energies

Article
Online Lithium-Ion Battery Internal Resistance
Measurement Application in State-of-Charge
Estimation Using the Extended Kalman Filter
Dian Wang, Yun Bao * and Jianjun Shi
Department of Physics, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China; 2151399@mail.dhu.edu.cn (D.W.);
jshi@dhu.edu.cn (J.S.)
* Correspondence: bao_yun@dhu.edu.cn

Received: 2 August 2017; Accepted: 24 August 2017; Published: 29 August 2017

Abstract: The lithium-ion battery is a viable power source for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and,
more recently, electric vehicles (EVs). Its performance, especially in terms of state of charge (SOC),
plays a significant role in the energy management of these vehicles. The extended Kalman filter (EKF)
is widely used to estimate online SOC as an efficient estimation algorithm. However, conventional
EKF algorithms cannot accurately estimate the difference between individual batteries, which should
not be ignored. However, the internal resistance of a battery can represent this difference. Therefore,
this work proposes using an EKF with internal resistance measurement based on the conventional
algorithm. Lithium-ion battery real-time resistances can help the Kalman filter overcome defects
from simplistic battery models. In addition, experimental results show that it is useful to introduce
online internal resistance to the estimation of SOC.

Keywords: online internal resistance; state-of-charge; extended Kalman filter; lithium-ion battery

1. Introduction
Efficient energy management is crucial for the performance [1], in terms of power consumption
and security, of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs). As the most popular form of
energy storage, the lithium-ion battery needs a high-performing energy management system to extend its
life [2,3]. A battery management system (BMS) is used to provide accurate battery information and ensure
reliable operation. The key function of the BMS is to monitor the online battery package statement,
especially the state of charge (SOC) [4], which is the most critical element for the charge-discharge
strategy and battery safety. Unfortunately, the state of charge is an indirectly measured variable and can
only be estimated through relative quantities, such as battery voltage, current, temperature, etc. [5,6].
Several methods have been proposed for estimating SOC. The first method is the Coulomb
counting method, which measures the current constantly and counts the Coulomb charge/discharge
in order to estimate SOC [7,8]. This method is simple and easy to implement but it is sensitive to an
initial value and accumulation errors. The second method is the open-circuit voltage (OCV) method,
which measures the voltage of a lithium-ion battery after a long rest time [9,10], which is not suitable
for HEVs or EVs. In order to overcome the defects of these methods, the extended Kalman filter
(EKF) has been proposed as an optimum adaptive algorithm for SOC. However, this method depends
strongly on the accuracy of a model parameter that is not consistent [11]. For instance, the battery
internal resistance, as a significant parameter of the battery model, varies according to different SOC,
temperature and state of health (SOH).
In order to obtain the online parameter of a lithium-ion cell, such as the internal resistance of the battery,
some researchers have proposed electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to study the impedance
of the battery [12], which is incompatible with the constraints of EV or HEV applications. Others have

Energies 2017, 10, 1284; doi:10.3390/en10091284 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1284 2 of 11
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 2 of 10

improved existing
impedance of battery models
the battery and algorithms
[12], which to estimate
is incompatible theconstraints
with the online internal
of EV resistance [13]. However,
or HEV applications.
Others have
this approach improved
inevitably existing
increases thebattery
complexitymodels
andand algorithms
uncertainty to estimate
of SOC the online internal
estimation.
resistance
In [13].we
this paper, However,
presentthis approach
an effort to useinevitably increases
the online the complexity
measurement and uncertainty
of internal resistanceoftoSOC
estimate
estimation.
battery SOC that employs the traditional extended Kalman filter. This work is useful for studying the
In this paper, we present an effort to use the online measurement of internal resistance to
effect of internal resistance on SOC evaluation. Firstly, based on an equivalent circuit model (ECM),
estimate battery SOC that employs the traditional extended Kalman filter. This work is useful for
the internal resistance of a lithium-ion battery is measured by a device that can generate a controllable
studying the effect of internal resistance on SOC evaluation. Firstly, based on an equivalent circuit
directmodel
current short-pulse
(ECM), (DCSP)
the internal current
resistance of asource. Then,
lithium-ion this real-time
battery is measured internal resistance
by a device is used
that can
as parameter
generate of EKF algorithms
a controllable directtocurrent
estimate the battery
short-pulse SOC.current
(DCSP) Finally,source.
the improvement to the SOC
Then, this real-time
evaluation error
internal that comes
resistance is usedfrom using online
as parameter of EKFinternal resistance
algorithms is demonstrated
to estimate the battery SOC.by comparing
Finally, the this
with the simple EKF
improvement to operation error.
the SOC evaluation error that comes from using online internal resistance is
demonstrated by comparing this with the simple EKF operation error.
2. Internal Resistance Measurement
2. Internal Resistance Measurement
2.1. Equivalent Circuit Model
2.1. Equivalent Circuit Model
The battery equivalent circuit model (ECM) is one of fundamentals of SOC estimation, which
is achieved The battery
using EKF equivalent
algorithms.circuit model
This (ECM)comprises
usually is one of fundamentals of SOC estimation,
the basic electrical element, suchwhichasisa DC
achieved using EKF algorithms. This usually comprises the basic electrical element, such as a DC
source, resistor and capacitor. By analyzing the voltage and current information of the battery, the
source, resistor and capacitor. By analyzing the voltage and current information of the battery, the
model’s corresponding parameters can be obtained [14]. In this study, Figure 1 displays the ECM
model’s corresponding parameters can be obtained [14]. In this study, Figure 1 displays the ECM
whichwhich
is comprised of one
is comprised of Ohmic
one Ohmic resistor (Ri ),(Rone
resistor RC network (R & C ), and a DC source (ε), in series.
i), one RC network p(Rp &pCp), and a DC source (ε), in
Here,series.
ε represents the cell equilibrium
Here, ε represents potential
the cell equilibrium and the
potential andRC
thenetwork
RC networkrefers to to
refers charge
chargediffusion
diffusion and
transfer.
andThe Ohmic
transfer. Theresistor
Ohmic(Rresistor
i ) provides
(R i) cell internal
provides cell resistance,
internal which is
resistance, affected
which is by SOC,
affected temperature
by SOC,
and the degree ofand
temperature aging.
the Obtaining accurate
degree of aging. real-time
Obtaining internal
accurate resistance
real-time not resistance
internal only distinguishes
not only the
distinguishes
characteristics the characteristics
of each single cell of theof each
samesingle
type of cellbattery
of the model,
same type
but of
alsobattery
improvesmodel,thebut also of
accuracy
improves the accuracy
SOC and SOH estimation. of SOC and SOH estimation.

Figure
Figure 1. 1.
A Abattery
batteryequivalent
equivalent circuit
circuitmodel
model(ECM).
(ECM).

2.2. Online Internal Resistance Measurement

2.2. Online Internal Resistance Measurement
Unlike the method of measuring the battery impedance through EIS, the battery’s internal
Unlike thecan
resistance method of measuring
be detected online usingthe battery
a simple impedance
device, which does through EIS, thethe
so by triggering battery’s internal
current step
resistance can be detected
and measuring online using
the corresponding a simple
voltage device,
variation which
of the doesSince
battery. so bythe
triggering the current
absolute and relative step
and measuring
changes in thetheinternal
corresponding
resistancevoltage variation
of the battery of the
are small battery.ofSince
quantities mOhm, theit absolute
is throughand relative
precise
control that the accurate real-time monitoring of internal resistance can be achieved.
changes in the internal resistance of the battery are small quantities of mOhm, it is through precise
Thethe
control that internal resistance
accurate testmonitoring
real-time device is depicted in Figure
of internal 2. Thecan
resistance entire apparatus consists of a
be achieved.
voltage meter (V), a DC current source (I), a pulse control switch (K),
The internal resistance test device is depicted in Figure 2. The entire apparatus and a microcontroller
consists of aunit
voltage
(MCU). The cell used in the experiment was a Panasonic NCR18650B (Panasonic, Japan) with a
meter (V), a DC current source (I), a pulse control switch (K), and a microcontroller unit (MCU). The cell
nominal capacity of 3200 mAh. The MCU is responsible for controlling testing, including the value
used in the experiment was a Panasonic NCR18650B (Panasonic, Japan) with a nominal capacity of
of the controllable DC current source, switching time and voltage measurement. In order to achieve
3200 mAh. The MCU is responsible for controlling testing, including the value of the controllable DC
current source, switching time and voltage measurement. In order to achieve the accuracy requirements
of an internal resistance monitor, voltage detection precision must be less than 1 mV. In addition,
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 3 of 10

the accuracy
Energies 2017, 10,requirements
1284 of an internal resistance monitor, voltage detection precision must be3 of less
11
Energies 2017, 10, 1284
than 1 mV. In addition, the duration of the pulse current is controlled by the switch (K) and is 3 of 10

limited to hundreds of microseconds in total. In this short period of time, the ECM low-frequency
the accuracy requirements of an internal resistance monitor, voltage detection precision must be less
the duration of
characteristics the pulse
caused by thecurrent is controlled
RC network by the switch
can be ignored. (K) and
The change is limited
in voltage to hundreds
depends mainly on of
than 1 mV. In addition, the duration of the pulse current is controlled by the switch (K) and is
microseconds
the cell internal in total. In
resistance. this short period
Moreover, in of time, the ECM low-frequency characteristics caused by
limited to hundreds of microseconds in order tothis
total. In overcome the problem
short period of ECM
of time, the a small signal-to-noise
low-frequency
the RC
ratio, thenetwork
current can
stepbe ignored.
magnitude The change
should be in voltage
sufficiently depends
larger. mainly on the cell
characteristics caused by the RC network can be ignored. The change in voltage depends mainly internal resistance.
on
Moreover, in order to overcome the problem of a small signal-to-noise ratio, the current
the cell internal resistance. Moreover, in order to overcome the problem of a small signal-to-noise step magnitude
should be the
ratio, sufficiently
current steplarger.
magnitude should be sufficiently larger.

Figure 2. Internal resistance detection schematic.

Figure
Figure 2. 2.Internal
Internalresistance
resistance detection
detectionschematic.
schematic.
Figure 3 shows
Figure thethe
3 shows pulse width,
pulse width,current
current andand voltage variationsduring
voltage variations during thethe internal
internal resistance
resistance
measurement.
Figure
measurement.TheThe
3 shows discharge
the pulsepulse
discharge pulsewidth
width, isis400
current
width and
400 us with three
usvoltage
with three steps,including
variations
steps, including
duringthe thethe first
stagestage
internal
first theof the
resistance
of
discharge
measurement.current
discharge Theofdischarge
current 0ofA;0 A;
thethe
second
secondstage
pulse stageof
width isthe
of 400discharge
the current
us withcurrent
discharge ofof
three steps, 5 A;
5 A; and
thethe
including
and third third
the stage
first
stage theof the
of stage of
discharge current
the discharge
discharge of 10
current
current ofA.
of 10 In In
0 A;
A. thethe
the experiment,
second stage the
experiment, of voltage
thethe differences
discharge
voltage inin
current
differences ofthe
the second
5 A;
secondandand and
the third
third
third stages
stage
stages of
are are caused by
caused bycurrent
the discharge the voltage
the voltage
of 10 A. change
change
In theon on the battery’s
the battery’s
experiment, internal resistance.
internaldifferences
the voltage Differential
resistance.inDifferential voltage
the second voltage can
and third not
can not
stages
only only
are caused improve
improve
by thethe the detection
detection
voltage accuracy
changeaccuracy
on ofof the
the battery’s the internal
equipment,
equipment, but
butalso
resistance. also effectively
effectively
Differential overcome
voltage overcome the only
can not the
electrochemical
electrochemical hysteresis
hysteresis influenceofofthe
influence the battery
battery and
and react
react with
with the
thecharacterization
characterization of battery
of battery
improve the detection accuracy of the equipment, but also effectively overcome the electrochemical
internal resistance.
internal
hysteresisresistance.
influence of the battery and react with the characterization of battery internal resistance.

Figure 3. Internal resistance detection oscilloscope diagram.

3. Internal ResistanceFigure 3. Internal resistance detection oscilloscope diagram.

Characterization
Figure 3. Internal resistance detection oscilloscope diagram.
First, Figure 4 shows the relationship curves between internal resistance and SOC. The
3. Internal Resistance Characterization
experiment
3. Internal samples
Resistance were four new 18650 batteries operating at room temperature. The
Characterization
experimental
First, Figure 4results
showsshowed that the internal
the relationship curvesresistance
betweenofinternal
the battery varied with
resistance and the battery’s
SOC. SOC.
The experiment
First,
InternalFigure 4 shows at the relationship when
curves between internalwasresistance and SOC. The
samples wereresistance
four new was18650 maximum
batteriesvalue
operating at theroom
battery capacity
temperature. empty.
The However,
experimental the
results
experiment samples were four new 18650 batteries operating at room temperature. The
showed that the internal resistance of the battery varied with the battery’s SOC. Internal resistance
experimental results showed that the internal resistance of the battery varied with the battery’s SOC.
was at maximum value when the battery capacity was empty. However, the minimum value of the
Internal resistance was at maximum value when the battery capacity was empty. However, the
internal resistance was not noticeable at the time of SOC 100%, but at a point between 80% and 90% of
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 4 of 10
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 4 of 10
minimum value of the internal resistance was not noticeable at the time of SOC 100%, but at a point
Energies
minimum 10, 1284of the internal resistance was not noticeable at the time of SOC 100%, but at a point
2017,value 4 of 11
between 80% and 90% of SOC. This phenomenon is consistent with the internal resistance
between 80% ofand
characteristics the 90%
hybrid ofpulse
SOC.powerThis characterization
phenomenon istest consistent
[15] and thewith
realthe
partinternal resistance
of the impedance
characteristics
detection
SOC. of the hybrid
Thischaracteristics
phenomenon by pulse
EIS [7].power
is consistent characterization
In with
addition, test [15] results
the experimental
the internal resistance and theshowed
real part
characteristics of
thethe
that
of theimpedance
difference
hybrid pulse
detection
between characteristics
the individualtest
power characterization by EIS
cells can
[15] [7].
and In
betheaddition, the
distinguished experimental
by impedance
real part of the results
internal resistance showed
detectioneven that the difference
if these lithium-ion
characteristics by EIS [7].
between
batteries
In addition,thethe
are individual
fabricated cells the
with
experimental can be showed
same
results distinguished
structures bydifference
that and
the internal resistance
materials. even
Since thethe
between if these
internal lithium-ion
resistance
individual cells is an
can be
batteries
important are fabricated
parameter in with
the the
batterysame structures
model, this and materials.
individual Since
difference the
can internal
eventually
distinguished by internal resistance even if these lithium-ion batteries are fabricated with the same resistance
be reflectedis an
in
important
efforts parameter
to estimate
structures in the
the battery’s
and materials. battery
SOC.
Since the model, this individual difference can eventually be reflected
internal resistance is an important parameter in the battery model, in
efforts
this to estimate
individual the battery’s
difference SOC.
can eventually be reflected in efforts to estimate the battery’s SOC.

Figure 4. Ri-SOC plot for different batteries.

Figure 4. Rii-SOC plot for different batteries.
Second, the internal resistance of the battery at different temperatures was studied. Figure 5
shows Second,
Second, theinternal
the internal
the relationship resistance
curves of of
between
resistance the battery
theinternal
battery at different
resistance
at different and temperatures
SOC. was studied.
The experiment
temperatures was studied. FigureFigure
sample was the5
5 shows
shows
same the
brand relationship
new battery curves
used between
at differentinternal resistance
temperatures. In and
the SOC. The
experiment,experiment
the relationship curves between internal resistance and SOC. The experiment sample was the samedata were sample
collected was
at the
−10
same
°C,
brand brand
10 new
°C, 30 new battery
°C and
battery 50 °C.
used used at different temperatures.
The datatemperatures.
at different curves show In that In
thethe the experiment,
temperature
experiment, data data
has were
a greater
were collected
collectedeffect
at −onat −10
◦ C,
10 the
°C,◦ C,
10 30
internal
10 °C, ◦C30and
°C 50
resistance and
than 50The
◦ C. °C.data
that The curves
from data
SOC curves
only.
show show
Atthat
lowthethat the temperature
temperature,
temperature such
hasas has°C,
−10 a greater
a greater oneffect
the value
effect on the
of internal
the internal
internal
resistanceresistance
of thethat
resistance than than
battery that
fromincreasedfrom SOC only.
SOC only.significantly. At low temperature,
Therefore,
At low temperature, suchfor such
◦
asaccurateas
−10 C, SOC−10 °C, the
evaluation,
the value value of internal
temperature
of internal resistance
resistance
must
of thebe of the
considered
battery battery
increased increased
a factor, significantly.
and this
significantly. can Therefore,
be partially
Therefore, for SOC
accurate
characterized
for accurate by SOC evaluation,
changes
evaluation, temperature
in real-time
temperature internal
must be
must be
resistance.considered a factor, and this can be partially characterized by changes in
considered a factor, and this can be partially characterized by changes in real-time internal resistance. real-time internal
resistance.

Figure 5.
Figure Rii-SOC
5. R -SOCplot
plotwith
with different
different temperatures.
temperatures.
Figure 5. Ri-SOC plot with different temperatures.
Finally, thisresearch
Finally, this researchstudied
studiedthethe change
change in internal
in internal resistance
resistance caused
caused by thebyaging
the of
aging of the
the battery.
Finally,
battery.
In the In thethis research
experiment,
experiment, studied
eight
eight 18650 thelithium-ion
18650
lithium-ionchange inbattery
battery internal resistance
samples
samples were were caused
studied
studied by the
through
through aging of and
the
a charging
a charging
battery. In the experiment, eight 18650 lithium-ion battery samples were studied through
discharging cycle. Each cycle includes a 1600 mA charging process and a 3200 mA discharging process.a charging
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 5 of 10
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 5 of 11
and discharging cycle. Each cycle includes a 1600 mA charging process and a 3200 mA discharging
process. A cycle includes the process of charging the battery to 100% of SOC and discharging it to 0%
A
of cycle
SOC.includes
In orderthe process of the
to determine charging the battery
experimental datatorange,
100% of in SOC and discharging
this study it to 0%
battery voltage of SOC.
of 4.2V UL
In order to determine the experimental data range, in this study battery voltage of
within 0.1 A charge current was defined as battery 100% SOC; and battery voltage of 2.5 V UL was 4.2V UL within
0.1 A charge
defined current
as battery 0%was defined
SOC. As canasbebattery 100%
seen in SOC;
Figure andaverage
6, the battery internal
voltage of 2.5 V ULofwas
resistance thedefined
sample
as
batteries increased with the number of cycles. In other words, at a selected SOC point, thebatteries
battery 0% SOC. As can be seen in Figure 6, the average internal resistance of the sample battery
increased with the number of cycles. In other words, at a selected SOC point, the battery
internal resistance increases as the battery ages. In addition, this change occurred at almost every internal
resistance
SOC point.increases as the
This result batteryanages.
provides In addition,
experimental thisfor
basis change occurred
studying at almost
the SOC and SOH every SOCbattery
of the point.
This result provides an experimental
through real-time internal resistance. basis for studying the SOC and SOH of the battery through
real-time internal resistance.

Figure 6. R
Figure 6. -SOC plot
Rii-SOC plot with
with different
different cycles.
cycles.

4.
4. EKF
EKF with
with Internal
Internal Resistance
Resistance Measurement
Measurement
The Kalman filter
The Kalman filter isisaastate
stateobserver
observerthatthatis is randomly
randomly adjusted
adjusted based
based on on
the the correction
correction gain.
gain. As
As a recursive algorithm, the Kalman filter is suitable for real-time linear applications.
a recursive algorithm, the Kalman filter is suitable for real-time linear applications. In order to apply In order to apply
the
the Kalman
Kalmanfilterfiltertoto
a non-linear
a non-linear system, suchsuch
system, as lithium-ion battery
as lithium-ion SOC estimation,
battery an extended
SOC estimation, Kalman
an extended
filter
Kalman [16,17]
filterlinearizes the non-linear
[16,17] linearizes system equations
the non-linear by usingbyTaylor
system equations usingseries
Taylorexpansion and partial
series expansion and
derivatives. Since the second-order Taylor series will greatly increase the computational
partial derivatives. Since the second-order Taylor series will greatly increase the computational complexity of
the algorithm,
complexity offirst
the order Taylor first
algorithm, expansion
order isTaylor
widelyexpansion
used. The isEKF equations
widely used.are illustrated
The in Table 1.
EKF equations are
illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1. Extended Kalman filter (EKF) equations.
Table 1. Extended Kalman filter (EKF) equations.
Update EKF Equations
Update EKF Equations
x̂k/(k−1) = A x̂k−1/(k−1) + BIk
Time update /( ) = /( )+
Time update T
ГA + Γk−Г1 Qk−1 Γk−1
Pk/(k= = APk−1/(k−+ T
/( ) − 1 ) /( ) 1 )
= (  + T)  −1
Kk =/( Pk/)(k−1) HkT /(Hk Pk/ )
(k−1) Hk + Rk
Measurement update / = /( )+ [ h− ( /(  ) , )]
Measurement update
i
=(k(−1−) + Kk )Umk
x̂k/k =/ x̂k/ /( − g) x̂ k/(k −1) , u k

However, due to the estimation error caused byPthe k/k = ( I − Kk Hk ) Pk/

linearization process,
( k −1) EKF cannot handle
highly non-linear systems. In order to improve the accuracy of EKF estimation, some researchers
haveHowever,
proposed dueabsorbing
to the battery non-linear
estimation factors,by
error caused such
theas the hysteresis
linearization effect, EKF
process, the relaxation effect
cannot handle
and thenon-linear
highly temperature effect,Inthrough
systems. order tothe modified
improve SOC-OCV
the accuracy of relationship
EKF estimation, [7,18]. However,
some this
researchers
process
have ignores absorbing
proposed variations battery
in battery internalfactors,
non-linear resistance,
suchwhich
as theishysteresis
a significant parameter
effect, of the
the relaxation
model.
effect Some
and the other scholars
temperature are aware
effect, through of the modified
importance of internal
SOC-OCV resistance[7,18].
relationship in theHowever,
evaluation of
this
battery ignores
process status parameters
variations inand measure
battery theresistance,
internal cell internalwhichresistance using various
is a significant parameter techniques. For
of the model.
instance,
Some thescholars
other hybrid pulse power
are aware of characterization
the importance of (HPPC)
internal technique
resistanceand inthe thedirect current
evaluation of internal
battery
resistance
status (DCIR) technique
parameters and measure are the
widely
cell used to measure
internal resistance battery
usingresistance [19–21]. However,
various techniques. these
For instance,
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 6 of 11

the hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) technique and the direct current internal resistance
(DCIR) technique are widely used to measure battery resistance [19–21]. However, these techniques
tend to measure the battery's lumped resistance rather than the pure internal resistance because of
the unavoidable hysteresis effect in the measurement. In addition, due to a series of complex trigger
conditions, these techniques are not suitable for EV and HEV online measurement applications.
This work has studied the consequence of battery internal resistance on the estimation of SOC by EKF.
In order to highlight the impact of real-time internal resistance, the study used the simplest EKF equations
in which all parameters in the battery model are constrained as fresh battery parameters, which is given in
Table 2. As a result, the value of matrix A and B in Table 1 remains unchanged in this study.

Table 2. Parameters of simplified battery model.

Parameter Battery Model Parameters at 25 ◦ C

Ri 37 mΩ
Cp 1058 F
Rp 39 mΩ

In EKF equations, system inputs are Ri and UL ; system output is SOC. x̂k is the state variable,
which contains the voltage of the capacitance and battery SOC. Matrix A and matrix B are system
matrices and input control matrices, respectively. Ts is the sampling interval. CN is the rated capacity.
" #
U p[k]
x̂k = (1)
SOC[k]

 
Ts
 1 − Cp R p 0 
A=  (2)
0 1
 T 
s
 Cp 
B=
 η T 
 (3)
k s
CN
Hk is the observation matrix that contains the internal resistance.
 
∂UL ∂UL ∂UL
Hk = = (4)
∂X ∂U p ∂SOC

Here,
∂UL
=1 (5)
∂U p
∂UL ∂Uocv ∂Ri
= + It (6)
∂SOC ∂SOC ∂SOC
In this study, Ri was the experimental value rather than the function value of battery SOC.
So,
∂Ri
=0 (7)
∂SOC
Therefore, the real-time internal resistance simplified observation matrix was:
 
∂Uocv
Hk = 1 (8)
∂SOC
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 7 of 11

Energies 2017, 10, 1284 7 of 10

5. Simulation and Experimental Results
5. Simulation and Experimental Results
In order to observe the effect of real-time internal resistance on SOC estimation under the EKF
algorithm,In aorder to observe
simulation andthean
effect of real-time
experiment internal
were resistanceThe
performed. on SOC estimation
experiment under the included
equipment EKF
algorithm, a simulation and an experiment were performed. The experiment equipment included
a constant temperature chamber, internal resistance testing equipment, a power supply, an electronic a
constant temperature chamber, internal resistance testing equipment, a power supply, an electronic
load, and a computer, as shown in Figure 7. The experimental data was collected and maintained by
load, and a computer, as shown in Figure 7. The experimental data was collected and maintained by
the equipment and computer. At the same time, these data were used as input data for the simulation
the equipment and computer. At the same time, these data were used as input data for the
system. In this study,
simulation system.the simulation
In this study, thetool used was
simulation toolMatlab
used was2016b.
Matlab 2016b.

Figure 7. Experimental set-up.

Figure 7. Experimental set-up.
The lithium-ion batteries used in the experiment were type 18650 with the capacity of 3200
The
mAh.lithium-ion batteries
Here, the electronic loadused
was inusedtheto experiment
keep a constantwere typedischarge
current 18650 with themA.
at 1600 capacity
The of
3200 internal resistance
mAh. Here, the of the battery
electronic was was
load continuously
used to sampled during thecurrent
keep a constant whole discharge
discharge process
at 1600 by mA.
the internal
The internal resistance
resistance of thetesting equipment.
battery The internalsampled
was continuously resistance sampling
during intervaldischarge
the whole was everyprocess
2
seconds. Considering that the actual discharge pulse width did not exceed 250
by the internal resistance testing equipment. The internal resistance sampling interval was every 2 s. us in each detection
period (Figure 3), SOC variation due to the detection discharge pulse could largely be ignored.
Considering that the actual discharge pulse width did not exceed 250 us in each detection period
Here, the effect of SOC estimation by internal resistance changes induced by aging was studied
(Figure 3), SOC variation due to the detection discharge pulse could largely be ignored.
at room temperatures. The internal resistances of batteries of different ages were used as a parameter
Here, the model
of battery effect offorSOC
the EKF estimation by internal
evaluation. resistancethe
In the experiment, changes
batteryinduced
samples by aging
with was aging
different studied at
roomdegree
temperatures. The internal resistances of batteries of different ages
were obtained by repeated constant current-constant voltage (CC-CV) charge and discharge were used as a parameter
of battery
cycles.model for the EKF
As mentioned evaluation.
earlier, each cycle Incontained
the experiment,
a 3200 mAthe battery
discharge samples
and a 1600withmAdifferent
chargeaging
degree were The
process. obtained
batteryby repeated
SOC, constant
in completing current-constant
each cycle, was varied voltage (CC-CV)
from 100% to 0%,charge
and thenand discharge
back to
100%.
cycles. Here, the study
As mentioned earlier, focused on thecontained
each cycle battery with 0 cycles,
a 3200 200 cycles,and
mA discharge 600acycles
1600 mAand charge
900 cycles process.
respectively.
The battery SOC,Ininthe experiment,each
completing we found
cycle,thatwasthevaried
batteryfrom
capacity
100% declined
to 0%,significantly
and then back with to the100%.
increase in the number of cycles. In this case, the battery capacity was not only
Here, the study focused on the battery with 0 cycles, 200 cycles, 600 cycles and 900 cycles respectively. the most effective
indicator of battery SOH, but also the reference for a modified SOC-OCV curve [18].
In the experiment, we found that the battery capacity declined significantly with the increase in
With reference to the modified SOC-OCV relationship, Figure 8 shows the SOC estimation error
the number of cycles. In this case, the battery capacity was not only the most effective indicator of
with different EKF evaluations. These two evaluations used exactly the same SOC-OCV curve and
battery SOH,
battery but also
model the reference
parameters, except for
for ainternal
modified SOC-OCV
resistance. curve
The first one[18].
used the new battery internal
With reference
resistance Ri (intoTable
the modified
2) at 25 SOC-OCV
°C while the relationship,
other wasFigure 8 showsbattery
the real-time the SOC estimation
internal error with
resistance
different EKF evaluations.
measured during discharge. TheseIt twocan evaluations
be seen fromused exactly
Figure 8 thatthe
thesame SOC-OCVwith
SOC estimation curve and battery
real-time
model parameters,
internal except
resistance for internal
yielded a better resistance. The first
evaluation result one
than theused
fixedthe new battery
internal internal
resistance, the Ri
resistance
although
absolute ◦
error of SOC varied during the whole estimation process. Since the
(in Table 2) at 25 C while the other was the real-time battery internal resistance measured during discharge. real-time internal
It canresistance is more
be seen from accurate
Figure 8 thatthan
thethe
SOCpreset fixed internal
estimation resistance,internal
with real-time the value of this alternative
resistance yielded ainbetter
terms of
evaluation improved
result than theaccuracy is self-evident.
fixed internal resistance, although the absolute error of SOC varied during the
whole estimation process. Since the real-time internal resistance is more accurate than the preset fixed
internal resistance, the value of this alternative in terms of improved accuracy is self-evident.
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 8 of 11
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 8 of 10

Figure8.8.SOC
Figure SOCestimation
estimationresults using
results online
using Ri and
online fixed
Ri and Ri with
fixed aging
Ri with variations.
aging (a) the
variations. (a)battery with
the battery
0with
cycles; (b) the battery with 200 cycles; (c) the battery with 600 cycles; (d) the battery with 900
0 cycles; (b) the battery with 200 cycles; (c) the battery with 600 cycles; (d) the battery with 900 cycles.
cycles.
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 9 of 11
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 9 of 10

In order
In order toto further
furtherquantify
quantifythe theimprovement
improvementof of real-time
real-timeresistance to SOC
resistance to SOCevaluation, we
evaluation,
compared the error rates of the two types of internal resistance under the
we compared the error rates of the two types of internal resistance under the same experimental same experimental
conditions. Figure
conditions. Figure9 shows
9 shows this improvement
this improvement with samples
with battery battery of samples
various of various
ages. ages. The
The experimental
experimental
results showed results showed
that the that the optimization
optimization rate of SOC rate of SOCincreases
estimation estimationwithincreases with the
the number ofnumber
battery
of battery cycles. In addition, this degree of optimization increased linearly
cycles. In addition, this degree of optimization increased linearly with the degree of battery with the degree
aging. of
battery
The SOCaging. The SOCstrategy
optimization optimization
can bestrategy
includedcan be included
in battery cyclesinbybattery cyclesthe
integrating by following
integratingfrom
the
following from the trendline
the trendline of Figure 9.
of Figure 9.
 
P == (2.238 10−2 ×
2.238 ××10 × Cycles
Cycles ++ 6.118)
6.118 % % (9)
(9)
Considering the
Considering the entire
entire battery
battery life
life in
in Figure
Figure 9,
9, the
the SOC
SOC estimation
estimation with
with EKF
EKF can
can yield
yield more
more than
than
15% average optimization with real-time resistance measurement.
15% average optimization with real-time resistance measurement.

Figure 9. The optimization rate of SOC estimation with online internal resistance.
resistance.

Based on the above experimental and simulation results, it can be seen that real-time internal
Based on the above experimental and simulation results, it can be seen that real-time internal
resistance is helpful in improving SOC accuracy using EKF algorithms. This improvement will
resistance is helpful in improving SOC accuracy using EKF algorithms. This improvement will become
become more obvious as the battery ages. Previous research [7,18] has shown that the change in the
more obvious as the battery ages. Previous research [7,18] has shown that the change in the OCV-SOC
OCV-SOC relationship due to battery capacity variation may be the most significant factor for
relationship due to battery capacity variation may be the most significant factor for estimating SOC
estimating SOC with EKF. For example, SOC evaluation results can be improved significantly by the
with EKF. For example, SOC evaluation results can be improved significantly by the effectively
effectively modified SOC-OCV relationship [7]. However, as a measurable physical quantity, the
modified SOC-OCV relationship [7]. However, as a measurable physical quantity, the effect of internal
effect of internal resistance on battery SOC evaluation optimization is obvious in this work. In
resistance on battery SOC evaluation optimization is obvious in this work. In addition, as a constructive
addition, as a constructive parameter, real-time internal resistance can also be easily used for battery
parameter, real-time internal resistance can also be easily used for battery SOC estimation using the
SOC estimation using the EKF algorithm. Moreover, compared with other impedance monitoring
EKF algorithm. Moreover, compared with other impedance monitoring methods, the DCSP internal
methods, the DCSP internal resistance detection method in this work can be achieved at very low
resistance detection method in this work can be achieved at very low cost and with high accuracy in
cost and with high accuracy in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles.
hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
In this
In this paper
paper we
we have
have studied
studied the
the real-time
real-time internal
internal resistance
resistance of
of the
the lithium-ion
lithium-ion battery
battery during
during
high-speed pulsed discharge. This measurement system can observe changes in
high-speed pulsed discharge. This measurement system can observe changes in internal resistance internal resistance
caused by
caused by either
either external
external temperature
temperature or or internal
internal aging.
aging. Thanks
Thanks toto this
this online
online internal
internal resistance,
resistance,
individual battery SOC differences can be distinguished. In addition, real-time
individual battery SOC differences can be distinguished. In addition, real-time internal internal resistance
resistance can
can improve
improve SOCSOC estimation
estimation withwith the EKF
the EKF algorithm.
algorithm. The The advantage
advantage of real-time
of real-time internal
internal resistance
resistance can
can only
not not simplify
only simplify the process
the process in a particular
in a particular algorithm algorithm
operation,operation, butoptimize
but can also can alsothe optimize
accuracythe
of
accuracy of SOC estimation under the
SOC estimation under the same conditions. same conditions.
The experimental results also show that deviation of an aging battery’s SOC evaluation may be
improved through real-time internal resistance methods. This correction cannot be achieved by the
modified SOC-OCV curve using capacity correction only.
Energies 2017, 10, 1284 10 of 11

The experimental results also show that deviation of an aging battery’s SOC evaluation may
be improved through real-time internal resistance methods. This correction cannot be achieved by
the modified SOC-OCV curve using capacity correction only.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by a research fund from Donghua University, 2016.
Author Contributions: D.W. performed the experiments and evaluated the data. Y.B. developed the concept,
conceived the experiments, designed the measurement set-ups, and wrote the manuscript. D.W. and J.S. built
the model. All authors contributed to the manuscript and to the results discussions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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