Nervous System Notes #2

CONTENT:
The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as
neurones that transmit signals between different parts of the body. Structurally, the nervous
system has two components: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
The central nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The peripheral
nervous system consists of sensory neurones, ganglia (clusters of neurones), and nerves
connected and the central nervous system. Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibres that start
at the brain and central cord and branch out to every other part of the body. Neurones send
signals to other cells through thin fibres called axons, which cause chemical known as
neurotransmitters to be released at a junction called synapses. There are over 100 trillion
neural connections in the average human brain.

Summary
∙ The nervous system is divided into two main parts:
 - The central nervous system
- The peripheral nervous system
∙ The central nervous system consists of two parts:
- The brain
- The spinal cord.
∙ The peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts:

- The somatic nervous system

- The autonomic nervous system.

Neurones
The nervous system is made up of neurones. A neuron is a cell, responsible for the generation
and transmission of neuronal impulses through electrical and chemical signals. They are
found in the brain, spinal cord and the peripheral nerves. A neuron is also known as the nerve
cell. There are three main types of neurones – sensory neurones, motor neurones, and relay
neurones (Fig. 1). A group of neurones form a nerve.

Sensory neurones
Sensory neurones are the body’s electrical wiring for incoming information. Messages from
sense organs can either trigger a reflex action or reach the brain where a decision is made
about what to do in response to the signal (Fig. 2).
In the example above, a pin piercing the skin causes a sensory receptor to signal the central
nervous system via a sensory neurone. The sensory neuron passes the signal on to a relay
neuron in the spine, which passes the signal to a motor neurone, which delivers the signal to
muscles. The muscles contract/expand to move the hand from the pin (Fig. 2)
Motor neurones
Motor neurones are the nerve cells that control muscle and gland activity. The muscles and
glands are known as effectors. Motor neurones carry signals from the CNS to the effectors to
get a response, such as contracting a muscle to move a limb or releasing a hormone from a
gland to make the kidneys retain more water in the body.
In this example, a pain receptor in a finger sends an impulse via a sensory neurone to a relay
neurone in the spinal cord. The relay neurone transfers the impulse to a motor neurone,
which in turn transfers it to an arm muscle, causing the arm muscle to contract and bend the
arm, moving the finger away from whatever is causing the pain (Fig. 3)

Relay neurones
Some relay neurones located in the spine are involved in reflex actions. In the diagram below,
someone’s finger feels the heat of a flame. Receptors pick up the heat in the skin. The signal
from the receptors travels along sensory neurones to the spine (Fig. 4). The signal is then
transferred to the relay neurone (interneurone), and from there to the motor neurone, which
carries the signal to the effector (in this case a muscle). The muscle performs the required
action, moving the arm away from the flame.
Parts of a Neurone (Fig. 6)
Neurones have a characteristic elongated shape and consist of three main parts:
∙ Nerve cell body: Consists of the eukaryotic cell components like the nucleus,
endomembrane system, and organelles.
∙ Dendrites: Tiny projections branching out at the neurone’s receiving end, of the nerve cell
body. They act like tiny antennas that pick up signals from other cells.
∙ Axon: A long, thin fiber that extends from the nerve cell body. It branches at its tips to end
in synaptic terminals that are marked by swellings called synaptic knobs. Many axons happen
to be insulated by a fatty myelin sheath formed by cells called Schwann cells. Between the
Schwann cells, one finds small gaps in insulation called the nodes of Ranvier

The synapse
The function of the synapse (Fig. 1) is to transfer electric activity (information) from one cell
to another. The transfer can be from nerve to nerve (neuro-neuro), or nerve to muscle (neuro-
myo).
∙ Neurones communicate with one another at junctions called synapses. At a synapse, one
neuron sends a message to a target neuron—another cell.
∙ Most synapses are chemical; these synapses communicate using chemical messengers.
Other synapses are electrical; in these synapses, ions flow directly between cells.
∙ At a chemical synapse, an action potential triggers the presynaptic neuron to release
neurotransmitters. These molecules bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell and make it
more or less likely to fire an action potential.
The Mechanism of Reflex Action
When you touch a hot object or when a pin pricks your finger, you remove your hand away
from the source of pain, either the hot object or a pin. In situations like these, your reactions
are always immediate, involuntary and sudden. They happen without much of a thinking
process. In scientific terms, this action is called the reflex action. Here the spinal cord has a
major role to play. The reflex arc shows the pathway through which the reflex action occurs.
Reflex action
A reflex action is an involuntary action in response to impulses initiated by a stimulus. The
whole mechanism of reflex action occurs in such a fashion that there is no conscious control
of the brain. Stimulation occurs through the peripheral nervous system, and the response to
this peripheral nerve stimulation is involuntary. In a reflex action, the spinal cord and the
brain stem are responsible for the reflex movements.
Examples of reflex actions
∙ When light acts as a stimulus, the pupil of the eye changes in size
∙ Sudden jerky withdrawal of hand or leg when pricked by a pin
∙ Coughing or sneezing, because of irritants in the nasal passages
∙ Knees jerk in response to a blow or someone stamping the leg
∙ The sudden removal of the hand from a sharp object
Components involved in a reflex action
-receptor organs
-sensory neurones
-nerve centre
-associated neurones
-motor neurones
-effector neurones