Chapter Five

Fluid Dynamics
Second Stage
Academic year: 2020 - 2021
 5.1. Introduction
When the fluids are at rest, the only fluid property of significance is the weight
density (specific weight 𝛾).

Hydrokinematics: the science which deals with the geometry of motion of

fluids without reference to the forces causing the motion.
Hydrokinetics: the science which deals with the action of the forces in
producing or changing motion of fluids.

The motion of fluid involves the consideration of both the kinematics and
kinetics.
The dynamic equation of fluid motion is obtained by applying Newton’s second
law of motion.
The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non – viscous.
The basic equation in fluid mechanics are:
(a) Continuity equation  chapter four.
(b) Energy equation.
(c) Impulse – momentum equation.
 5.2. Types of heads (energies) of a liquid in
motion:
1- Potential head or potential energy:
This is due to position above a suitable datum line.
It is denoted by Z.

2- Velocity head or kinetic energy:

Due to velocity of flowing liquid.
𝑉2
It is denoted by .
2𝑔
V = velocity of flow, m/sec.
𝑔 = 9.81, m/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
3- Pressure head or pressure energy:
Is due to the pressure of liquid.
𝑃
It is denoted by
𝛾
P = pressure, 𝛾 = weight density.

4- Total head energy:

Is the sum of its potential head, kinetic head and pressure head.
Mathematically,
𝑉2 𝑃
Total head, H = 𝑍 + + , m of liquid.
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑉2 𝑃 𝑁 𝑚
Total energy, E = 𝑍 + + , .
2𝑔 𝛾 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
EX: In a pipe, of 90 mm diameter water is flowing with a
mean velocity of 2m/s and at a gauge pressure of 350
kN/m2. Determine the total head, if the pipe is 8 m above
the datum line. Neglect friction.
Solution:
𝑉2 𝑃
Total head of water, 𝐻 = 𝑍 + +
2𝑔 𝛾
(2)2 350×103
𝐻 =8+ + = 43.88𝑚 ANSWER
2×9.81 9810
5.3. Bernoulli’s Equation:
Bernoulli’s equation states as “In an Ideal incompressible fluid when the
flow is steady and continuous, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy is constant along a stream line”.
Mathematically,
𝑃 𝑉2
+ + 𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 2𝑔
In two sections, the pipe is running full so
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Assumption of Bernoulli’s equation:
(a) the liquid is ideal and incompressible.
(b) the flow is steady and continuous.
(c) the flow is along the stream line, one dimensional
(d) the velocity is uniform over the section and is equal to the mean
velocity.
(e) the only forces acting on the fluid are the gravity and pressure
forces.
 EX1: In figure below, section (1) is a large open
tank. Calculate the velocity of flow at section 2.
Solution:
Point (1) and (2), are exerts to the atmospheric pressure
∴ 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = zero gauge.
𝑉1 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜, large tank
Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 & 2:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Datum at section (2) 
𝑉22
Zero + zero + 10 = zero + + zero
2𝑔
𝑉22
=10  𝑉22 = 2 𝑔 10 = 2 9.81 10 = 196.2
2𝑔
𝑉2 = 14 𝑚/𝑠 .
 EX2: A pipe line is 15 cm in diameter and it is at an elevation of 100 m at
section A. At section B, it is at an elevation of 107 m and has diameter of 30
cm. When a discharge of 50 L/sec of water is passed through this pipe line,
pressure at A is 35 kPa. The energy loss in pipe is 2 m of water. Calculate
pressure at B.
Solution:
The direction of flow is:
From A to B.
3
𝑄 0.050𝑚 ൗ𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚
𝑉𝐴 = = 𝜋 = 2.829
𝐴𝐴 (0.15)2 𝑚2 𝑠
4
3
𝑄 0.050𝑚 ൗ𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚
𝑉𝐵 = = 𝜋 2 𝑚2
= 0.707
𝐴𝐵 (0.3) 𝑠
4
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between A and B:
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 − ℎ𝑓 = + + 𝑍𝐵
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 −𝑉𝐵2
= + + 𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 − ℎ𝑓
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔
𝛾 𝑉𝐴2 −𝑉𝐵2
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 + + γ 𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 − 𝛾ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 2𝑔
3 9810
= 35 × 10 + 2.8292 − 0.7072 + 9810 100 − 107 − 9810(2)
2×9.810
=−49.54 × 10 𝑃𝑎  = 49.54 × 103 𝑃𝑎 vacuum.
3
 EX3: In Figure below, find the velocities at the two
ends of the pipe and pressure at the lower end, the
length of the pipe = 200 m, s.g. of fluid = 0.8.
Solution:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.6)2 = 0.283 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.3)2 = 0.0707 𝑚2
4
1
𝑍1 = × 200 = 2𝑚
100
𝑄 0.1
𝑉1 = = 0.353 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 0.283
𝑄 0.1
𝑉2 = = = 1.414 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴2 0.0707
Using Bernoulli’s equation (1-2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
60×103 (0.353)2 𝑃2 (1.414)2
+ +2= + + 0.0
0.8×9810 2×9.81 0.8×9810 2×9.81
𝑃2 = 74.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
EX: In Figure below, find the difference in datum head if the rate of flow
through pipe = 60 L/sec.
Solution:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.6)2 = 0.283 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.4)2 = 0.1257 𝑚2
4
𝑄 0.06
𝑉1 = = = 0.212 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 0.283
𝑄 0.06
𝑉2 = = = 0.477 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴2 0.1257
Bernoulli’s equation (1-2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
350×103 (0.212)2 100×103 (1.414)2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
9810 2×9.81 9810 2×9.81
𝑍2 − 𝑍1 = 25.47 𝑚
5.4. Bernoulli’s equation for real fluid
Bernoulli’s equation derived was based on the assumption that fluid is
non- viscous (frictionless).
All fluids are real (not Ideal)  viscous  there are some losses in fluid
flows.
Bernoulli’s equation becomes:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 − ℎ𝑓 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
EX: The following data relate to a conical tube of length 3.0 m fixed
vertically with its smaller end upwards and carrying fluid in the downward
direction. The velocity of flow at the smaller end = 10 m/s, the velocity of
𝟎.𝟒(𝑽𝟏 −𝑽𝟐 )𝟐
flow at the larger end = 4 m/s. The loss of head in the tube = ,
𝟐𝒈
pressure head at the smaller end = 4 m of liquid. Determine the pressure
head at the larger end.
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 − ℎ𝐿𝑓 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
(10)2 0.4 10−4 2 𝑃2 4 2
4+ + 3.0 − = + +0
2𝑔 2×9.81 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃2
− = 10.55 𝑚
𝛾
EX: In Figure below, compute the discharge in L/sec.
Solution:
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝜋 𝜋
(1) 𝑉1 = (0.5)2 𝑉2
2
4 4
𝑉2 = 4𝑉1
Bernoulli’s equation (1-2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 − ℎ𝐿 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
76 25
𝑃1 = 76 𝑐𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = × 13.6 = 10.336 water, 𝑃2 = × 13.6 = 3.4 m water
100 100
2
𝑉1 1 𝑉12 16𝑉12
10.336 + + 0.0 − = 3.4 + +5
2𝑔 10 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉1 = 1.513𝑚/𝑠
𝜋 𝑚3
𝑄= 𝐴1 𝑉1 = (1)2 × 1.513 = 1.188 = 1188 𝐿/𝑠.
4 𝑠
EX: If the flow rate = 20 L/s on the roof. Determine the air pressure in the
closed tank. The friction losses are 45 cm of water.
Solution:
𝑄
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 =
𝐴
0.020
𝑉= 𝜋Τ (0.06)2 = 7.07 𝑚/𝑠
4
Applying Bernoulli’s equation (1-2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 − ℎ𝑓 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃1 7.07 2
+ 0.0 + 0.0 − 0.45 = 0 + + 2.5
9810 2×9.81
𝑃1 = 53.93 𝑘𝑁ൗ𝑚2 (gauge pressure)
EX: A siphon consisting of a pipe of 12 cm diameter is used to empty kerosene oil (s.g. = 0.8) from
the tank A. The siphon discharges to the atmosphere at an elevation of 1.2 m. The oil surface in
the tank is at an elevation of 4.2 m. The center line of the siphon pipe at it highest point C is at an
elevation of 5.7 m. Determine, the discharge in the pipe and the pressure at point C. The losses in
the pipe may be assumed to be 0.45 m up to summit and 1.25 m from the summit to the outlet.
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1-2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 − ℎ𝑓 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑉22
0.0 + 0.0 + 4.2 − 0.45 + 1.25 = 0.0 + +(1.2)
2𝑔
𝑉2 = 5.05 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 5.05 × (0.12)2 = 0.057 𝑚3 /𝑠
4
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 – C:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶2
+ + 𝑍1 − ℎ𝑓 = + + 𝑍𝐶
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃𝐶 5.05 2
0.0 + 0.0 + 4.2 − 0.45 = + + 5.7
𝛾 2×9.81
𝑃𝐶 = −25.5 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝐶
= −3.25 𝑚 (negative gauge pressure)
𝛾
 5.5. Pumps and Turbines:
1- Pumps:
Flow of energy  Input of mechanical energy (torque on the shaft).
 output of hydraulic energy (water under pressure).
Direction of rotation  pump impeller rotates in the opposite direction of turbine
runner.
Power of pump, 𝑃𝑃 = 𝛾 × 𝑄 × ℎ𝑝  in watt.
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency (Epump)  𝐸𝑃 =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝛾 𝑄 ℎ𝑃
 𝐸𝑃 =
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐸𝑃 ≤ 1.0 due to frictions
1 kW = 1000 watt.
1 H. power = 746 W
There is an increase in energy (+ℎ𝑃 )
2- Turbines:
Flow of energy  Input of hydraulic energy (water under pressure)
 output of mechanical energy (torques on the shaft).
Direction of rotation  turbine runner rotates in the opposite direction
of a pump impeller.
Power of turbine, 𝑃𝑇 = 𝛾 𝑄 ℎ 𝑇  in watt.
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency  𝐸𝑇 =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐸𝑇 =
𝛾 𝑄 ℎ𝑇
There is decrease in energy (−ℎ 𝑇 )
𝐸𝑇 ≤ 1 due to frictions.
EX: A turbine has a supply line of a diameter 45 cm. When the flow in the pipe is
0.6 m3/s the pressure head at point L u/s of the turbine is 35 m and at a point M
in the draft tube, where the diameter is 65 cm, the pressure head is -4.1 m. Point
M is 2.2m below the point L. Determine the power output of the turbine by
assuming 92% efficiency.
Solution:
𝑄 0.6
𝑉𝐿 = = 𝜋 2
= 3.77 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴𝐿 (0.45)
4
0.6
𝑉𝑀 = 𝜋 = 1.81 𝑚/𝑠
(0.65)2
4
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between L and M:
𝑃𝐿 𝑉𝐿2 𝑃𝑀 2
𝑉𝑀
+ + 𝑍𝐿 − ℎ 𝑇 = + + 𝑍𝑀
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
(3.77)2 1.81 2
35+ + 2.2 − ℎ𝑇 = −4.1 + + 0.0
2(9.81) 2 9.81
ℎ 𝑇 = 41.86 𝑚
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑇 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑄 ℎ 𝑇 = 9810 × 0.6 × 41.86 × 𝐸𝑇
= 9810 × 0.6 × 41.86 × 0.92 = 226.68 𝑘𝑊
EX: In Figure below, the head loss between the reservoir and turbine is 8 times the kinetic head
in the pipe and that from the turbine to the tail race is 0.4 times the kinetic head in the pipe.
The rate of flow is 1.2 m3/s and the pipe diameter in both cases is 1.1m. Determine
(1) The pressure at the inlet and exit of the turbine.
(2) The power generated by the turbine.
Solution:
𝑄 1.2
𝑉𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 = = 𝜋 2
1.263 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 ×(1.1)
4
𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 1.263 𝑚/𝑠
𝑉1 = 𝑉4 = 0.0
2
𝑉𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑃1 = 𝑃4 = 0.0, Losses = 8.0
2𝑔
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1 and 2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔𝛾
𝑃2 (1.263)2 8×(1.263)2
0+0 + 50 = + + 0+
𝛾 2×9.81 2×9.81
𝑃2
= 49.27𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 483.34 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝛾𝑤
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (3 and 4):
𝑃3 𝑉32 𝑉32 𝑃4 𝑉42
+ + 𝑍3 − 0.4 = + + 𝑍4
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃3 (1.263)2 0.4× 1.263 2
+ + 5.0 − =0+0+0
𝛾𝑤 2×9.81 2×9.81
𝑃3
= −5.049𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = −49.53 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝛾𝑤

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (2 and 3):

𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑃3 𝑉32
+ + 𝑍2 − ℎ 𝑇 = + + 𝑍3
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑉2 = 𝑉3 , 𝑍2 = 𝑍3
49.27 − ℎ 𝑇 = −5.049
ℎ 𝑇 = 54.32𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝑇 = 𝛾 × 𝑄 × ℎ 𝑇 = 9810 × 1.2 × 54.32 = 639.46 𝑘𝑊
EX: In Figure below, a pump P, pumping 72 L/s of water from a tank. (a) What will be
the pressures at points L and M when the pump delivers 12 kW of power to the flow. (b)
What will be the pressure at M when the loss in the inlet up to the pump is negligible and
between the pump and the point M, a loss equal to 1.8 times the velocity head at M takes
place.
Solution:
𝑄 = 0.072 = 𝐴𝐿 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐴𝑀 𝑉𝑀
0.072
𝑉𝐿 = 𝜋 2
= 3.581 𝑚/𝑠
4
×(0.16)
0.072
𝑉𝑀 = 𝜋 = 9.167 𝑚/𝑠
×(0.1)2
4
𝑃𝑃 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑄 ℎ𝑝 = 12 × 103 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
12×103
ℎ𝑝 = = 16.99 𝑚
9810×0.072
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between S and L:
𝑃𝑆 𝑉𝑆2 𝑃𝐿 𝑉𝐿2
+ + 𝑍𝑆 = + + 𝑍𝐿
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃𝐿 (3.581)2
0+0 + 35 = + +0
𝛾 2×9.81
𝑃𝐿
= 2.486𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝐿 = 9810 × 2.846 = 27.92 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝛾𝑤
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between S and M, datum at L:
𝑃𝑆 𝑉𝑆2 𝑃𝑀 2
𝑉𝑀
+ + 𝑍𝑆 + 𝐻𝑝 = + + 𝑍𝑀
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃𝑀 (9.167)2
0+0 + 3.5 + 16.99 = + + 3.5 + 1.3
𝛾 2×9.81
𝑃𝑀
= 11.407𝑚 or 𝑃𝑀 = 9810 × 11.407 = 111.9 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝛾𝑊
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between S and M considering losses:
𝑃𝑆 𝑉𝑆2 2
𝑉𝑀 𝑃𝑀 𝑉𝑀2
+ + 𝑍𝑆 + 𝐻𝑝 − 1.8 = + + 𝑍𝑀
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
1.8× 9.167 2 𝑃𝑀 9.167 2
0+0+ 3.5 + 16.99 − = + + 3.5 + 1.3
2×9.81 𝛾𝑊 2×9.81
𝑃𝑀
= 3.7m or 𝑃𝑀 = 9810 × 3.7 = 36.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝛾𝑊
EX: A pump is 2.2m above the water level in the sump and has a pressure of -20cm of
mercury at the suction side. The suction pipe is of 20 cm diameter and the delivery pipe is
short 25 cm diameter pipe ending in a nozzle of 8 cm diameter. If the nozzle is directed
vertically upwards at an elevation of 4.2m above the water sump level, determine: (a) the
discharge, (b) the power input into the flow by the pump, (c) the elevation above the water
sump level, to which the jet would reach?
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑉2
0 + 0 + 0 = −0.2 × 13.6 + + 2.2
2𝑔
𝑉2 = 3.194 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋
𝑄 = × (0.2)2 × 3.194 = 0.1𝑚3 /𝑠
4
Elevation of jet, h:
𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴3 𝑉3
𝜋 𝜋
× (0.2)2 × 3.194 = (0.08)2 × 𝑉3
4 4
𝑉3 = 19.962 𝑚/𝑠
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 3 and 4:
(19.962)2
0+0+ =ℎ+0+0
2𝑔
ℎ = 20.31 𝑚
The power required to the flow by the pump,
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 3,
𝑉32
( = 20.31)
2𝑔
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃3 𝑉32
+ + 𝑍1 + ℎ𝑝 = + + 𝑍3
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
0 + 0 + 0 + ℎ𝑝 = 0 + 20.31 + 4.2
ℎ𝑝 = 24.51 𝑚
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝛾 × 𝑄 × ℎ𝑝 = 9810 × 0.1 × 24.51 = 24.04 𝑘𝑊
5.6. Practical applications of Bernoulli’s
equation:
The applications in the following measuring devices:
(a) Venturi meter
(b) Orifice meter
(c) Rotameter and elbow meter
(d) Pitot tube
 A- Venturimeter
It is an instrument used to measure the rate of discharge in a pipeline and is fixed
permanently at different sections of the pipeline.
Types of Venturimeters
- Horizontal V.
- Vertical V.
- Inclined V.
Horizontal V.  Consists of three parts:
 Converging part,
throat and
Diverging part.
- Throat ratio
𝑑2 1 3
= −
𝑑1 4 4
 𝑉22 𝐴22 𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑉12
ℎ= (1 − 2 ) ,ℎ= ,ℎ = − , 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 horizontal
2𝑔 𝐴1 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑄𝑡ℎ = × 2𝑔ℎ = 𝐶 ℎ  theoretical discharge
𝐴21 −𝐴22
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐶= × 2𝑔
𝐴21 −𝐴22

The actual discharge 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 which is less than the theoretical discharge, so:
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑑 = = 0.96 − 0.98
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜.
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝐶𝑑 × × 2𝑔ℎ
𝐴21 −𝐴22
EX: A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 200 mm and throat
diameter 100 mm is used to measure the flow of water. The pressure at
inlet is (0.18) N/mm2 and the vacuum pressure at the throat is 280 mm of
mercury. Find the rate of flow. Take 𝑪𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖.
Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴1 = × (0.2) = 0.0314 𝑚 , 𝐴2 = × (0.1)2 = 0.00785 𝑚2
2 2
4 4
𝑃1 0.18×106 𝑁/𝑚2
= = 18.3 𝑚
𝛾 9810
𝑃2
= −280𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = −0.28 × 13.6 = −3.8 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛾
𝑃1 𝑃2
ℎ= − = 18.3 − −3.8 = 22.1 𝑚
𝛾 𝛾
𝐴1 𝐴2 0.0314×0.00785
Q= 𝐶𝑑 × × 2𝑔ℎ = 0.98 × × 2 × 9.81 × 22.1
(0.0314)2 −(0.00785)2
𝐴21 −𝐴22

= 0.165 𝑚3Τ
𝑠
EX: Determine the flow rate, no energy losses
Solution:
Flow from the bottom to the upper pipe
(from the measurement of the manometer)
Energy equation (Bernoulli’s equation) between A-B:
Datum 𝑋ത − 𝑋ത
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2𝑉𝐵2 𝑃
𝑍𝐴 + + = 𝑍𝐵 + 2𝑔 + 𝛾𝐵
𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑉𝐵2 𝑃
0 + 𝛾 + 2𝑔 = 0.75 + 2𝑔 + 𝛾𝐵
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2 𝑉𝐴2
− 𝛾 = 2𝑔 − 2𝑔 + 0.75 ………… (1)
𝛾
Continuity equation:
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 𝐴𝐵
1
𝑉𝐴2 = 16 𝑉𝐵2 ……………… (2)
Manometer, datum, X – X
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
+ 𝑍 + 0.36 = + 0.75 + 𝑍 + 0.36 × 13.6
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
− = 5.30 𝑚 water  (3)
𝛾 𝛾
Substitute (3) and (2) in (1):
𝑚 𝜋 2 𝑚3
𝑉𝐵 = 9.8 𝑠 , 𝑄= 0.15 9.8 = 0.17 𝑠 .
4
EX: Find the discharge of water flowing, diameter of the pipe =30 cm, diameter of the throat = 15 cm,
assume the head losses = 0.2 times the kinetic head of the pipe.
Solution:
From manometer, equation
𝑃1 − 𝑦 + 0.3 𝛾𝑤 = 𝑃2 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝛾𝑤 − 0.3 (0.6)𝛾𝑤
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 0.12𝛾𝑤 + 𝑧𝛾𝑤
𝑃1 −𝑃2
− 𝑍 = 0.12
𝛾𝑤
Applying Bernoulli’s equation (1-2): flow from 1  2
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑉12 𝑃 𝑉22
0 + + − 0.2 = 2 + +𝑍
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 2𝑔
𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝑉 2 𝑉 2
− 𝑍 = 2 − 0.8 1
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 2𝑔
From Continuity equation:
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2
𝑉2 = 4𝑉1
(4𝑉1 )2 𝑉12
0.12 = − 0.8
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉1 = 0.3936 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.3936 × (0.30)2 = 0.0278 𝑚3 /𝑠
4
 (b) Pitot tube

Pitot Tube: is one of the most accurate devices for velocity measurement.
It works on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero,
the pressure there is increased due to conversion of kinetic energy into
pressure.
It consists of a glass tube in the form of a 900 bend of short length open at both
its ends.
It is placed in the flow with its bent leg directed up/s so that a stagnation point
is created immediately in front of the opening.
The kinetic energy at this point gets converted into pressure energy causing the
liquid to rise in the vertical limb  to a height = stagnation pressure.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between P – S
𝑃0 𝑉2 𝑃𝑆
0+ + = +0+0
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
(∵ 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = 0, 𝑉𝑆 = 0)
𝑉2
ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑜 +
2𝑔
𝑉= 2𝑔(ℎ𝑆 − ℎ𝑂 = 2𝑔∆ℎ
𝑉 = 𝐶 2𝑔∆ℎ
(∆ℎ = 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)
C = coefficient due to losses of bent leg.
EX: In Figure below, calculate the volumetric flow of oil in m3/s, the coefficient of pitot tube is 0.98.
Solution:
Manometer equation:
𝑃1 + 𝑦𝛾𝑂 + 0.1𝛾𝑀 = 𝑃𝑆 + 𝑦𝛾𝑂 + 0.1𝛾𝑂
𝑃1 𝛾 𝑃
+ 𝑦 + 0.1 𝑀 = 𝑆 + 𝑦 + 0.1
𝛾𝑂 𝛾𝑂 𝛾𝑂
𝑃𝑆 𝑃1 𝛾𝑀
− = 0.1 − 0.1
𝛾𝑂 𝛾𝑂 𝛾𝑂
𝛾
= 0.1( 𝑀 − 1)
𝛾𝑂
Bernoulli’s equation (1-2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃𝑆 𝑉𝑠2
0+ + = + +0
𝛾𝑂 2𝑔 𝛾𝑂 2𝑔
𝑉𝑠2
=0
2𝑔
𝑉12 𝑃𝑆 𝑃1 13.6
= − = 0.1 − 1 = 1.411
2𝑔 𝛾𝑂 𝛾𝑂 0.9
𝑉= 2(9.81)(1.411) × 𝐶𝑉
= 0.98 2(9.81)(1.411) = 5.156 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = 5.156 × (0.05)2 = 0.01 𝑚3 /𝑠
4
 5.7. Free Liquid Jet
Free liquid Jet: A jet of liquid issuing from the nozzle in atmosphere.
Trajectory: Parabolic path traversed by the liquid jet under the action of gravity.
(a) Max. height attained by the jet, h
𝑈 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
ℎ=
2𝑔
(b) Time of flight, T:
- Time of flight is the time taken by the fluid particle in reaching from A to B:
2 𝑈 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑇=
𝑔
ሖ
(c) Time to reach the highest point 𝑇,
ሖ𝑇 = 𝑈 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑔
(d) Horizontal range of the jet, r:
𝑈 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑟=  max (r) when 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 1, 𝜃 = 45°
𝑔
(e) The equation of jet,
𝑔𝑋 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 1
𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −  2 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
2𝑈 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
(f) 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 remain constant (for all flight), the change will be in the 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
𝑋
 𝑋 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑡  = 𝑈 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑡
EX: Find the flow rate of the pipe at nozzle. The diameter of the nozzle is
40mm.
Solution:
𝜋
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = (0.04)2 = 0.001256 𝑚2
4
Point L=(0,0)  coordinate
Point M = (5, -1.2)  fourth quadrant
Equation of the jet:
𝑔𝑋 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −
2𝑈 2
9.81 5 2
−1.2 = 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛60 − (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 60)
2𝑢2
𝑢 = 7.05 𝑚/𝑠
𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑈 = 0.001256 × 7.05 = 0.00885 𝑚3 /𝑠
EX: What is the proper distance from the orifice to the free surface when the depth of liquid in the tank is maintained at 1.2 m2.
Solution:
Bernoulli’s equation between 1-2:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑍1 + + = 𝑍2 + +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑉22
ℎ+0+0=0+0+
2𝑔

𝑉2 = 2𝑔ℎ = (2𝑔. 2 − 𝑦)
𝑔 𝜗𝑦 𝜗𝑦
= 𝑡=
1 𝑡 𝑔
𝜗𝑦 ×𝑡 2𝑦 𝑔𝑡 2
2
= 𝑦  𝜗2 = 𝑡
𝑦= 2
2𝑦
𝑡=
𝑔

𝜗2 × 𝑡 = 𝑥
2𝑦
2𝑔(1.2 − 𝑦) × 𝑔
=𝑥
2𝑦
2𝑔 1.2 − 𝑦 × = 𝑥2
𝑔
𝑥 2 = 4𝑦(1.2 − 𝑦)
= 4 1.2 − ℎ (ℎ)
= 4.8ℎ − 4ℎ2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 0  2𝑥 = 4.8 − 4ℎ
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ
4.8
ℎ= = 0.6 𝑚
8
(𝜗𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 is vertical and the derivative = 0)
EX: The nozzle shown in Figure below, has a jet diameter of 25 mm. Determine,
(a) The discharge through the nozzle.
(b) The max. height of the free jet above the nozzle.
Solution:
Pressure 𝑃2 = 300 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
= 0.3 × 13.6
= 4.08𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
(a) Discharge through the nozzle:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1-2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑍1 + 𝛾 + 2𝑔 = 𝑍2 + 𝛾 + 2𝑔
170×103 𝑉22
3 + 981 + 0 = 0 + 4.08 + 2𝑔
𝑚
𝑉2 = 17.85 𝑠 = 𝑣
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑉2 = 4 (0.025)2 × 17.85
= 0.00876 𝑚3 /𝑠 = 8.76 𝐿/𝑠𝑒𝑐
(b) max. height of the free jet:
(𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2
ℎ=
2𝑔
(17.85 𝑠𝑖𝑛45)2
ℎ= = 8.12 𝑚
2×9.81
EX: Find the output power of the pump
Solution:
𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 × 𝑡 = 30𝑚
30
𝑡=
𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠30
𝑣 sin 30 𝑔 9.81
= =
𝑡 1 1
𝑣 sin 30 9.81
30 =
( ) 1
𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠30
𝑣 = 26.07 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜋
𝑄 = (0.075)2 26.07 = 0.1152 𝑚3 /𝑠
4
Application of Bernoulli’s equation between
the tank and the nozzle
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑍1 + + + ℎ𝑝 = 𝑍2 + +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑉22
150 + 0 + 0 + ℎ𝑝 = 120 + 0+
2𝑔
ℎ𝑝 = 4.64 𝑚
Output power of the pump = 𝛾 𝑄 ℎ𝑝
= 9810 0.1152 4.64 = 5.244 𝑘𝑊