering to clean the surfaces of the metals to be joined
and to aid fluidity); the heat from the iron forms the soldered joint.
C. TORCH -The parts to be soldered are heated by the torch flame and then the solder and flux are applied.
This method is limited to metals which can be heated without altering their characteristics.
D. SWEAT METHOD
• The heating of the metals to be joined causes the solder to run into the joint. This is the method used
for joining copper tubing and fittings.
• Fluxes for soldering are generally of three types: corrosive, neutral and noncorrosive.
• Corrosive fluxes are known as acid type and salt type fluxes and include chlorides of zinc, ammonium,
calcium, magnesium, aluminum and other metal. Care should always be taken with the corrosive
fluxes. The residue must be quickly removed, as it is not only corrosive to the metal being joined, but it
is also electrically conductive as a rule and therefore cannot be used for most electrical work.
• Neutral fluxes are mild in type and are used for easily soldered metals such as copper, brass, lead, and
tin plate.
• Stearic acid is a typical neutral flux.
• Noncorrosive fluxes leaves residues which are noncorrosive and nonconductive and therefore need not
be removed. Rosin is the principal flux of this type.
• Noncorrosive fluxes are weak their fluxing action and their use are limited to the easily soldered base
metals.
2.02 BRAZING
• Brazing is a type of soldering in which the operating temperatures are higher (but lower than in
welding) and in which stronger and higher melting alloys are used to fill the joints, which consequently
are stronger than ordinary soldered joints. The bond is obtained by alloying between the brazing
material and the surface of the joined metals.
• Brazing is generally used where the shape and position of the joint or the composition of the metal or
metals are not adaptable to welding. In brazing the type of metal to be joined, the brazing material,
and their color are equally important because galvanic action, strength of the joint, matching of colors
play a significant part in the finished product.
• Brazing materials fall into six major types: aluminum-silicon, copper phosphorous, silver, copper, and
copper-zinc, magnesium, and heat resistant alloys. Each type is particularly suited to a certain group of
metals. The brazing materials are prepared by melting and mixing together the metallic ingredients to
fixed and controlled proportions.
2.03 WELDING
• Welding is the process by which two metals are so joined that there is an actual union of the
interatomic bonds. This may be brought about by close contact, heating, pressure, adding molten
metal, or combinations of these methods. The resulting joints are as strong or stronger than the metals
joined.
• Welding may be divided into two general types: pressure welding in which pressure and heat make the
weld; and fusion welding, in which the heat and added metal make the weld. In fusion welding the
methods of heating are gas flame and electric arc. The gas flame now generally used is acetylene mixed
with oxygen. It will deliver about 5500 F of heat which is sufficient to melt the welding rod and the
surrounding metal and then fuse them together. In electric-arc method, when the welding rod (or
electrode) is brought near the joint of the metals to be welded, an electric arc is formed which melts
and fuses the metal and the welding rod.
2.04 RIVETS
• Rivets are devices used to join or fasten the metals. The rivet, a metal cylinder or rod which has a head
at one end, is inserted through holes in the materials being joined, and then the protruding end is
flattened to tie the two pieces of material together.
3. METALS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

3.01 STEEL BARS
• Reinforcement for concrete construction is mostly in the form of steel bars and rods of round or square
cross section. The bars may be plain or deformed (with lugs or projections for better bonding to the
concrete). They are called billet-steel bars or rail steel bars.
• Billet-steel bars are made by the open hearth furnace by the acid Bessemer furnace and meet fixed
chemical compositions. They are rolled from billets directly reduced from ingots and come in three
grades: structural, intermediate, and hard. For architectural purposes the intermediate grade is the
most generally used. Rail steel bars are rolled from standard T-rails and come only in one grade. Steel
bars vary in size from to 1-1/4" and in lengths of 20 or 30 feet.
3.02 IRE FABRIC

Wire fabric made of cold drawn steel wire is widely used for the reinforcement of concrete slabs and
floors, as well as for stuccoed work.
A. WELDED WIRE FABRIC

Welded-wire mesh, also called welded-wire fabric, used to reinforce concrete slabs used in light
construction, consists of a series wires welded together to form a grid pattern. It comes in various sizes &
spacings and gauges, e.g. 4" x 4"-6/6, 6" x 6"-8/8, etc.
The first pair of numbers refer to the spacing of the wires: the second pair refers to the gauge of the
longitudinal and transverse wires respectively. Thus, for example, a 6 x 6 - 10/10 mesh (read it six six-ten ten)
will be both No. 10 gauge wires spaced 6 apart bothways (the smaller the gauge number the heavier the
wire). Welded wire fabric is available in rolls 5 or 6 ft. wide, 150, 200, and 300 ft. long.
B. TRIANGLE-MESH WIRE FABRIC

Is built up of either single or stranded longitudinal wires with cross wires or bond wires running
diagonally across the fabric. The longitudinal wires are spaced at 4" on centers and the cross wires 4" or 8"
apart.
3.03 EXPANDED MESH

This is manufactured from solid steel sheets. To form the expanded mesh, the sheet is first cut or
pierced in staggered slots or patterns; then the sheet is held by the two sides parallel to the slots and
stretched by pressure until the desired openings or forms are obtained. Sheets may also be stamped,
perforated or deformed into an open mesh. The forms into which sheet can be shaped include diamond,
crimp, herringbone and Z-rib, to name only a few. Expanded mesh is therefore free from mechanical and
welded joints., e.g. STEELCRETE.
3.04 LATHS
In addition to the various meshes mentioned above, permanent centering or self-centering laths are
produced in many forms. These laths are furnished either in flat or segmental sheets, pressed into a series of
solid ribs, between which the metal is stamped, perforated or deformed into an open mesh-work. These laths
are furnished painted or galvanized, and in open-hearth mild steel or in special copper bearing or alloy steels,
e.g. "RIBPLEX", "HYRIB".
4. STORAGE AND CARE FOR METAL REINFORCEMENT

Metal reinforcement shall be stored in racks above the ground and away from moisture and
vegetation. If a large quantity of reinforcement is stored at the site for an extended period, it is well to build
shed over the storage racks. A bright-red rust, such as forms in a few days on reinforcement exposed to rain, is
not in any way detrimental. Actual rust scales, however, may indicate a reduction in the effective cross section
of the bar. Deep scaling should be considered a sufficient reason for condemning the use of reinforce unless it
is first cleaned of mill and rust scale and used as the equivalent of a smaller size. All reinforcement should be
kept free from oil which will tend to reduce the bond between concrete and steel.

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CODE 117 │ ARCH 1093 │ BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1 – BUILDING MATERIALS

The history of building is marked by a number of trends.

A reconstruction of a pit-house type dwelling made with mammoth bones

THE TOOLS AVAILABLE MADE FROM NATURAL MATERIALS

A reconstruction of a neolithic fortified village showing a palisade wall and

An illustration showing masonry techniques of ancient Greece and Rome.

Songyue Pagoda is the oldest brick pagoda dating to 523 AD. It

Villard de Honnecourt's drawing of a flying buttress at Reims, ca. AD 1320-1335

The seventeenth century

The eighteenth century

The nineteenth century: Industrial

The twentieth century

1.02 DEFINITIONS AND STANDARD

AASHTO DEFINES PARTICLE SIZES AS:

BOULDERS — ABOVE 75MM

GRAVEL — 75MM TO NO. 10 SIEVE

COARSE SAND — NO. 10 TO NO.40 SIEVE

FINE SAND — NO.40 TO NO.200 SIEVE

SILT-CLAY PARTICLES — PASSING NO.200 SIEVE

LIQUID LIMIT (LL)

PLASTIC LIMIT (PL)

PLASTICITY INDEX (PI)

B. GRANULAR FILL OR FILTERS

D. BASE COURSE MATERIALS

- A CONSTRUCTED LAYER OR FACING OF STONE, PLACED TO PREVENT

1.04 GABION SYSTEM

- ACCORDING TO FHA GUIDANCE, THE THICKNESS OF WIRE MATTRESSES

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS CONSISTING OF SYNTHETIC COMPONENTS

REINFORCEMENT - WHEN THE GEOTEXTILE FABRIC LENDS ITS

FILTRATION - WHEN THE GEOTEXTILE IS USED TO PREVENT THE

FILTRATION HAS THREE SEPARATE CATEGORIES:

SUBSURFACE - THOSE EMPLOYED IN SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE

EROSION CONTROL - THOSE EMPLOYED TO PROTECT CUT SLOPES OR

SEDIMENT CONTROL - ARE EXCLUSIVELY THOSE USED FOR SILT

THERMOPLASTIC PRODUCTS - MANUFACTURED FROM HIGH- DENSITY

THERMOSET POLYMER ETHYLENE - PROPYLENE DIENE MONOMER

DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOMEMBRANES HAVE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT

- CONSIST OF A COMBINATION OF GEOSYNTHETIC COMPONENTS; ARE

THE CORE PROVIDES VOID SPACE TO WHICH WATER

GEOCOMPOSITE SHEET DRAINS ARE AVAILABLE THAT ALLOW FLOW IN FROM

IS A TYPE OF GEOSYNTHETIC THAT CONSISTS OF A CONTINUOUS

ARE THREE-DIMENSIONAL PREFABRICATED POLYMERIC SYSTEMS RANGING

ORIGINALLY DEVELOPED TO RAPIDLY STABILIZE SOFT SUBGRADES FOR

1.06 SLOPE-EROSION PROTECTION MATERIALS

THESE INCLUDE MATERIALS USED FOR BOTH TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT

THE OPEN MESH SYSTEMS SERVE AS A SEMIPERMANENT MULCH,

2.0 TERMITE AND BUKBOK PROOFING

PREVENT TERMITES FROM ACCESSING THE WOOD IN A HOME. THERE ARE

TERMITE RESISTANT SAND - A LAYER OF SAND WITH UNIFORM SIZE

TERMITE MESH - STEEL MESH PRODUCT THAT IS FINE ENOUGH TO KEEP

HOME CONSTRUCTION - IN PARTICULARLY HIGH-RISK TERMITE

B. CHEMICAL BARRIERS: THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS METHOD IS TO

- PRE-CONSTRUCTION CHEMICAL BARRIERS ARE ALMOST ALWAYS

- VERTICAL BARRIERS ARE CREATED BY APPLYING 4 GALLONS OF

➢ IF AREAS TO BE TREATED ARE MORE THAN 300MM (ONE FOOT) DEEP,

- HORIZONTAL BARRIERS ARE MADE BY APPLYING 4 LITERS (ONE

➢ SLAB TREATMENT- INVOLVES DRILLING THROUGH THE SLAB FLOOR

- BASEMENTS AND CRAWL SPACES - TRENCHES ARE DUG AROUND THE

C. COLONY ELIMINATION (BAIT) SYSTEM

- THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS METHOD IS TO ATTRACT THE TERMITE WORKERS

- THE SYSTEM EMPLOYS BAITING AND MONITORING DEVICES, INSTALLED

3. ROADS AND PARKING

3.01 SUBGRADEAND BASE COURSE MATERIALS