Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY– LIPA

Marawoy, Lipa City

College of Accountancy, Business and Economics

MKT. 102- Consumer Behavior

Chapter No. 8. Attitudes, Self-Concept & Lifestyle

Lesson no.1. Understanding attitudes

Attitudes refer to our relatively enduring evaluations of people and things (Albarracín, Johnson,
& Zanna, 2005). We each hold many thousands of attitudes, including those about family and
friends, political parties and political figures, abortion rights, preferences for music, and much
more. Some of our attitudes, including those about sports, roller coaster rides, and capital
punishment, are heritable, which explains in part why we are similar to our parents on many
dimensions (Olson, Vernon, Harris, & Jang, 2001). Other attitudes are learned through direct
and indirect experiences with the attitude objects (De Houwer, Thomas, & Baeyens, 2001).
The Purpose of Attitudes

Human beings hold attitudes because they are useful. Particularly, our attitudes enable us to
determine, often very quickly and effortlessly, which behaviours to engage in, which people to
approach or avoid, and even which products to buy (Duckworth, Bargh, Garcia, & Chaiken,
2002; Maio & Olson, 2000). You can imagine that making quick decisions about what to avoid
or approach has had substantial value in our evolutionary experience.
For example:
 Snake = bad → run away
 Blueberries = good → eat

Attitudes are important because they frequently (but not always) predict behaviour. If we know
that a person has a more positive attitude toward Frosted Flakes than toward Cheerios, then we
will naturally predict that they will buy more of the former when they get to the market. If we
know that Amara is madly in love with Leila, then we will not be surprised when she proposes
marriage. Because attitudes often predict behaviour, people who wish to change behaviour
frequently try to change attitudes through the use of persuasive communications.

The ABC’s of Attitudes

An attitude is a predisposition to evaluate an object or product positively or negatively. The

attitudes we form about a product or service will affect whether we’re likely to buy that product
or not.
Attitudes have three components also known as the ABCs of Attitudes:

AFFECT
BEHAVIOR
COGNITON

Our attitudes are made up of cognitive, affective, and behavioural components. In the image
below, consider how an environmentalist’s attitude toward composting (a post-purchase
behaviour), can be evaluated as “favourable” or positive.
 Ni
osi, A. (2021). ABC Model of Attitudes. [Image]. Licensed under CC-BY-NC-SA.
Using the same framework above, try replacing “composting” with a different topic that might
be more relevant to your life experiences (e.g. advertising to children; fast fashion; consumer
activism) in order to examine the mechanics behind attitude formation.
RESPONSE HIERARCHIES: WHICH COMES FIRST?

Thinking, feeling, and doing can happen in any order. Psychologists originally assumed that we
form attitudes through a fixed sequence of these three components: We first think about the
object, then evaluate our feelings about it, and finally take action: Cognition → Affect →
Behaviour [C-A-B].
Research evidence, however, shows that we form attitudes in different sequences based on
different circumstances. If we’re not very involved in or don’t care much about a purchase, we
may just buy a product on impulse or because we remember a catchphrase about it instead of
carefully evaluating it in relation to other products. In that case, action precedes feeling and
thought: Behaviour → Affect → Cognition [B-A-C].
Conversely, feelings — rather than thoughts — may drive the entire decision process; our
emotional reactions may drive us to buy a product simply because we like its name, its
packaging design, or the brand image that ads create. In this case, we see the product, have a
feeling about it, and buy it: Affect → Behaviour → Cognition [A-B-C].

Involvement Levels and their Response Hierarchies

Niosi, A. (2021). Involvement Levels and their Response Hierarchies (adapted). [H5P]. Licensed
under CC-BY-NC-SA.
Although most attitudes are determined by affect, behaviour, and cognition, there is nevertheless
variability in this regard across people and across attitudes. Some attitudes are more likely to be
based on feelings, some are more likely to be based on behaviours, and some are more likely to
be based on beliefs. For example, your attitude toward chocolate ice cream is probably
determined in large part by affect—although you can describe its taste, mostly you may just like
it. Your attitude toward your toothbrush, on the other hand, is probably more cognitive (you
understand the importance of its function). Still other of your attitudes may be based more on
behaviour. For example, your attitude toward note-taking during lectures probably depends, at
least in part, on whether or not you regularly take notes.
Different people may hold attitudes toward the same attitude object for different reasons. For
example, some people vote for politicians because they like their policies, whereas others vote
for (or against) politicians because they just like (or dislike) their public persona. Although you
might think that cognition would be more important in this regard, political scientists have
shown that many voting decisions are made primarily on the basis of affect. Indeed, it is fair to
say that the affective component of attitudes is generally the strongest and most important
(Abelson, Kinder, Peters, & Fiske, 1981; Stangor, Sullivan, & Ford, 1991).

Not all attitudes are the same

Attitudes are also stronger when the ABCs of affect, behaviour, and cognition all align. As an
example, many people’s attitude toward their own nation is universally positive. They have
strong positive feelings about their country, many positive thoughts about it, and tend to engage
in behaviours that support it. The same extends to products that are made in our home countries:
consumers tend to have a more positive attitude towards items that are “made local” and as a
result may be more likely to purchase them over others.
Other attitudes are less strong because the affective, cognitive, and behavioural components are
each somewhat different (Thompson, Zanna & Griffin, 1995). Your cognitions toward physical
exercise may be positive — you believe that regular physical activity is good for your health. On
the other hand, your affect may be negative — you may resist exercising because you prefer to
engage in tasks that provide more immediate rewards. Consequently, you may not exercise as
often as you believe you ought to. These inconsistencies among the components of your attitude
make it less strong than it would be if all the components lined up together.
Consider making a list of where your consumer-based attitude alignment is strong (affect,
behaviour, and cognition all align) and where your attitude may be inconsistent among the
ABC’s (e.g. affect may be low but cognition is strong).
The Principle of Attitude Consistency

The Principle of attitude consistency (that for any given attitude object, the ABCs of affect,
behaviour, and cognition are normally in line with each other) thus predicts that our attitudes
(for instance, as measured via a self-report measure) are likely to guide behaviour. Supporting
this idea, meta-analyses have found that there is a significant and substantial positive correlation
among the different components of attitudes, and that attitudes expressed on self-report measures
do predict behaviour (Glasman & Albarracín, 2006).
Looking at this through the consumer behaviour lens, we can use this principle to identify that if
a consumer feels strongly about sustainability in the production, consumption, and disposal of
consumer products, that they will act accordingly: they will buy sustainably produced products
then consume (and dispose of) them in a way that minimizes their negative impact to land, water,
and air.
However, our attitudes are not the only factor that influence our decision to act. The theory of
planned behaviour, developed by Martin Fishbein and Izek Ajzen (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975), outlines three key variables that affect the attitude-behaviour relationship: (a) the
attitude toward the behaviour (the stronger the better), (b) subjective norms (the support of those
we value), and (c) perceived behavioural control (the extent to which we believe we can actually
perform the behaviour). These three factors jointly predict our intention to perform the
behaviour, which in turn predicts our actual behaviour.

Intrinsic motivation & attitudes

In the Theory of Planned Behaviour, values, beliefs, and other intrinsic values all contribute to
whether or not an individual decides to participate in pro-environmental behaviour (Chan &
Bishop; Greaves et al.). Deep beliefs and values often result in behaviour, and studying what
individuals value can give an insight about their environmental mindset (Greaves et al.). The
Theory of Planned Behaviour helps predict what intentions will turn into actions, and the degree
of control a person has over what intentions turn into actions (Chan & Bishop; Greaves et al.). 
Imagine for a moment that your friend Sharina is trying to decide whether to recycle her used
laptop batteries or just throw them away. We know that her attitude toward recycling is positive
— she thinks she should do it — but we also know that recycling takes work. It’s much easier to
just throw the batteries away. But if Sharina feels strongly about the importance of recycling, if
her family and friends (external influences in the form of subjective norms) are also in favour of
recycling, and if she has easy access to a battery recycling facility, then she will develop a strong
intention to perform the behaviour and likely follow through on it.
In comparison, the self-determination theory can also be utilized to help predict the likelihood
of pro-environmental actions (Huffman, 2014). This theory describes motivated behaviour as
part of a continuum that ranges from autonomous to controlled actions (Huffman, 2014). Unlike
the theory of planned behaviour that examines subjective norms (external influences) as a factor
to predict behaviour, the self-determination theory focuses on motivation and personality
(internal cues) as predictors to attitude and behaviour.
Another intrinsic motivator is the warm-glow effect, which consists of the personal satisfaction
and altruistic motives that benefit the well-being of others (Abbott et al.).  Individuals “feel
 good” for partaking in pro-environmental behaviours and continue to repeat the activities
regardless of extrinsic rewards (Abbott et al.). While the warm-glow effect leaves us feeling
personally rewarded for “doing good”, there remains much debate about whether each one of our
acts of goodness has a positive and long-lasting impact.
The Four Functional Theories of Attitude

Functional theorists Katz (2008) and Smith, Bruner, & White (1956) addressed the issue of not
knowing which base (affective, cognition or behaviour) was most important by looking at how
the person’s attitude serves them psychologically. They came up with four different functions
that an attitude might serve:
1. One of the most beneficial things an attitude can do for us is to make our lives more efficient.
We do not have to evaluate and process each thing we come into contact with to know if it is
good (safe) or bad (threatening) (Petty, 1995). This is called the knowledge function and allows
us to understand and make sense of the world. My attitude towards insects is somewhat negative.
I tend to have large reactions to bites from them and although most do not bite, my immediate
reaction is to avoid them if at all possible. In this way my attitude keeps me from having to
evaluate every type of insect I come into contact with. Saving time and allowing me to think of
other things in life (Bargh, et al.,1992). This example might have prompted you to think that this
generalization could lead to discrimination and you would be correct. In an attempt to be more
efficient, I am not stopping and processing every insect I come into contact with and some
insects are good (safe). We will discuss how this helps explain prejudice and discrimination in a
later module.
2. Our attitudes can serve an ego-defensive function which is to help us cover up things that we do
not like about ourselves or help us to feel better about ourselves. You might think cheerleaders
are stupid or superficial to protect yourself from feeling badly that you aren’t a cheerleader. Here
you defended against a threatening truth – you aren’t a cheerleader which you want to be and
boosted your self-image by believing that you are better than them – you are smart and complex.
3. We can categorize some of our attitudes as serving as tools that lead us to greater rewards or help
us to avoid punishments. So, individuals might have developed an attitude that having sex with
many partners is bad. This has both a knowledge function and a utilitarian function by helping
people avoid the societal punishment of being called promiscuous and then seeking the reward of
being the kind of person that someone would take home and introduce to their parents.
4. The final function centers around the idea that some of our attitudes help us express who we are
to other people, value-expressive function. We see this a lot on social media. If you were to
examine someone’s Facebook or Instagram page you would see that their posts are full of their
attitudes about life and they intentionally post certain things so that people will know who they
are as a person. You might post a lot of political things and people might see you as a politically
engaged person, you might post a lot about the environment and people see that you are
passionate about this topic. This is who you are.

Cognitive Dissonance

Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves and maintaining
positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behaviour (Tavris & Aronson, 2008).
Often, our behaviour, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our self-
esteem or positive self-image. Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957) defined cognitive
dissonance as psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes,
behaviours, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions). Festinger’s theory of cognitive
dissonance states that when we experience a conflict in our behaviours, attitudes, or beliefs that
runs counter to our positive self-perceptions, we experience psychological discomfort
(dissonance). For example, if you believe smoking is bad for your health but you continue to
smoke, you experience conflict between your belief and behaviour.
When we experience cognitive dissonance, we are motivated to decrease it because it is
psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable. We can reduce cognitive
dissonance by bringing our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviours in line — that is, making them
harmonious.
This sense of harmony can be achieved in different ways, such as:
 Changing our discrepant behaviour (e.g., stop smoking);
 Changing our cognitions through rationalization or denial (e.g., telling ourselves that health risks
can be reduced by smoking filtered cigarettes);
 Adding a new cognition (e.g., “Smoking suppresses my appetite so I don’t become overweight,
which is good for my health”).
Multi-Attribute Attitude Model

Marketers desire the ability to better understand consumers’ attitudes towards their products and
services. However, attitudes are complex and a consumer may have a range of attitudes
(favourable and unfavourable) towards a single product or service – not just one. In addition to
the various qualities held by a product or service, consumers are also faced with the added
complexity of seeking approval, whether that comes from friends, family, or society. Attitude
models are designed to help identify the different factors that would influence a consumer’s
evaluation of attitude objects.
Due to the complexity surrounding attitudes, researchers use multi-attribute models to explain
them. Simply put, multi-attribute models say that we form attitudes about a product based on
several attributes of that product, our beliefs about those attributes, and the
relative importance we assign to those attributes.
The decision to purchase a car like an SUV offers a good illustration of how a multi-attribute
model affects purchase behaviour. On the one hand, the styling and stance of a particular model
might evoke feelings of power, confidence, and ruggedness. The vehicle’s high ground clearance
and roomy back might be great for the consumer’s intended camping trips. On the other hand,
the brand could make the consumer ill at ease — perhaps a friend had a bad experience with that
car maker. And the more rational side of a consumer might balk at the high cost and poor gas
mileage. Yet the vehicle looks great, so the consumer isn’t sure. And, regardless of their personal
feelings about the vehicle, the consumer may also factor in social pressure: will their friends
criticize them as a wasteful gas-guzzler if they buy an SUV instead of a compact hybrid? Will
they buy or won’t they? The decision depends on how the buyer combines and weights these
positive and negative attitude components.

Niosi, A.
(2021). Multi-Attribute Model. [Image]. Licensed under CC-BY-NC-SA.
A student might have a range of attitudes towards different brands of laptop computers. There
are various features each brand is known for (speed, weight, memory) but in addition to the
functional attributes, a student may also want to evaluate the brand appeal for each one. The
following H5P provides students with a re-usable template to build their own multi-attribute
model for any range of brands, products, or services they might want to evaluate using this
model.
Multi-attribute model for laptop computers
Niosi, A. (2021). Multi-attribute model for laptop computers. [H5P]. Licensed under CC-BY-
NC-SA.
Normative Influences

Norms can have a powerful influence on consumer attitudes & behaviour. Norms define how to
behave in accordance with what a society has defined as good, right, and important, and most
members of the society adhere to them. Formal norms are established, written rules. They are
behaviours worked out and agreed upon in order to suit and serve the most people. Laws are
formal norms, but so are employee manuals, college entrance exam requirements, and “no
running” signs at swimming pools. Formal norms are the most specific and clearly stated of the
various types of norms, and they are the most strictly enforced. But even formal norms are
enforced to varying degrees and are reflected in cultural values.
For example, money is highly valued in Canada, so monetary crimes are punished. It’s against
the law to rob a bank, and banks go to great lengths to prevent such crimes. People safeguard
valuable possessions and install anti-theft devices to protect homes and cars. A less strictly
enforced social norm is speeding when driving. While it’s against the law to speed, driving
above the speed limit or with the “flow” of traffic is common practice. And though there are laws
to speeding, there are a range of enforcement in formal norms.
There are plenty of formal norms, but the list of informal norms — casual behaviours that are
generally and widely conformed to — is longer. People learn informal norms by observation,
imitation, and general socialization. Some informal norms are taught directly — “Kiss your Aunt
Edna” or “Use your napkin” — while others are learned by observation, including observations
of the consequences when someone else violates a norm. But although informal norms define
personal interactions, they extend into other systems as well. In the United States, there are
informal norms regarding behaviour at fast food restaurants. Customers line up to order their
food and leave when they are done. They don’t sit down at a table with strangers, sing loudly as
they prepare their condiments, or nap in a booth. Most people don’t commit even benign
breaches of informal norms. Informal norms dictate appropriate behaviours without the need of
written rules.
Descriptive norms are defined as, “the perception of what most people do in a given situation”
(Burger, 2020). Most of us, most of the time, are motivated to do the right thing. If society deems
that we put litter in a proper container, speak softly in libraries, and tip our waiter, then that’s
what most of us will do. But sometimes it’s not clear what society expects of us. In these
situations, we often rely on descriptive norms (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990).
Researchers have demonstrated the power of descriptive norms in a number of areas.
Homeowners reduced the amount of energy they used when they learned that they were
consuming more energy than their neighbours (Schultz, Nolan, Cialdini, Goldstein, &
Griskevicius, 2007). Undergraduates selected the healthy food option when led to believe that
other students had made this choice (Burger et al., 2010). Hotel guests were more likely to reuse
their towels when a hanger in the bathroom told them that this is what most guests did
(Goldstein, Cialdini, & Griskevicius, 2008). And more people began using the stairs instead of
the elevator when informed that the vast majority of people took the stairs to go up one or two
floors (Burger & Shelton, 2011).

How descriptive norms mislead us

It’s not always easy to obtain good descriptive norm information, which means we sometimes
rely on a flawed notion of the norm when deciding how we should behave. A good example of
how misperceived norms can lead to problems is found in research on binge drinking among
college students. Excessive drinking is a serious problem on many campuses (Mita, 2009). There
are many reasons why students binge drink, but one of the most important is their perception of
the descriptive norm. How much students drink is highly correlated with how much they believe
the average student drinks (Neighbors, Lee, Lewis, Fossos, & Larimer, 2007).
Unfortunately, students aren’t always very good at making this assessment. They notice the
boisterous heavy drinker at the party but fail to consider all the students not attending the party.
As a result, students typically overestimate the descriptive norm for college student drinking
(Borsari & Carey, 2003; Perkins, Haines, & Rice, 2005). Most students believe they consume
significantly less alcohol than the norm, a miscalculation that creates a dangerous push toward
more and more excessive alcohol consumption. On the positive side, providing students with
accurate information about drinking norms has been found to reduce overindulgent drinking
(Burger, LaSalvia, Hendricks, Mehdipour, & Neudeck, 2011; Neighbors, Lee, Lewis, Fossos, &
Walter, 2009).

Lesson No.2. Attitude and Consumer Behavior

Attitude is considered to be the most important determinant of buying behavior. Marketers,
therefore, pay close attention to consumers’ attitudes. A marketer needs to know the important
aspects of consumer attitude. Equally important for a marketer is to understand how attitude is
organized.
Background of the Attitude Study and Consumer Behavior

From the earlier unit, you realized that consumers’ motives determine or activate behavior
resulting in purchases.

You also came to know that consumer behavior cannot be predicted simply from motivations.
Other intervening individual factors come into play.

Ad by Valueimpression
These factors tend to influence the consumer’s perception of various products and brands of
products that may be utilized to satisfy his/her needs.

Some of the important individual intervening variables are consumer’s attitudes, self-image, and
habits. You know that the purchase decision process starts with the identification of a need that is
unmet.

Once the desire for a need satisfaction arises, the next step that the consumer passes in the
purchase decision-making process is evaluating different products or services as ways of
satisfying the unmet need.

Evaluation helps the consumer decide the brand to be purchased or the seller to satisfy his need.

His attitudes play an important role in the process of evaluating alternatives and selecting a
particular brand of a product or so that the consumer can satisfy his need. Attitudes thus play a
direct and influential role in consumer behavior.

By this time, it should be clear to you that consumers’ attitudes toward a company’s products
significantly influence the success or failure of its marketing strategy.

Attitude study is important for the marketers because it affects consumers’ selective processes,
learning, and ultimately the buying decision making.

As consumers’ attitudes influence their intention to buy, knowledge of different aspects of

consumer attitudes may help marketers make a sales forecast of their products.

Measuring consumer attitudes may help a marketing executive get a better picture of both
present and potential markets.

As attitudes often affect the consumer’s decision-making process, marketers must understand
attitude formation and change if they expect direct marketing activities to influence consumers.

Awareness of consumer attitudes is such a central concern of both product and service marketers
that it is difficult to imagine any consumer research project that does not include the
measurement of some aspect of consumer attitudes.

An outgrowth of this widespread interest in consumer attitudes is a consistent stream of attitude

research reported in the consumer behavior literature.

It is well understood that attitude has been one of the most important topics of study in the
consumer behavior field.

Attitude study may contribute to decisions regarding new product development, repositioning
existing products, creating advertising campaigns, and understanding the general pattern of
consumer purchase behavior.

Thus, an understanding of what an attitude is, how it is organized, what functions it performs,
how it can be measured, and how a marketer can change an existing attitude is very important for
a marketer to combat competition successfully.

Following few important and generally accepted findings on consumer attitudes further justify
the importance of attitude study for a marketer taken from the studies of Alvin Achenbaum;
 Henry Assael and George S. Day; Frederick W. Winter; and, Steward W. Bither, Ira J. Dolich,
and Elaine B. Nell.

 Finding #1: Product usage tends to increase as consumers’ attitudes toward a product become
more favorable. Usage tends to decline as attitudes grow less favorable.
 Finding #2: The reason for different market shares occupied by different sellers in a product
category is the differences in consumers’ attitudes toward different brands.
 Finding #3: Marketers may try to change consumers’ attitudes toward their products, aiming to
increase sales through persuasive communications. But, they should bear in mind that many
other variables determine the effectiveness of such communications.
 Finding #4: Consumers may likely change their attitudes toward the existing products if exposed
to new ones. It is, therefore, important for the marketers to even reinforce existing positive
attitudes.

Attitude Defined from Consumer Behavior Point of View

Everyone adopts conscious and unconscious attitudes toward ideas, people, and things they are
aware of.

Allport defined an attitude as a mental state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting
a directive influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is
related.

It extends to beliefs and knowledge of products as well as to people and events. It also covers
feelings, such as likes and dislikes created, and a disposition to act or act because of such
feelings and beliefs.

You should keep in mind that there is nothing necessarily right, wrong, or rational about
attitudes. You should also note that consumers do not have to have direct experience of products
and services to form an attitude toward the product or service in question.

Berkman and Gilson, citing Daryl J. Bem, described attitudes as our likes and dislikes, affinities
for and aversions to situations, objects, persons, groups, or any other identifiable aspects
surrounding us, including abstract ideas and social policies.

Attitude, like so many concepts in the behavioral sciences, though is a word used in everyday life
and conversation, has a more precise meaning within the context of psychology.

It refers to the positive or negative feelings directed at some object, issue, or behavior. It is a
learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way to a given
object.

Attitude can also be defined as a predisposition toward some aspect of the positive or negative
world. You should note that this predisposition can’t be neutral. That is, a neutral attitude is
virtually no attitude.

Marketers and psychologists know that consumers’ attitudes are mixtures of beliefs, feelings, and
tendencies to behave in particular ways. That is the reason why marketers try to establish
favorable beliefs about their offers.

The beliefs, feelings, and tendencies lead to favorable responses resulting in a purchase. An
individual’s attitudes constitute his mental set that affects how he will view something, such as a
window provides a framework for our view into or out of a house.

In the words of John W. Newstrom and Keith Davis, “the window allows us to see some things,
but the size and shape of the frame prevent us from observing other elements. Besides, the color
of the glass may affect the accuracy of our perception, just as the ‘color’ of our attitudes has an
impact on how we view and judge our surroundings.”

Thus, it is an individual’s point of view toward something, which may be a product, an

advertisement, a salesperson, a company, an idea, a place, or anything else.
To understand the attitude, check out our post on definitions of attitude and determine the
important aspects of attitude from this definition and those given above.

Analyzing the above definitions and the discussion made above, we can identify the following
few aspects of an attitude:

Important Aspects of an Attitude

Attitudes are Learned

Individuals do not bear with attitudes. That is, attitude is not programmed genetically.

Individuals rather learn attitudes through information received from the environment. An
individual may receive information both from his commercial and social environments.

Second, they learn attitudes through direct experience with the attitude object.

For example, one may buy and use a particular toothpaste brand and can develop a positive or
negative feeling toward the brand.

Third, attitudes may be learned through a combination of information received and experience
with the attitude object.

For example, one may read an advertisement (information) and buy and use the product.

As attitudes are learned, marketers may provide information to customers through marketing
communication tools and distribute free samples for customers to have experience with the
product, thus helping them form attitudes toward the product.

Attitudes are Predispositions to Respond

Attitudes imply a covert or hidden behavior, not overt or exposed. That is, others cannot observe
them (attitudes).

One cannot see others’ attitudes or verify them; attitudes can be felt. They are the individuals’
predispositions to evaluate some symbol or object or aspect of his world favorably or
unfavorably.

Attitudes may be expressed verbally through opinions or non verbally through behavior. It means
that attitudes are hypothetical make-ups or constructs. These hypothetical constructs lead to
actual overt behavior.

For example, if an individual is favorably predisposed toward a brand, he is likely to recommend

others to buy that brand, or he may purchase the brand himself.

Attitudes are Consistently Favorable or Unfavorable Responses

Attitude toward an object leads to responses toward that object.

If an individual’s attitude is found favorable toward an object, he is likely to make positive

responses toward it, and this tendency is likely to be fairly consistent.

In the case of a negative attitude, negative responses are likely to happen and happen consistently
again.

Attitude Objects

It was mentioned earlier that attitudes are directed toward some object. In this case, the object
may include a product, company, person, place, service, idea, store, issues, behavior, and so on.
 Attitudes Have Degree and Intensity

Attitudes can be measured or quantified. That is, they have degrees.

For example, one may develop a highly positive attitude toward a particular brand, and another
may develop a moderately positive attitude toward the same brand.

By this, you understand that attitudes have degrees.

Moreover, they have intensity, that is, the level of certainty or confidence of expression about the
attitude object. For example, one individual may be highly confident about his belief or feeling,
whereas another individual may not be equally sure of his feeling or belief.

Models Explaining How Attitudes are Organized or Formed

Understanding the structure of attitude is important because it helps us know how attitude
works. There are quite a few schools of thought on attitude organization.

Each of these thoughts represents a model of attitudes. Out of these few orientations, two are
noteworthy. They are The tripartite view or three-component attitude model; and, The
multiattribute model developed by Martin A. Fishbein.

Though these two models are considered as competing viewpoints, they are not actually
inconsistent with one another. We shall now discuss them in turn.

Three-Component Attitude Model

Advocates of the three-component model or tripartite view believe that attitude consists of
three components;

1. Cognitive Component (awareness, comprehension, knowledge),

2. Affective Component (evaluation, liking, preference), and
3. Action Tendency or Conative Component (intention, trial, or purchase).

Cognitive Component

Cognition refers to all beliefs that an individual holds for the attitude object. Let us say we are
talking about an individual’s attitude toward a particular brand of toothpaste. His cognitive
component of

attitude toward the said brand, say, ‘Pepsodent,’ may be expressed as, “Pepsodent whitens teeth.”
How does he say that this particular brand of toothpaste whitens teeth? This is based on his
cognition or knowledge about the brand. His cognition may be developed through reading,
listening to others, or through the experience.

This aspect of attitude tells us how he evaluates the attitude object. The evaluation is usually
based on his knowledge about different aspects of the attitude object and his beliefs on these
aspects.

His evaluation based on the knowledge or cognition tells him whether to see the attitude aspect
favorably or unfavorably and the action he should take in case of an unfavorable attitude
developed toward the object.

For example, if an individual holds a negative attitude toward cigarette advertisements, he may
not buy magazines, putting on cigarette advertisements, or even destroy the magazines
publishing cigarette advertisements.

Affective Component

Feeling or affect component of an attitude relates to positive or negative emotional reactions to

the attitude object. For example, if an individual believes that ‘Pepsodent’ toothpaste whitens
teeth (cognition), the affective component of his attitude toward ‘Pepsodent’ may be expressed
as: “I like Pepsodent.”

Action Tendency or Conative Component

The third component of an attitude, the conation or action tendency component, encompasses
intended and actual or overt behavior to the attitude object. So, this is a predisposition to behave
in a particular way toward the attitude object.

For example, if an individual’s attitude toward ‘Pepsodent’ is positive, he may be intending to

buy or actually buy ‘Pepsodent’ toothpaste. This component of his attitude toward ‘Pepsodent’
may be expressed as: “I like to buy Pepsodent” or “I regularly use Pepsodent.”

The three-component model of attitude advocates believes that these three components are an
integral part of an attitude. That is, they work together. In other words, in every attitude, these
three components work together; maybe their degrees vary. It is also argued that there are
consistencies among the components. If one connotes positive meaning, the other two will also
connote the same.

For example, if an individual believes that a particular brand is good (cognition), he is likely to
favor that brand (feeling or affect) and will buy the same once he requires the product (action or
overt behavior). The problem with this model is that a significant number of empirical
investigations do not yet substantiate it.

Moreover, it isn’t easy to measure each of these components of a given attitude. As a result, this
model has minimal real-life use in measuring consumers’ attitudes.

Multi-attribute Model of Attitude

There are quite a few models of attitude showing the connection between perception and
preference or attributes and attitudes.

These models are often referred to as evaluative belief models of cognitive structure to
emphasize that attitudes are the product of evaluations of the attributes and beliefs about how
much of attributes are possessed by the attitude object. One such model has been developed by
Martin A. Fishbein, which is widely used.

According to this model, attitudes are viewed as having two basic components. One is the beliefs
about an object’s specific attributes (product, here in consumer behavior). The attributes could be
the product’s price, quality, size, shape, design, distinctiveness, durability, availability,
packaging, and so on.

The other component is the evaluative aspects of consumer’s beliefs on different aspects of the
attitude object. It implies how an individual evaluates the importance of each attribute of the
object (product) in satisfying his/her need.

Fishbein’s model may be formulated as below:

The attitude of the individual toward a particular brand is thus based on how much the brand’s
performance on each attribute differs from the individual’s ideal performance on that attribute
weighted by the importance of that attribute to the individual. Let us try to make you understand
this model through an example.

Let us assume that a segment of cola drinkers perceive “Y” brand of cola to have the following
levels of performance on four attributes such as price, taste, status, and calories (see the figure
given below) :

From the above figure, it is seen that this segment of consumers believes (i.e., the X’s) that brand
“Y’ of cola drink is extremely high priced, very bitter in taste, very high in status, and very high
in calories.

The above figure shows that consumers’ ideal brand of cola drink (i.e., the I’s) should be
medium-priced, slightly mild in taste, extremely high in status, and extremely low in calories.

It is assumed that these attributes are not equally important to consumers. We can assign
hypothetical weights to these attributes as follows based on their relative importance to
consumers:
From the above distribution of weights on each of the four attributes consumers consider in case
of buying cola drink, and the figure on the previous page, we can measure attitudes of a segment
of consumers toward the cola brand “Y” as follows:

Here we can find that the computed attitude index toward the cola brand “Y” is 280. Now the
question comes: “Is it good or bad?”

It isn’t easy to give a straight answer to the above question on one’s attitude toward a particular
object because the attitude index is a relative measure.

To conclude on a particular attitude index, it must be compared with the attitude index of
competing objects, in this case, products or brands.

Functions of Attitude & Attitude Measurement

Attitudes perform four functions for the individual, viz. adjustment, value expression, ego
defense, and knowledge. These functions determine an individual’s response to a particular
product or service.

Consumers’ attitudes may be measured using a few techniques. Marketers in gauging

consumers’ attitudes may apply these techniques. Measurement of consumers’ attitudes may
help him decide on his course of action.

Functions Which Attitudes Perform for an Individual

Marketers are constantly trying to shape or reshape consumers’ attitudes to make them purchase
their products. An identification of the function or functions being performed by an attitude is a
prerequisite for successful attitude modification.

We have used the terms ‘function’ and ‘functions’ because any given attitude may
simultaneously serve more than one function. There are four major functions that attitudes serve
for an individual.

These functions are not seen as mutually exclusive. They are complementary to each other, and
at times, overlapping. Daniel Katz, in his article titled “The Functional Approach to the Study of
Attitudes,” identified the following four functions that attitudes perform for an individual:
Function-1: The Instrumental, Adjustive, or Utilitarian Function

This function is a recognition that people try to maximize the rewards in their external
environment and minimize the negative consequences.

For example, a child develops positive attitudes toward the objects in his world, which are
associated with the gratification of his needs and desires, and negative attitudes toward objects
which punish him or thwart him.

Why the child does so? The answer is to help him reaching the desired goals and avoiding the
undesirable ones.

An individual favoring a political party hoping that he will be benefited if the party assumes
power is an example of an instrumental, adjustive, or utilitarian attitude.

The dynamics of attitude formation for the adjustment function depend upon present or past
perceptions of the utility of the person’s attitudinal object.

Thus, an attitude’s adjustment function leads to action and may be related to the action tendency
component of the tripartite or the three-component attitude model.

Function – 2: The Ego-Defensive Function

Through ego-defensive function, an individual protects himself from acknowledging the basic
truths about himself or the harsh realities in his external world. We know that individuals not
only seek to make the most of their external world and what it offers, but they also expend a lot
of energy on living with themselves.

Ego-defense basically includes the mechanisms of protecting one’s ego from one’s unacceptable
impulses and from the knowledge of threatening forces from within, as well as reducing one’s
anxieties created by such problems.

Ego-defense may also be termed as the devices by which a person avoids facing either the inner
reality of the kind of person he is or the outer reality of the dangers the world holds for him.
These devices stem from the internal conflict with its resulting insecurities.

Defense mechanisms help the individual removing the conflicts created within and save the
person from a complete disaster. They may also handicap the individual in his social adjustments
and obtain the maximum satisfactions available to him from the world in which he lives.

For example, a worker who regularly quarrels with his supervisor and colleagues may act out
some of his own internal conflicts.

By doing so, he may relieve himself of some of the emotional tensions which he is having. Ego-
defense is related to the affective component of the three-component attitude model discussed
earlier.

Through this function of an attitude, a person protects himself from others in the environment by
concealing his most basic feelings and desires, which are regarded as socially undesirable.

Ego-defense may lead to the projection of one’s own weaknesses onto others or attributing
shameful desires to others.

Function – 3: The Value Expression Function

Through the value expression function, an individual derives satisfaction from

expressing attitudes appropriate to his personal values and his own concept.

The value expression function is central to ego psychology’s doctrines, which emphasize the
importance of selfexpression, self-development, and self-realization.
 By this time, you are aware that many attitudes have the function of preventing the person from
revealing to himself and others his true nature.

Other attitudes also have the function of giving positive expression to the external world, his
central values, and the type of person he thinks of himself. This is served by the function of an
attitude, which we term ‘value expression’ function.

For example, if a person thinks of a nationalist, he will probably buy and use locally
manufactured products to give others the idea of his self-image.

Marketers need to identify the values their consumers hold to develop products and design
promotional campaigns that best suit the market’s values.

Function – 4: The Knowledge Function

This function is based upon the person’s need to give adequate structure to his universe. Other
descriptions of this function could be an individual’s search for meaning, the need to understand,
and the trend toward a better organization of perceptions and beliefs to provide clarity and
consistency for him.

People acquire knowledge in the interests of satisfying specific needs or desires and give
meaning to what would otherwise be an unorganized, chaotic universe.

To understand their world, people need standards or frames of reference. Their attitudes help
them to provide such standards. They do want to understand the events which impinge directly
on their lives.

Knowledge function may be related to the cognitive component of the three-component attitude
model. This function helps the individual in evaluating the world around him. It helps him
to develop a positive or negative attitude toward the attitude object.

Determinants of Attitude Formation and Arousal Conditions concerning Type of Function

After you become aware of the functions that attitudes perform, you may be interested in
knowing the origin and dynamics and the arousal conditions of attitudes.

One can make concerning attitude arousal because it depends on the excitation of some need in
the individual or some relevant cue in the environment.

For example, when a man becomes hungry, he talks of food items. He may also express a
favorable attitude toward a preferred food item if external stimulus cues or stimulates him.

In the following table (see next page), you are given an idea in the summary form regarding the
determinants of attitude formation and arousal concerning the type of function.

Shows the Determinants of Attitude Formation and Arousal concerning Type of Function

Function Origin and Dynamics Arousal Conditions

The utility of attitudinal objects in need

of satisfaction.
1. Activation of needs
Adjustment 2. Salience of cues
Maximizing external rewards associated
with need and minimizing punish-
satisfaction

Ego-defense Protecting against internal Conflicts and1. Posing of threats

external Dangers 2. Appeals to hatred and repressed impulses
3. Rise in frustrations
 4. Use of authoritarian suggestion

Maintaining self-identity; enhancing1. The salience of cues associated with values

Value expression favorable self-image; self-expression and2. Appeals to individual to reassert selfimage
selfdetermination 3. Ambiguities which threaten selfconcept

Need for understanding, for a meaningful1. Reinstatement of cues associated with old problems
Knowledge cognitive organization, for consistency or of the old problem itself.
and clarity

Lesson No.3. Attitudes in marketing

Consumers make purchases based on their attitudes, which are either positive or negative
assessments of “attitude objects,” such as brands, products, commercials or spokespeople. While
consumer attitudes can be extremely compelling, they’re often quite complex, reflecting our
increasingly complex world and the intersection of the many facets of people’s lives.

Forbes Communications Council member Radhika Duggal is a marketer with over 15 years of

experience as a management consultant, leading startup marketing teams as well as marketing
teams at large corporations. She’s also an adjunct professor teaching consumer behavior, digital
marketing and startup marketing at NYU Stern School of Business and Yeshiva University.
Having authored the textbook, Consumer Behavior: A Marketer’s Look Into The Consumer
Mind, she says learning how consumer attitudes are formed and changed is a cornerstone for
marketers seeking to better understand and anticipate consumer behavior.

Amid the enormous social and economic changes incited by the current pandemic, and the
world’s growing complexity in general, Duggal says it’s never been more important for
marketers to understand the consumer behavior theory that underlies attitude formation and
change. “Marketers like myself and my team members are uniquely positioned to advocate for
our customers. Doing so starts with understanding their attitudes towards both our own products
and services and – equally important – the environmental context in which we work,” she said.

When researching her book, Duggal interviewed various psychologists, who had obtained
different findings related to various aspects of consumer attitudes. She was, however, able to
identify three key points on which experts generally agree: consumers learn attitudes from a
variety of sources; consumers’ individual personalities drive their individual attitudes; attitudes
tend to drive consistent behaviors, though behaviors can also be influenced by circumstance.

Duggal recommends marketers utilize frameworks like the Elaboration Likelihood Model

(ELM), developed by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo, which theorizes how humans process
stimuli like marketing via two different routes of persuasion: the central route and the peripheral
route. The central route influences consumers who are both motivated and able to carefully
consider marketing materials, while peripheral marketing works when consumers are
unmotivated or unable to process marketing’s central message but can make inferences about the
message based on how it’s delivered (e.g. its visual/audio appeal).

While the central route may seem like the most compelling and natural choice for marketers,
Duggal says it’s important not to discredit the peripheral route, which may be more effective for
certain products. For example, low-cost, “low-involvement” products like everyday household
items that are unlikely to elicit strong consumer involvement may be better advertised through
the peripheral route.

The type of media or advertising platform should also be considered when deciding which route
marketers should use. Platforms that prioritize visual media over text, such as Instagram, may be
more hospitable to peripheral advertising. Anticipating where and when consumers will be
exposed to an advertisement is important, too. Consumers listening to a podcast while exercising
at the gym may better process advertising through the peripheral route.

The key, Duggal says, is striking the right balance: “Creating multichannel marketing campaigns
with advertisements that favor both the central and peripheral routes is good practice, and doing
so with a purposeful eye toward attitude change may enable you to persuade your consumers to
form more favorable attitudes towards your products and services.” In today’s world, where
nearly all consumers are defining their “new normal,” understanding consumer attitudes on the
deepest

It is usually reflected in a person’s actions and behavior. Once formed, this attribute of
personality is very difficult to change. Attitude may be negative or positive.

Importance of Attitude in Marketing & Business

From the marketing perspective, attitude can be defined as the set of beliefs and emotions a
consumer holds for a particular brand/product/service which determine the perception of that
consumer towards the former. Behaviour of a consumer is a very important factor as it decides
how well the consumer responds to a particular brand. It can be a positive or negative depending
on past experiences and touch points between the consumer and the brand. Companies take
attitude surveys of consumers through attitudinal research which helps them understand their
business requirements. The data or information which is collected is known as attitudinal data,
which is important for market segmentation, targeting strategy as well as positioning.
It depicts a very strong feeling about any brand which is hard to be modified as it takes certain
amount of time to form a particular attitude. However, it is possible to alter the attitude of a
consumer through special experiences and service quality by the brands for its products. Attitude
along with parameters like value & lifestyle are useful in psychographic segmentation using
techniques like Values, Attitudes, And Lifestyles System (VALS-2).

Importance of Attitude in Marketing & Business
 Attitude of a consumer is a very important factor as it decides how well the consumer
responds to a particular brand. Companies take attitude surveys of consumers through
attitudinal research which helps them understand their business requirements.

Every attitude has three components that are represented in what is called the ABC model

of attitudes: A for affective, B for behavioral, and C for cognitive. The affective
component refers to the emotional reaction one has toward an attitude object.

Also, what do you mean by customer attitude? Consumer attitude may be defined as a feeling of

favorableness or unfavorableness that an individual has towards an object. Consumer
attitude basically comprises of beliefs towards, feelings towards and behavioral intentions
towards some objects.

In this manner, how are attitudes formed in marketing?

Attitude formation is facilitated by direct personal experience and influenced by the ideas and
experiences of friends and family members and exposure to mass media. Each of these strategies
provides the marketer with alternative ways of changing consumers' existing attitudes.

What are attitudes?

Attitudes are evaluations people make about objects, ideas, events, or other people. Attitudes can
be positive or negative. Explicit attitudes are conscious beliefs that can guide decisions and
behavior. Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that can still influence decisions and
behavior.

Marketing’s attitude problem stems from the expectation that consumer behavior can be
predicted from measures of beliefs, attitudes, and intentions regardless of situational factors.
This expectation, which has underlain research in social psychology and sociology as well as
marketing for decades, is problematic for two reasons. The first is that it is often not borne out
by empirical evidence (Davies, et al. 2002; Foxall, 1983, 1997a, b). The second is that although
attitude research has improved dramatically in predictive power in recent years, notably through
the incorporation of cognitive measures that attempt to capture situational effects, there is no
systematic account in marketing thought or practice to show how situations are implicated in the
formation of attitudes and how attitudes can predict and explain actions. There is not even a
generally held view of how the word itself should be used.

Market segmentation involves categorizing consumers according to some variable or factor,

such as consumer attitude. Segmenting consumers according to their attitudes allows a
business to decide which groups are likely to make the best targets for its marketing efforts.
For example, a company might research consumer attitudes toward a new type of technology to
determine which groups are most likely to purchase its product.

Consumer Attitude

Attitude is a predisposition consumers have toward a product or service. For example,

consumers might be skeptical about the value of a new type of technology. Or they might hold
a negative opinion about a particular brand due to past experiences. Attitudes can be general,
meaning they are present in all consumer groups, or they might vary among different groups.

Measuring Attitude

Market researchers can measure attitude using surveys, personal interviews and focus groups.
For example, a short questionnaire might allow consumers to describe their feelings about a
brand name, while a personal interview or focus group might involve an in-depth conversation
about the brand name. Using statistical evaluation methods, market researchers can develop an
estimate about the spectrum of consumer attitudes, perhaps linking certain attitudes with
specific demographics. Young consumers, for instance, might tend to have favorable attitudes
toward a particular brand, which is information the company can use to guide to future
marketing efforts.

Goals

The general goal of measuring and analyzing consumer attitudes is to develop a reliable
prediction about how consumers will behave. For example, an unfavorable attitude toward a
brand will make consumers unlikely to buy a product. If a business can identify which
consumer segments have unfavorable attitudes, it can target other consumers to keep sales as
high as possible. Or the business can attempt to change an unfavorable attitude and make a
segment profitable. Understanding consumer attitude also helps a business communicate
effectively with a market segment. For instance, knowing the nature of a segment's unfavorable
attitude helps a business design an effective advertising campaign to counter those specific
negative feelings.

Changing Consumer Attitudes

Companies often want to change the attitudes of specific consumer segments. For example,
suppose a business's market research determines that high-income consumers often believe its
products are low quality. The business might use a variety of marketing techniques to change
that segment's attitude and increase sales. Possible techniques include improving the products,
designing new product packaging, offering in-store demonstrations to highlight the strengths of
the product and implementing an advertising campaign to develop a better brand image. By
cultivating favorable attitudes in that consumer segment, the business might increase sales and
make that segment a profitable target.

The three components of consumer attitudes in marketing are:

1. Affective
2. Behavioral
3. Cognitive

The affective component refers to consumer’s feelings or emotional reaction towards a certain

object. For example, a person who has claustrophobia feels nervous and scared of an elevator.

The behavioral component refers to the way a consumer behaves when they’re exposed to a

certain object. For example, a person who has claustrophobia will definitely steer clear from
riding an elevator.

Lastly, the cognitive component refers to the thoughts and beliefs one has about a certain object.
We’ve already tackled how a claustrophobic person feels and behaves towards an elevator, so
what does that person think about an elevator?
It’s possible that she believes that elevators don’t provide enough breathing space or that it’s
dangerous to ride on when the power goes down. That’s their precognition of elevators.
Consumer attitudes can be both a disadvantage and an advantage to a marketer. Perceptive
marketers leverage their understanding of these attitudes to predict the behavior of consumers.
These savvy marketers know precisely how to distinguish the differences between the affective,
behavioral, and cognitive components while leveraging them in the development of marketing
strategies.

Having the right tools to gather customer data and capture customer interactions can help you
determine your customers’ feelings and behavior towards your brand.
Lesson No.4. Influencing Attitudes in Consumer Behaviour

Understanding consumer behavior is essential for a company to find success for its current
products as well as new product launches. Every consumer has a different thought process and
attitude towards buying a particular product. If a company fails to understand the reaction of a
consumer towards a product, there are high chances of product failure. Due to the changing
fashion, technology, trends, living style, disposable income, and similar other factors, consumer
behavior also changes. A marketer has to understand the factors that are changing so that the
marketing efforts can be aligned accordingly. What is the importance of consumer buying
behavior? This article outlines several of them.

1. Consumer Differentiation:
In marketing, consumer differentiation is a way to distinguish a consumer from several other
consumers. This helps to make a target group of consumers with the same or similar behavior.
Though you have a targeted customer demographic in your business, you can still have
variations between individual customers. Each group of consumers are different and their needs
and wants differ from other groups.  When a marketer is knowledgeable about differentiation of
each group of consumers, he can design separate marketing programs.
Consumer differentiation will help to tailor your strategies to the needs of varying customer
groups. When consumer differentiation is done, you can expand the width and breadth of your
services. You will be able to effectively serve a wider group of people.

2. Retention of Consumers:
“Consumer behavior is of most importance to marketers in business studies as the main aim is to
create and retain customers” says Professor Theodore Levitt (Kumar, 2004). 
Consumer behavior is not just important to attract new customers, but it is very important to
retain existing customers as well. When a customer is happy about a particular product, he/she
will repeat the purchase. Therefore, marketing the product should be done in such a way that it
will convince customers to buy the product again and again.
Thus, it is very evident that creating customer and retaining them is very important. This can be
done only by understanding and paying attention towards the consumer’s buying behavior.

3. Design Relevant Marketing Programe:

Understanding consumer behavior allows you to create effective marketing campaigns. Each
campaign can speak specifically to the separate group of consumers based on their behavior.
For example, while targeting kids market, you may have to look out for venues such as TV ads,
school programes and blogs targeting young mothers. You will need to take different messaging
approaches for different consumer groups. 

A study of consumer behavior enables the marketers to understand what motives consumers to

make purchases. Furthermore, the same  motive can be utilized in advertising media to stir the
desire to make a purchase. Moreover, marketers should take decisions regarding the brand logo,
coupons, packing and gifts on the basis of consumer behavior. 

4. Predicting Market Trend:

Consumer behavior analysis will be the first to indicate a shift in market trend. For example,   the
recent trend of consumers is towards environment friendliness and healthy food.  This changing
market trend was observed by many brands including McDonalds.  Based on the consumer
behavior, McDonald’s brought healthy food options. 

By conducting consumer behavior study, a company saves a lot of resources that might
otherwise be allocated to produce a product that will not be sold in the market. For example, in
summer a brand will not waste its resources for producing a product that will not sell in summer.
 Based on consumer behavior the company decides on production strategy which will save on
warehouse costs and marketing costs.

5. Competition:
One of the most important reasons to study consumer behavior is to find out answers to some of
the questions:
● Is the customer buying from your competitor?
● Why is a consumer buying from your competitor?
● What features attracts a consumer to your competitor products?
● What gaps are your consumers identifying in your products when compared to your
competitors? 

Studying consumer behavior facilitates in understanding and facing competition. Based on

consumers’ expectations, your brand can offer competitive advantages. 

6. Innovate New Products:

We all know some of the big names such as New Coke, Crystal Pepsi, Colgate Kitchen Entrées,
Earring Magic Ken Doll, and Wheaties Dunk-a-Balls Cereal. Can you see the similarities in
these products? Yes, they all failed!!

The sad truth is that most new products and new ideas end up in failure. There is an estimate of
new product failures – they range from 33% to 90% based on the kind of industry.
Companies consistently strive hard to improve the success rate of their new products or new
ideas. One of the most important ways is to conduct sound and thoughtful consumer behavior
study. 

With the help of consumer behavior analysis, Nike realized that most of its target audience is not
professional athletes, but many of them were striving to be more like them. So at the 2012
Olympics in London, Nike introduced a campaign to encourage athletics called  ‘Find Your
Greatness’. It aimed to promote the aspirations of being an athlete, not just with high-performing
athletes, but wanted to include all people regardless of their physical capability. The campaign
was well planned and was data-driven, of course, carefully analyzed before taking any
action. This message inspired many consumers and had enormous appeal for target consumers.  

7. Stay Relevant in the Market

When the world is changing as rapidly as it is happening today, the biggest challenge we all face
is staying relevant to our target market. And do you know what is the main reason behind the
rapid changes? It is the ever-changing behavior of our customers.

Today’s consumers have greater choices and opportunities, which means they can easily switch
to a company that offers better products and services.  
“The pre-eminent skill required to shift ahead in the twenty-first century is the ability to see and
seize.” -Adamson and Steckel, authors of Shift Ahead.
Losing relevance will only cost the company its market share. Haven’t we seen Sony
Walkman failing to stay relevant in the digital music era, and the taxi industry doom with no
preparedness to battle the UBER uprise!!

8. Improve Customer Service

Consumers require different levels of customer service, and understanding the differences within
your customer base will help you provide the most appropriate service for individual needs.
For example, if you own an electronics store, high school or college students who buy a new
laptop are more likely to understand the features they’re looking for than a person buying his
first computer. With the first demographic, your service goal will be to provide information
about the latest trends in technology, while with the second demographic, you’ll need to spend
more time educating the customer, finding out what his specific needs are, and even teaching
him how to use the features of his new electronic device.

There are three categories of factors that influence consumer behavior:

Psychology
The first one is pretty obvious. How and what we buy depends largely on our psychological state
before, during, and after a purchase.
Let’s say that you’ve just broken up with your significant other. You’re lonely, vulnerable, and a
bit depressed.
If you head to the supermarket, you’re likely to stock up on comfort food. It might not be
healthy, but it’s what your psyche wants.
But let’s move away from food for a minute and go back to our example about the online course
for beginner guitar players.
Psychological factors might involve regret. Maybe your target customers always wanted to learn
music, but they’ve put it off for years. Or perhaps they’re motivated by the desire to play a song
at a friend’s wedding or to better appreciate music.

Personality
Have you ever felt personally drawn to a brand or product? Maybe the packaging resonated with
you, or perhaps you felt empathy toward the brand’s message.
Some brands, for instance, donate a portion of their revenue to charity. They feel strongly about
a specific cause, so they use their businesses to help further the cause.
That’s not the only factor, though. You might feel drawn to brands and personalities that don’t
take themselves too seriously or that use humor on a regular basis. Maybe you’re more likely to
buy a product if the seller shares your political, religious, or moral beliefs.
Understanding these critical aspects of consumer behavior can make you a much better marketer.
You’ll learn that your brand isn’t a good fit for everyone. That’s okay. You just need to find a
way to get your brand message in front of the people who are a good match for it.

External Motivators
It’s hard to admit, but we’re all easily influenced. Peer pressure doesn’t stop when we graduate
high school.
Let’s say that your best friend has just bought an online course on clean living. She raves about
the information she learned and the new perspective she’s gained on diet, exercise, and healthful
living.

You’re automatically more likely to buy that course. Someone you trust has endorsed it, so you
don’t see it as a risky proposition. If you’d just encountered the course while surfing the Internet,
you might not have given it a second thought.

Other external motivators can be more fleeting. Maybe you see a product that a famous celebrity
or industry expert has recommended. Just a headshot and a quote from that influencer can cause
you to click the “buy” button.
1. Personal factors: an individual’s interests and opinions that can be influenced by
demographics (age, gender, culture, etc.).

2. Psychological factors: an individual’s response to a marketing message will depend on their

perceptions and attitudes.

3. Social factors: family, friends, education level, social media, income, they all influence
consumers’ behavior.

Types of consumer behavior

There are four main types of consumer behavior:
1. Complex buying behavior
This type of behavior is encountered when consumers are buying an expensive, infrequently
bought product. They are highly involved in the purchase process and consumers’ research
before committing to invest. Imagine buying a house or a car; these are an example of a complex
buying behavior.

2. Dissonance-reducing buying behavior

The consumer is highly involved in the purchase process but has difficulties determining the
differences between brands. ‘Dissonance’ can occur when the consumer worries that they will
regret their choice.
Imagine you are buying a lawnmower. You will choose one based on price and convenience, but
after the purchase you will seek confirmation that you’ve made the right choice.

3. Habitual buying behavior

Habitual purchases are characterized by the fact that the consumer has very little involvement in
the product or brand category. Imagine grocery shopping: you go to the store and buy your
preferred type of bread. You are exhibiting a habitual pattern, not strong brand loyalty.

4. Variety seeking behavior

In this situation, a consumer purchases a different product not because they weren’t satisfied
with the previous one, but because they seek variety. Like when you are trying out new shower
gel scents.

What affects consumer behavior?

Many things can affect consumer behavior, but the most frequent factors influencing consumer
behavior are:
1. Marketing campaigns
Marketing campaigns influence purchasing decisions a lot. If done right and regularly, with the
right marketing message, they can even persuade consumers to change brands or opt for more
expensive alternatives.
Marketing campaigns can even be used as reminders for products/services that need to be bought
regularly but are not necessarily on customers’ top of mind (like insurance for example). A good
marketing message can influence impulse purchases. 

2. Economic conditions
For expensive products especially (like houses or cars) economic conditions play a big part. A
positive economic environment is known to make consumers more confident and willing to
indulge in purchases irrespective of their personal financial liabilities.
Consumers make decisions in a longer time period for expensive purchases and the buying
process can be influenced by more personal factors at the same time. 

3. Personal preferences
Consumer behavior can also be influenced by personal factors, likes, dislikes, priorities, morals,
and values. In industries like fashion or food personal opinions are especially powerful.
Advertisements can, of course, help but at the end of the day consumers’ choices are greatly
influenced by their preferences. If you’re vegan, it doesn’t matter how many burger joint ads you
see, you’re probably not gonna start eating meat because of that.
4. Group influence
Peer pressure also influences consumer behavior. What our family members, classmates,
immediate relatives, neighbors, and acquaintances think or do can play a significant role in our
decisions.
Social psychology impacts consumer behaviour. Choosing fast food over home-cooked meals,
for example, is just one of such situations. Education levels and social factors can have an
impact.

5. Purchasing power
Last but not least, our purchasing power plays a significant role in influencing our behavior.
Unless you are a billionaire, you will take your budget into consideration before making a
purchase decision.
The product may be excellent, the marketing could be on point, but if you don’t have the money
for it, you won’t buy it.
Segmenting consumers based on their buying capacity will help marketers determine eligible
consumers and achieve better results.

Lesson No.5. Self-Concept of consumer Behaviour

SELF AND IDENTITY

The link between people’s personalities and their buying behaviour is somewhat unclear, but
market researchers continue to study it. For example, some studies have shown that “sensation
seekers,” or people who exhibit extremely high levels of openness, are more likely to respond
well to advertising that’s violent and graphic. The practical problem for firms is figuring out
“who’s who” in terms of their personalities. Marketers have had better luck linking people’s self-
concept to their buying behaviour. Your self-concept is how you see yourself — be it positive or
negative. Your ideal self is how you would like to see yourself — whether it’s muscular, more
popular, more eco-conscious, or more conservative.

Self-Concept

Part of what is developing in children as they grow is the fundamental cognitive part of the self,
known as the self-concept. The self-concept is a knowledge representation that contains
knowledge about us, including our beliefs about our personality traits, physical characteristics,
abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as the knowledge that we exist as individuals.
Throughout childhood and adolescence, the self-concept becomes more abstract and complex
and is organized into a variety of different cognitive aspects of the self, known as self-
schemas. Children have self-schemas about their progress in school, their appearance, their skills
at sports and other activities, and many other aspects. In turn, these self-schemas direct and
inform their processing of self-relevant information (Harter, 1999), much as we saw schemas in
general affecting our social cognition.

Self-Complexity

Although every human being has a complex self-concept, there are nevertheless individual
differences in self-complexity, the extent to which individuals have many different and relatively
independent ways of thinking about themselves (Linville, 1987; Roccas & Brewer, 2002). Some
selves are more complex than others, and these individual differences can be important in
determining psychological outcomes. Having a complex self means that we have a lot of
different ways of thinking about ourselves. For example, imagine a woman whose self-concept
contains the social identities of student, girlfriend, daughter, marketing student, and hockey
player and who has encountered a wide variety of life experiences. Social psychologists would
say that she has high self-complexity. On the other hand, a man who perceives himself primarily
as either a student or as a member of the theatre ensemble and who has had a relatively narrow
range of life experiences would be said to have low self-complexity. For those with high self-
complexity, the various aspects of the self are separate, as the positive and negative thoughts
about a particular self-aspect do not spill over into thoughts about other aspects.
Ideal Self

The ideal self consists of the attributes that you or someone else would like you to possess. The
slogan “Be All That You Can Be,” which for years was used by the U.S. Army to recruit
soldiers, is an attempt to appeal to this self-concept. Presumably, by joining the U.S. Army, you
will become a better version of yourself, which will, in turn, improve your life. Many beauty
products and cosmetic procedures are advertised in a way that’s supposed to appeal to the ideal
self people seek. All of us want products that improve our lives.

Self-Awareness

Like any other schema, the self-concept can vary in its current cognitive accessibility. Self-
awareness refers to the extent to which we are currently fixing our attention on our own self-
concept. When our self-concept becomes highly accessible because of our concerns about being
observed and potentially judged by others, we experience the publicly induced self-awareness
known as self-consciousness (Duval & Wicklund, 1972; Rochat, 2009).

So we see that there are clearly individual and cultural differences in the degree to and manner in
which we tend to be aware of ourselves. In general, though, we all experience heightened
moments of self-awareness from time to time. According to self-awareness theory (Duval &
Wicklund, 1972), when we focus our attention on ourselves, we tend to compare our current
behaviour against our internal standards. Sometimes when we make these comparisons, we
realize that we are not currently measuring up. In these cases, self-discrepancy theory states
that when we perceive a discrepancy between our actual and ideal selves, this is distressing to
us (Higgins, Klein, & Strauman, 1987). In contrast, on the occasions when self-awareness leads
us to comparisons where we feel that we are being congruent with our standards, then self-
awareness can produce positive affect (Greenberg & Musham, 1981). Tying these ideas from the
two theories together, Philips and Silvia (2005) found that people felt significantly more
distressed when exposed to self-discrepancies while sitting in front of a mirror. In contrast, those
not sitting in front of a mirror, and presumably experiencing lower self-awareness, were not
significantly emotionally affected by perceived self-discrepancies. Simply put, the more self-
aware we are in a given situation, the more pain we feel when we are not living up to our ideals.

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem refers to the positive (high self-esteem) or negative (low self-esteem) feelings that we
have about ourselves. We experience the positive feelings of high self-esteem when we believe
that we are good and worthy and that others view us positively. We experience the negative
feelings of low self-esteem when we believe that we are inadequate and less worthy than others.

Our self-esteem is determined by many factors, including how well we view our own
performance and appearance, and how satisfied we are with our relationships with other people
(Tafarodi & Swann, 1995). Self-esteem is in part a trait that is stable over time, with some people
having relatively high self-esteem and others having lower self-esteem. But self-esteem is also a
state that varies day to day and even hour to hour. When we have succeeded at an important task,
when we have done something that we think is useful or important, or when we feel that we are
accepted and valued by others, our self-concept will contain many positive thoughts and we will
therefore have high self-esteem. When we have failed, done something harmful, or feel that we
have been ignored or criticized, the negative aspects of the self-concept are more accessible and
we experience low self-esteem.

Looking-Glass Self

Our self-concept is also formed through our interactions with others and their reactions to us.
The concept of the looking-glass self explains that we see ourselves reflected in other people’s
reactions to us and then form our self-concept based on how we believe other people see us
(Cooley, 1902). This reflective process of building our self-concept is based on what other
people have actually said, such as “You’re a good listener,” and other people’s actions, such as
coming to you for advice. These thoughts evoke emotional responses that feed into our self-
concept. For example, you may think, “I’m glad that people can count on me to listen to their
problems.”
Student Op-Ed: Marketers’ Influence on Consumers’ Self-Esteem
Marketers can have a huge impact on a consumer’s self-esteem (Solomon, 2014). The concept of
self-esteem refers to your personal value or the way you view yourself (Solomon, 2014). People
with low self-esteem have low confidence, and try to avoid embarrassment, failure, or rejection
(Solomon, 2014). In contrast, people with high self-esteem are confident, will take more risks,
and are more willing to attract attention to themselves (Solomon, 2014). Some marketers may
target consumers with low self-esteem and use messaging around their products or services that
promise the benefits of high self-esteem. These tactics are typically employed to increase both 
brand exposure and sales. Repetitive and extensive exposure to ads featuring idealized images of
happy, attractive people can trigger a process known as social comparison which can have a
direct impact on a consumer’s self-esteem (Solomon, 2014).

Marketers are advertising to consumers with low self-esteem to increase sales and liquidity of the
company. The brand Dove created a “Dove Self-Esteem Project” which encourages consumers
to write about and share with others what their version of ‘real beauty’ means (Millard, 2009).
While Dove has created this platform, presumably to support female consumers in reframing the
conversation around body positivity, beauty, and  self-esteem, the brand continues to position its
products as a ‘solution’ for those seeking happiness and beauty (Millard, 2009). Moreover,
where does this leave consumers who don’t purchase their products? How can those consumers
feel anything but inadequate or ‘not good enough’ given the brand is so tightly positioned as a
means to improving one’s quality of life (Millard, 2009)? Since the Dove Self-Esteem Project
started, product sales have increased: Dove claims  that consumers’ self-esteem also increases
when its products are purchased (and thereby also decreases when products are not purchased
(Millard, 2009)).

The L’Oréal company specifically targets self-esteem by promoting thin models with a full face
of make-up who state the company’s catchphrase, “you’re worth it” (L’Oréal Paris 2018).
Despite the brand dedicating a page on its website to promote self-worth, once the consumer
views the company’s ads social comparison can be triggered, leading to a decrease in self-esteem
unless the product is purchased (L’Oréal Paris 2018). Moreover, L’Oréal claims that their
products increase ‘true beauty’ and consequently, product sales have increased steadily since the
promotion of ‘self-worth’ (L’Oréal Paris 2018). This gives further evidence to the fact that
marketers have shifted messages away from product utility towards consumer happiness:
messages that seek to improve self-esteem by promoting consumers’ “worth” because they
“deserve to feel beautiful” suggest these products are the only means to these ends.

It could very well be that marketers are hoping to improve the self-esteem of their consumers,
however I am concerned about the possibility that some consumers  are negatively impacted by
messages that suggest only specific products can achieve results and give consumers the beauty,
confidence, and happiness they might be longing for. In addition, I believe marketers have a
moral responsibility to reinforce  that beauty comes from within, not from a jar, tube, or
container. It’s not honest to suggest that a certain product will make you feel or be, your best,
authentic self. While I am happy to see that Dove has made a self-esteem project for people to
express themselves and feel heard, it’s important to acknowledge that the concept of beauty is
different for each and every person. In researching this piece, I discovered that there is wide
criticism of Dove’s definition of beauty: it is said to be too narrow and ignores the studies which
claim that 69 per cent of women agree that they don’t see themselves reflected in advertising,
television or movies (Millard, 2009). My hope is that marketers now and in the future will
engage more responsibly and create more relatable content that inspires everyone and doesn’t
guilt customers into their purchasing decisions.

By Tanikka Abraham (2019)

The Extended Self

Some consumers may either unconsciously or consciously, use their consumption choices – for
examples the brands they favour and purchase – as a way to express who they are, what they
value, and how they want to be perceived. When their sense of self is further defined by these
possessions, we call it the Extended Self. When a consumer selects a particular pair of sneakers,
jeans, or cell phone, they are expressing some sense of “self” and identifying how they want to
stand out from some, or fit in with others. In this manner, the brands we select and the
possessions we showcase reflect both a sense of autonomy (i.e. distinction or uniqueness) and
affiliation (i.e. conformity) (Kleine and Kleine, 1995). The brands we select also communicate
our own values: for example, consumers who choose brands that are “green” (sustainable) may
be expressing a value for environmental conservatism and climate action.

As we’ve seen already, we can learn more about a consumer’s self-concept through their
consumption choices. Understanding what we buy, why we buy it, and how we use products and
services provides marketers with valuable insight about our consumption preferences and usage
patterns. Explore self-concept and the extended self more in the student feature below.

Student Feature: Concepts of “Self” Explained through Damon James’ Instagram Account
In this interactive image, students demonstrate how a fictitious person – Damon James, a
College basketball player – makes personal consumption choices based on concepts related to
the Self and Lifestyle. Created by KPU students, Raymon Rajan Singh Uppal, Shivani Ahuja, and
Jagmeet Singh Randhawa. (Click on the image of the basketball to expand the text.)

Social Comparison Theory

We also develop our self-concept through comparisons to other people. Social comparison

theory states that we describe and evaluate ourselves in terms of how we compare to other
people. Social comparisons are based on two dimensions: superiority/inferiority and
similarity/difference (Hargie, 2011). In terms of superiority and inferiority, we evaluate
characteristics like attractiveness, intelligence, athletic ability, and so on. For example, you may
judge yourself to be more intelligent than your brother or less athletic than your best friend, and
these judgments are incorporated into your self-concept. This process of comparison and
evaluation isn’t necessarily a bad thing, but it can have negative consequences if our reference
group isn’t appropriate. Reference groups are the groups we use for social comparison, and they
typically change based on what we are evaluating. In terms of athletic ability, many people
choose unreasonable reference groups with which to engage in social comparison. If a man
wants to get into better shape and starts an exercise routine, he may be discouraged by his
difficulty keeping up with the aerobics instructor or running partner and judge himself as
inferior, which could negatively affect his self-concept. Using as a reference group people who
have only recently started a fitness program but have shown progress could help maintain a more
accurate and hopefully positive self-concept.

We also engage in social comparison based on similarity and difference. Since self-concept is
context specific, similarity may be desirable in some situations and difference more desirable in
others. Factors like age and personality may influence whether or not we want to fit in or stand
out. Although we compare ourselves to others throughout our lives, adolescent and teen years
usually bring new pressure to be similar to or different from particular reference groups. Think of
all the cliques in high school and how people voluntarily and involuntarily broke off into groups
based on popularity, interest, culture, or grade level. Some kids in your high school probably
wanted to fit in with and be similar to other people in the marching band but be different from
the football players. Conversely, athletes were probably more apt to compare themselves, in
terms of similar athletic ability, to other athletes rather than kids in show choir. But social
comparison can be complicated by perceptual influences. As we learned earlier, we organize
information based on similarity and difference, but these patterns don’t always hold true. Even
though students involved in athletics and students involved in arts may seem very different, a
dancer or singer may also be very athletic, perhaps even more so than a member of the football
team. As with other aspects of perception, there are positive and negative consequences of social
comparison.

We generally want to know where we fall in terms of ability and performance as compared to
others, but what people do with this information and how it affects self-concept varies. Not all
people feel they need to be at the top of the list, but some won’t stop until they get the high score
on the video game or set a new school record in a track-and-field event. Some people strive to be
first chair in the clarinet section of the orchestra, while another person may be content to be
second chair. The education system promotes social comparison through grades and rewards
such as honor rolls and dean’s lists.
Self-Affirmation Theory

There are certain situations, however, where these common dissonance-reduction strategies may
not be realistic options to pursue. For example, if someone who has generally negative attitudes
toward drug use nevertheless becomes addicted to a particular substance, it will often not be easy
to quit the habit, to reframe the evidence regarding the drug’s negative effects, or to reduce self-
awareness. In such cases, self-affirmation theory suggests that people will try to reduce the
threat to their self-concept posed by feelings of self-discrepancy by focusing on and affirming
their worth in another domain, unrelated to the issue at hand. For instance, the person who has
become addicted to an illegal substance may choose to focus on healthy eating and exercise
regimes instead as a way of reducing the dissonance created by the drug use.

Marketing Context: Self-affirmation in consumer behaviour

How might consumers reconcile their consumption and disposal behaviour using self-affirmation
theory? Many years ago, shortly before having my first child, I had planned to only use cloth
diapers and not succumb to the convenience of disposable diapers. I romanticized about being an
“ideal” parent who would make sustainable consumer decisions throughout my life as a parent.
While my intentions may have been honourable, they were also naive: little did I know how the
first few days, weeks, and even months of parenting could bring on so much stress, chaos, and
uncertainty (never mind sleep deprivation).

Deciding to place convenience above all else, I used disposable diapers from day one: and while
in the back of my mind I felt dissonance about this decision, I reduced that dissonance by toilet-
training my daughter at an early age (thus ending our dependence on a disposable product). I also
sought out other acts of sustainability (making baby food; buying second hand clothing) to
further reduce dissonance.

ELVIS B. LUMANGLAS, MDM

Course Instructor

ACADEMIC INFRASTRUCTURE
Textbook
T1 : Phillips, Jean M., Organizational Behavior Tools for Success,
International Edition, 2014 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning

References:
R1 : Newstrom, John W., 2007. Organizational Behavior; Human
Behavior at Work, McGraw Hill International Edition,
R2 : Medina, Roberto G. 2011. Human Behavior in Organization.
Quezon City: Rex Bookstore, Inc.

Online References:
https://www.iedunote.com/attitude-and-consumer-behavior