EXAM QUESTIONS/ANSWERS :

1) Earth is one of the older materials in the world. Discuss.

Earth is probably one of the oldest building materials known, with recorded cases of the use
of earth bricks dating back to Mesopotamia around 10,000 B.C. The Romans and Muslims
used earth in Europe, Africa and the Middle East, as did the people of the Indus Valley,
Buddhists Monks and the Chinese Emperors. During the middle ages, the practice of the use
of earth was not only carried out in Europe but was also practiced in other locales like North
America by the Indians, Mexico by the Toltecs and the Aztecs, and in the Andes by the
Machica. The Spanish conquerors of America took with them the European techniques of earth
construction and grafted them into the traditions already established there. Adobe earth
construction was widespread in the ancient world and archaeologists have discovered surviving
examples in many different parts of the world where the earth was used. These earthen ancient
constructions are now precious pieces of cultural heritage and their artistic value is said to be
immeasurable. Our ancestors had the same necessities for comfort as we have today – that of
owning a house – but without the availability of cheap plentiful energy resources that we now
rely upon. Buildings, houses in particular, were constructed from locally available materials.
Earth has been classified as the most economical and efficient means of providing shelter
for the largest number of the population with the least demand on resources.

2) Give 3 ways in which earth can be used as a building materials.

Earth can be used as a building materials by:
 Compressed it into moulds either manually or mechanically: we obtained a CEB.
 Making mud compressed of inorganic soil and sand: we obtained an Adobe.
 BC

3) Will CEB been socially accepted or will it not?

 No: There is still a stigma in almost all communities across the country when it
comes in using CEB. Diffusion or dissemination of information on the use and
benefits of CEBs remain a huge task to all advocates and government in particular.
 Yes: CEBs represent a reasonable improvement over traditional building
techniques. When guaranteed by quality control, CEBs products can easily bear
comparison with other building materials such as the sand-cement blocks or fired
bricks. Therefore, the allegiance it inspires amongst decision-makers, builders and
other stake holders including the end-users alike.

4) What is the future of CEB in Cameroon?

CEB technology is yet to make great progress in Cameroon as a whole as the concept is not
yet received despite government efforts. Policy makers and government’s own organisation
still has enormous task ahead in terms of sensitising the masses about the innovation. There is
the need for scientific research to experiment and architectural achievements to form the basis
of a wide range of technical documents and academic and professional courses at all levels to
give a bright future to the use of CEBs. The country needs some leadership, a time when
government begins to walk the walk and not just talk the talk – by building some public
buildings of three stories or less with local building materials.

5) List 5 design errors that can lead to structural damage in an earthquake.

 Ring beam is lacking
 Lintels do not reach deeply enough into masonry
 The distances between doors and windows are too small
 The distances between openings and wall corners are too small
 The windows are too large in proportion to their heights.

6) Name 2 approaches to ensure seismic resistance.

 Walls and roof should be stiff, heavily reinforced and strongly connected to ensure
that no deformation occurs as a result of seismic forces.
 Walls and roof should be well connected, but also ductile enough to deform under
seismic loads. This deformation absorbs seismic energy without causing failure.
This strategy requires the use of a “ring beam” which caps the wall system and must
have wall-to-beam and beam-to-roof connections of adequate strength.

7) Give the different categories of timber and its various using.

 Softwood comes from coniferous species like cedar, fir and pine. Softwood can be
used for outdoors for furniture, deck handrails, wall cladding and window frames
because it resists rotting in moist environments, and also likes flooring materials(see
pine). In building softwoods are commonly used for the framework of houses and
areas such as lining boards and cladding.
 Hardwoods by comparison are heavy, strong and stable. They are used
predominantly for piers flooring decking and in most timber furniture.

8) Wood treatment can extend life and reduce deforestation.

Wood preservatives can extend the life of wood and reduce the need for forest resources,
but proper use is important. Some preservatives can slowly leach into the surrounding soil or
water. Sometimes, touching the wood can leave residue on exposed skin.

9) What must one consider when using treated wood?

 Make sure you select the proper type of treated wood for the job. Some treated wood
and wood preservatives are restricted to specific uses
 Consider wearing gloves when handling unsealed treated wood to reduce exposure
to your skin
 Consider wearing a dust mask while cutting treated wood to help prevent treated
sawdust from being inhaled. Even untreated wood can irritate a person's airways
  Never burn treated wood. Toxic chemicals can be released in the smoke
 Consider using paint, varnish or some other types of sealant on treated wood as a
barrier between the chemical and the surrounding environment
 Some wood preservatives can leach into soil and be taken up by plants. If you are
planning to use treated wood close to edible plants.

10) What are 3 developmental roles of using CEB?

 The setting up of CEB production units, whether on a small-scale or at industrial
level, the rural or urban contexts in linked to the creation of Jobs (employment)
generating activities at each production stage
 From the initial stage of earth extraction in queries to building work itself, it is a
‘job multiplier’ in that, other professionals (carpenters, plumbers, electricians etc)
benefit from the exercise
 The use of the material for social housing programs, for education, culture or
medical facilities and or for administrative buildings, helps to develop societies’
economies and well-being.

11) Give 4 ways in which CEB can be accepted in our society.

 Sensitisation
 Raising awareness in the communities
 Reducing or taken off the ‘bottle necks that exist with land tenure
 Building permits.

12) Briefly explain the 3categories of earth constructions.

 Adobe: Adobe (also known as laterite block) is air/sun-dried brick from mud
compressed of inorganic soil and sand. The soil must have a minimum clay content
of 10%; fibre such as straw may also be added to increase the stability of the blocks.
An adobe brick is typically 250 to 300 mm in length and weighs between 13 to 22
kg. The bricks are staked one over another and bonded using a mud mortar (plate
3.2). Additives such as asphalt and fly ash help to minimize its susceptibility to
moisture while giving it additional strength.
 Rammed earth: Rammed earth involves the compacting of moist soil between rigid
forms to create monolithic earth walls with similar properties as those of adobe
walls. The soil for rammed earth construction must have about 30% clay and 70%
sand and small gravel, although cement is sometimes added as a stabilizer. When
preparing the rammed earth, it is important to ensure that the moisture content of the
wall is just right because if the mixture is too dry then it will lead to a weak and
crumbly wall. On the other hand, if the mixture is too wet, it will take too long to
dry and harden. Like all earth buildings, rammed earth buildings must be placed on
firm foundation made of concrete or stone. The process of erecting the wall includes
raising the form, pouring the earth into the forms, compacting either by tempers or
pneumatically. This will result into a strong monolithic wall.
  CEB: Compressed Earth Blocks (CEBs) are a relatively recent technology and
combine the nest characteristics of traditional earthen technology and modern brick
making process. The concept is similar to a miniature rammed earth wall. Earth is
poured into moulds and compressed either manually or mechanically. The
constituents of the earth mix are similar to those of adobe: clay, sand and additives
or stabilizers such as cement or fly ash. The structure of CEBs has been found to be
a lot stronger and more weather-resistant than the traditional adobe structures.
Several experiments have been carried out to determine the best practices of making
the earth mix and the blocks themselves. There are several manually-operated and
mechanical block-making machines available – like the one in below.

13) Outline 5 benefits of earth constructions.

 Earth construction is economically beneficial
 Earth construction requires simple and less skilled labour
 Earth construction encourages self-help
 Sustainable, strong and secure structures
 Earth is very good in fire resistance.

14) Give 3 challenge of earth constructions with explanations.

 Lack of block-making machines: Given the high levels of poverty in many parts
of developing countries, the block-making machines are often beyond the rich of the
poor local communities. Thus, despite all the advantages associated with the earth
construction, the technology may be of no use if the necessary equipment that
facilitates implementation is not available. To this end, it is advisable that there
should be more access to block making machines; this could be achieved through
building centres or community centres. Most available machines are too complex
to operate, too heavy to transport and too large to fit into smaller spaces. There is
need for local production to make them affordable too.
 Lack of training: Lack of knowledge about earth construction has been identified
to be one of the factors hindering full exploitation of the technology. This is partly
because earthly construction is looked down upon by many prospective construction
professionals. In order to address this, Suresh (1990) proposes that there be a crash
programme to train people in earth construction techniques including how to mix
sand and stabilizer. In addition, there is need to encourage R&D at the institutions
of learning.
 Lack of codes and schedule of rates: One of the critical obstacles in the adoption
of laterite and stabilized soil bricks has been the lack of codes and specifications by
policy makers. Related to this is the issue of a lack of costing mechanism where it
becomes practically difficult to accurately measure fix a monetary value on, say,
stabilized laterite blocks. This is because there are no pricing mechanisms for soil,
cement or lime, and labour by the responsible (government) agencies.
15) Name 2 others LBMs giving 2 advantages and disadvantages of each.
 Stone:
 Advantages: stones provide high strength walls used as bearing walls; it has
good thermal insulation and flexible in controlling wall size too.
 Disadvantages: It is hard to keep warm without using large amounts of
heating resources; stone requires large spaces for wall since the bearing wall
require a thickness of about 500mm.
 Bamboo:
 Advantages: In its natural form (the Culm), in several applications, bamboo
proves more than 20 times as sustainable as the common conventional
building materials such as timber, steel and concrete; bamboo is one of the
lightest building materials in the world.
 Disadvantages: Bamboo gets easily infected by fungi and mould when
exposed to moisture or not well treated; it also needs internal protection by
perforating all diaphragms or drilling all segments.

16) Describe 3 types of roofs.

 Flat roof: it is perhaps the easiest roof to build, this roof has a flat surface with no
peaks or valleys. Flat roofs are generally slightly sloped to let the water runoff.
However, because they do not shed water quickly, they are more like to leak
compared to stepper roofs. Therefore, they need to be absolutely waterproof and
well maintained. They work much where there is less rain and snow.
 Shed roof: similar to the flat roofs but the steeper slope removes water more
quickly. Choosing this type of roof can make for an awkward wall however, as the
walls must be built to different heights and two of the walls must be sloped.
 Gable roof: it is a roof composed of two flat roofs that meet at an apex (ridge) and
slope away from each other. One advantage of a gable roof is that it can provide
extra space for leaving or storage under the roof.

17) Give 5 qualities of a good roof.

 Protect against rain, wind, snow and excess light. A roof must be solid, strong and
water proof. A roof should be capable to withstand severe weather conditions.
 Prevent unwanted heat loss or gain. Since heat rises, most heat loss occurs through
the roof. Roofs in temperate and cold climates must therefore be well insulated.
Insulation and radiant barriers are also important in hot, and climates to avoid
unwanted solar heat gain through the roof.
 Withstand hurricanes, earthquakes, and high winds. This means the roof should be
solidly constructed in a way that it is tied to the walls and foundations. Metal straps
or hardware are usually used to connect the roof to the walls.
 When the walls are made of discrete units like adobe blocks or compressed earth
bricks, a bond beam on top of the wall is very important to create a continuous strong
surface to hold up the roof load.
  Complement the aesthetic quality of the building. The shape and material of a roof
is often the most dominant esthetical feature of a building. Roof aesthetics should
be considered early in the design stage.

18) Define the following terms:

 Defects:
A Construction Defect is the "Failure of the building or any building component to be
erected in a reasonably workmanlike manner or to perform in the manner intended by
the manufacturer or reasonably expected by the buyer, which proximately causes
damage to the structure."
 Latent defects:
"Latent Defects" or "Latent Deficiency” means a deficiency which is not apparent by
judicious inspection. General interpretation holds a latent defect (or latent deficiency) is
one that a property owner does not know about and would not be expected to discover
through the exercise of reasonable care.
 Quality control:
Quality Control, also known as "Construction Quality Control", or "C.Q.C.", is the
process in which the quality of the many products used, and the methods for their use,
which comprise the total building project, are scrutinized under a conservative control
process, or program.
 Earth movement:
Structural failures may be caused by sinking or swelling of soils, landslides, or slope
movement. There are varying degrees of risk associated with each of these soil
movement problems, and all civil engineers have to work hard in investigating structural
movement or structure performance when damaging soil movement occurs.
 Common man:
The average citizen, as contrasted with the social, political or cultural elite.

19) Name 5 causes of structural defects.

 Foundation design (general principles)
 Solidity of foundation
 Base course design
 Walls (masonry and mortar) and bonding patterns
 Reinforced and ring beams.